CHAPTER 9

FAILURE

PROBLEM SOLUTIONS

Principles of Fracture Mechanics

9.1 What is the magnitude of the maximum stress that exists at the tip of an internal crack having a radius
of curvature of 1.9 104 mm (7.5 106 in.) and a crack length of 3.8 102 mm (1.5 103 in .) when a tensile
stress of 140 MPa (20,000 psi) is applied?
Solution
This problem asks that we compute the magnitude of the maximum stress that exists at the tip of an internal
crack. Equation 9.1 is employed to solve this problem, as

a 1/ 2
m = 2 0
t

3.8 102 mm 1/2

2
= 2800 MPa (400,000 psi)
= (2)(140 MPa)
1.9 104 mm

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

9.2 A specimen of a ceramic material having an elastic modulus of 250 GPa (36.3 106 psi) is pulled in
tension with a stress of 750 MPa (109,000 psi). Will the specimen fail if its most severe flaw is an internal crack
that has a length of 0.20 mm (7.87 103 in.) and a tip radius of curvature of 0.001 mm (3.94 105 in.)? Why or
why not?
Solution
In order to determine whether or not this ceramic material will fail, we must compute its theoretical fracture
(or cohesive) strength; if the maximum strength at the tip of the most severe flaw is greater than this value then
fracture will occur--if less than, then there will be no fracture. The theoretical fracture strength is just E/10 or 25
GPa (3.63 106 psi), inasmuch as E = 250 GPa (36.3 106 psi).
The magnitude of the stress at the most severe flaw may be determined using Equation 9.1 as

m =

a
2 0

1/2

0.20 mm 1/2

2
= 15 GPa
= (2)(750 MPa)

0.001 mm

(2.2 106 psi)

Therefore, fracture will not occur since this value is less than E/10 (i.e., 25 GPa).

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

9.3 An MgO component must not fail when a tensile stress of 13.5 MPa (1960 psi) is applied. Determine
the maximum allowable surface crack length if the surface energy of MgO is 1.0 J/m2. Data found in Table 7.1 may
prove helpful.
Solution
The maximum allowable surface crack length for MgO may be determined using Equation 9.3; taking 225
GPa as the modulus of elasticity (Table 7.1), and solving for a, leads to

a=

2 E s

=
s 2c

(2) (225 109 N / m2 ) (1.0 N / m)

() (13.5 106 N / m2 )

= 7.9 10-4 m = 0.79 mm (0.031 in.)

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

9.4 Some aircraft component is fabricated from an aluminum alloy that has a plane strain fracture
toughness of 40 MPa m (36.4 ksi in. ). It has been determined that fracture results at a stress of 300 MPa
(43,500 psi) when the maximum (or critical) internal crack length is 4.0 mm (0.16 in.). For this same component
and alloy, will fracture occur at a stress level of 260 MPa (38,000 psi) when the maximum internal crack length is
6.0 mm (0.24 in.)? Why or why not?
Solution
It first becomes necessary to solve for the parameter Y, using Equation 9.5, for the conditions under which
fracture occurred (i.e., = 300 MPa and a = 4.0 mm). Therefore,

Y =

K Ic

40 MPa m
= 1.68
4 103 m
(300 MPa) ()

Now we will solve for the product Y a for the other set of conditions, so as to ascertain whether or not this
value is greater than the KIc for the alloy. Thus,

6 103 m
Y a = (1.68)(260 MPa) ()

= 42.4 MPa m
Therefore, fracture will occur since this value (42.4 MPa

(39 ksi in.)

m ) is greater than the KIc of the material, 40 MPa m .

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

9.5 A large plate is fabricated from a steel alloy that has a plane strain fracture toughness of 82.4
MPa m (75.0 ksi in. ). If, during service use, the plate is exposed to a tensile stress of 345 MPa (50,000 psi),
determine the minimum length of a surface crack that will lead to fracture. Assume a value of 1.0 for Y.
Solution
For this problem, we are given values of KIc (82.4 MPa

m ) , (345 MPa), and Y (1.0) for a large plate

and are asked to determine the minimum length of a surface crack that will lead to fracture. All we need do is to
solve for ac using Equation 9.7; therefore
2
2
1 82.4 MPa m
1 K Ic
ac =
= 0.0182 m = 18.2 mm (0.72 in.)
=
(1.0 )(345 MPa)
Y

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

9.6 A structural component in the form of a wide plate is to be fabricated from a steel alloy that has a
plane strain fracture toughness of 98.9 MPa m (90 ksi in. ) and a yield strength of 860 MPa (125,000 psi). The
flaw size resolution limit of the flaw detection apparatus is 3.0 mm (0.12 in.). If the design stress is one-half of the
yield strength and the value of Y is 1.0, determine whether or not a critical flaw for this plate is subject to detection.

Solution
This problem asks that we determine whether or not a critical flaw in a wide plate is subject to detection
given the limit of the flaw detection apparatus (3.0 mm), the value of KIc (98.9 MPa m ) , the design stress (y/2 in
which y = 860 MPa), and Y = 1.0. We first need to compute the value of ac using Equation 9.7; thus

1 98.9 MPa m
1 K
= 0.0168 m = 16.8 mm (0.66 in.)
ac = Ic =
860 MPa

Y
(1.0)

2
2

Therefore, the critical flaw is subject to detection since this value of ac (16.8 mm) is greater than the 3.0 mm
resolution limit.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

Fracture of Ceramics
Fracture of Polymers

9.7 Briefly explain (a) why there may be significant scatter in the fracture strength for some given ceramic
material, and (b) why fracture strength increases with decreasing specimen size.
Solution
(a) There may be significant scatter in the fracture strength for some given ceramic material because the
fracture strength depends on the probability of the existence of a flaw that is capable of initiating a crack; this
probability varies from specimen to specimen of the same material.
(b) The fracture strength increases with decreasing specimen size because as specimen size decreases, the
probably of the existence of a flaw of that is capable of initiating a crack diminishes.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

9.8

The tensile strength of brittle materials may be determined using a variation of Equation 9.1.

Compute the critical crack tip radius for a glass specimen that experiences tensile fracture at an applied stress of 70
MPa (10,000 psi). Assume a critical surface crack length of 102 mm and a theoretical fracture strength of E/10,
where E is the modulus of elasticity.

Solution
We are asked for the critical crack tip radius for a glass. From Equation 9.1

a 1/2
m = 2 0
t
Fracture will occur when m reaches the fracture strength of the material, which is given as E/10; thus

a 1/2
E
= 2 0
10
t
Or, solving for t

t =

400 a 20
E2

From Table 7.1, E = 69 GPa, and thus,

t =

(400 ) (1 102 mm) (70 MPa)2

(69

103 MPa ) 2

= 4.1 10-6 mm = 4.1 nm

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

Impact Fracture Testing

9.9 Following is tabulated data that were gathered from a series of Charpy impact tests on a tempered
4340 steel alloy.
Temperature (C)

Impact Energy (J)

105

25

104

50

103

75

97

100

63

113

40

125

34

150

28

175

25

200

24

(a) Plot the data as impact energy versus temperature.

(b) Determine a ductile-to-brittle transition temperature as that temperature corresponding to the average
of the maximum and minimum impact energies.
(c) Determine a ductile-to-brittle transition temperature as that temperature at which the impact energy is
50 J.
Solution
(a) The plot of impact energy versus temperature is shown below.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

(b) The average of the maximum and minimum impact energies from the data is

Average =

105 J + 24 J
= 64.5 J
2

As indicated on the plot by the one set of dashed lines, the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature according to this
criterion is about 100C.
(c) Also, as noted on the plot by the other set of dashed lines, the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature
for an impact energy of 50 J is about 110C.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

Cyclic Stresses (Fatigue)

The S-N Curve
Fatigue in Polymeric Materials
9.10 A fatigue test was conducted in which the mean stress was 70 MPa (10,000 psi), and the stress
amplitude was 210 MPa (30,000 psi).
(a) Compute the maximum and minimum stress levels.
(b) Compute the stress ratio.
(c) Compute the magnitude of the stress range.
Solution
(a) Given the values of m (70 MPa) and a (210 MPa) we are asked to compute max and min. From
Equation 9.15

max + min
= 70 MPa
2

m =
Or,

max + min = 140 MPa

Furthermore, utilization of Equation 9.17 yields

a =

max min
= 210 MPa
2

Or,
max min = 420 MPa

Simultaneously solving these two expressions leads to

max = 280 MPa (40, 000 pi)

min = 140 MPa (20, 000 pi)

(b) Using Equation 9.18 the stress ratio R is determined as follows:

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

R=

min

max

140 MPa
= 0.50
280 MPa

(c) The magnitude of the stress range r is determined using Equation 9.16 as

r = max min = 280 MPa (140 MPa) = 420 MPa (60,000 pi)

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

9.11 A 6.4 mm (0.25 in.) diameter cylindrical rod fabricated from a 2014-T6 aluminum alloy (Figure 9.41)
is subjected to reversed tension-compression load cycling along its axis. If the maximum tensile and compressive
loads are +5340 N (+1200 lb f ) and 5340 N (1200 lb f ) , respectively, determine its fatigue life. Assume that the
stress plotted in Figure 9.41 is stress amplitude.
Solution
We are asked to determine the fatigue life for a cylindrical 2014-T6 aluminum rod given its diameter (6.4
mm) and the maximum tensile and compressive loads (+5340 N and 5340 N, respectively). The first thing that is
necessary is to calculate values of max and min using Equation 7.1. Thus

F
max = max =
A0

5340 N
6.4
()
2

103

5340 N
6.4 103 m 2
()

d 2
0
2

= 166 106 N/m2 = 166 MPa (24, 400 si)

min =

Fmax

Fmin
d 2
0
2

= 166 106 N/m2 = 166 MPa (24, 400 si)

Now it becomes necessary to compute the stress amplitude using Equation 9.17 as

a =

max min
166 MPa (166 MPa)
=
= 166 MPa (24, 400 pi)
2
2

From Figure 9.41, for the 2014-T6 aluminum, the number of cycles to failure at this stress amplitude is about 1 107
cycles.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

9.12 The fatigue data for a steel alloy are given as follows:

Stress Amplitude
[MPa (ksi)]

Cycles to Failure

470 (68.0)

104

440 (63.4)

3 104

390 (56.2)

105

350 (51.0)

3 105

310 (45.3)

106

290 (42.2)

3 106

290 (42.2)

107

290 (42.2)

108

(a) Make an SN plot (stress amplitude versus logarithm cycles to failure) using these data.
(b) What is the fatigue limit for this alloy?
(c) Determine fatigue lifetimes at stress amplitudes of 415 MPa (60,000 psi) and 275 MPa (40,000 psi).
(d) Estimate fatigue strengths at 2 104 and 6 105 cycles.
Solution
(a) The fatigue data for this alloy are plotted below.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

(b) The fatigue limit is the stress level at which the curve becomes horizontal, which is 290 MPa (42,200
psi).
(c) From the plot, the fatigue lifetimes at a stress amplitude of 415 MPa (60,000 psi) is about 50,000 cycles
(log N = 4.7). At 275 MPa (40,000 psi) the fatigue lifetime is essentially an infinite number of cycles since this
stress amplitude is below the fatigue limit.
(d) Also from the plot, the fatigue strengths at 2 104 cycles (log N = 4.30) and 6 105 cycles (log N =
5.78) are 440 MPa (64,000 psi) and 325 MPa (47,500 psi), respectively.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

9.13 Suppose that the fatigue data for the steel alloy in Problem 9.12 were taken for bending-rotating
tests, and that a rod of this alloy is to be used for an automobile axle that rotates at an average rotational velocity
of 600 revolutions per minute. Give the maximum lifetimes of continuous driving that are allowable for the
following stress levels: (a) 450 MPa (65,000 psi), (b) 380 MPa (55,000 psi), (c) 310 MPa (45,000 psi), and (d) 275
MPa (40,000 psi).
Solution
(a) For a stress level of 450 MPa (65,000 psi), the fatigue lifetime is approximately 18,000 cycles. This
translates into (1.8 104 cycles)(1 min/600 cycles) = 30 min.
(b) For a stress level of 380 MPa (55,000 psi), the fatigue lifetime is approximately 1.5 105 cycles. This
translates into (1.5 105 cycles)(1 min/600 cycles) = 250 min = 4.2 h.
(c) For a stress level of 310 MPa (45,000 psi), the fatigue lifetime is approximately 1 106 cycles. This
translates into (1 106 cycles)(1 min/600 cycles) = 1667 min = 27.8 h.
(d) For a stress level of 275 MPa (40,000 psi), the fatigue lifetime is essentially infinite since we are below
the fatigue limit.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

9.14 Three identical fatigue specimens (denoted A, B, and C) are fabricated from a nonferrous alloy.
Each is subjected to one of the maximum-minimum stress cycles listed below; the frequency is the same for all three
tests.

Specimen

max (MPa)

min (MPa)

+450

150

+300

300

+500

200

(a) Rank the fatigue lifetimes of these three specimens from the longest to the shortest.
(b) Now justify this ranking using a schematic SN plot.
Solution
In order to solve this problem it is necessary to compute both the mean stress and stress amplitude for each
specimen. Since from Equation 9.15

m =
m(A) =

450 MPa + (150 MPa)

= 150 MPa
2

m( B) =
m(C) =

max + min
2

300 MPa + (300 MPa)

= 0 MPa
2
500 MPa + (200 MPa)
= 150 MPa
2

Furthermore, using Equation 9.17

a =

max min
2

a (A) =

450 MPa (150 MPa)

= 300 MPa
2

a ( B) =

300 MPa (300 MPa)

= 300 MPa
2

a (C) =

500 MPa (200 MPa)

= 350 MPa
2

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

On the basis of these results, the fatigue lifetime for specimen B will be greater than specimen A which in turn will
be greater than specimen C. This conclusion is based upon the following S-N plot on which curves are plotted for
two m values.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

9.15 (a) Compare the fatigue limits for PMMA (Figure 9.27) and the steel alloy for which fatigue data are
given in Problem 9.12.
(b) Compare the fatigue strengths at 106 cycles for nylon 6 (Figure 9.27) and 2014-T6 aluminum (Figure
9.41).
Solution
(a) The fatigue limits for PMMA and the steel alloy are 10 MPa (1450 psi) and 290 MPa (42,200 psi),
respectively.
(b) At 106 cycles, the fatigue strengths for nylon 6 and 2014-T6 aluminum are 11 MPa (1600 psi) and 200
MPa (30,000 psi ), respectively.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

Factors That Affect Fatigue Life

9.16 List four measures that may be taken to increase the resistance to fatigue of a metal alloy.
Solution
Four measures that may be taken to increase the fatigue resistance of a metal alloy are:
(1) Polish the surface to remove stress amplification sites.
(2) Reduce the number of internal defects (pores, etc.) by means of altering processing and fabrication
techniques.
(3) Modify the design to eliminate notches and sudden contour changes.
(4) Harden the outer surface of the structure by case hardening (carburizing, nitriding) or shot peening.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

Generalized Creep Behavior

9.17 The following creep data were taken on an aluminum alloy at 480C (900F) and a constant stress of
2.75 MPa (400 psi). Plot the data as strain versus time, then determine the steady-state or minimum creep rate.
Note: The initial and instantaneous strain is not included.

Time (min)

Strain

Time (min)

Strain

0.00

18

0.82

0.22

20

0.88

0.34

22

0.95

0.41

24

1.03

0.48

26

1.12

10

0.55

28

1.22

12

0.62

30

1.36

14

0.68

32

1.53

16

0.75

34

1.77

Solution
These creep data are plotted below

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

The steady-state creep rate (/t) is the slope of the linear region (i.e., the straight line that has been superimposed
on the curve) as

1.20 0.25
=
= 3.2 102 min1
t
30 min 0 min

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

Stress and Temperature Effects

9.18 For a cylindrical low carbonnickel alloy specimen (Figure 9.38) originally 19 mm (0.75 in.) in
diameter and 635 mm (25 in.) long, what tensile load is necessary to produce a total elongation of 6.44 mm (0.25
in.) after 5000 h at 538C (1000F)? Assume that the sum of instantaneous and primary creep elongations is 1.8
mm (0.07 in.).
Solution
It is first necessary to calculate the steady state creep rate so that we may utilize Figure 9.38 in order to
determine the tensile stress. The steady state elongation, ls, is just the difference between the total elongation and
the sum of the instantaneous and primary creep elongations; that is,

ls = 6.44 mm 1.8 mm = 4.64 mm (0.18 in.)

Now the steady state creep rate, s is just

ls

4.64 mm
l0
635 mm

=
=
s =
5,000 h
t
t

= 1.46 10-6 h-1

Employing the 538C line in Figure 9.38, a steady state creep rate of 1.46 10-6 h-1 corresponds to a stress of
about 40 MPa (5,800 psi) [since log (1.46 10-6) = -5.836]. From this we may compute the tensile load using
Equation 7.1 as

d 2
F = A0 = 0
2
19.0 103 m 2
= (40 106 N/m2 ) ()
= 11, 300 N (2560 lb f )
2

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

9.19 A cylindrical component constructed from a low carbonnickel alloy (Figure 9.37) has a diameter of
19.1 mm (0.75 in.). Determine the maximum load that may be applied for it to survive 10,000 h at 538C (1000F).
Solution
We are asked in this problem to determine the maximum load that may be applied to a cylindrical low
carbon-nickel alloy component that must survive 10,000 h at 538C. From Figure 9.37, the stress corresponding to
104 h rupture lifetime is about 70 MPa (10,000 psi). Since stress is defined in Equation 7.1 as = F/A0, and for a

d 2
cylindrical specimen, A0 = 0 , then
2
d0 2
F = A0 =
2
19.1 103 m 2
= (70 106 N/m2 ) ()
= 20, 000 N (4420 lb f )
2

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

9.20 (a) Estimate the activation energy for creep (i.e., Q c in Equation 9.21) for the low carbonnickel
alloy having the steady-state creep behavior shown in Figure 9.38. Use data taken at a stress level of 55 MPa
(8000 psi) and temperatures of 427C and 538C . Assume that the stress exponent n is independent of temperature.
(b) Estimate s at 649C (922 K).
Solution
(a) For this portion of the problem we are asked to estimate the activation energy for creep for the low
carbon-nickel alloy having the steady-state creep behavior shown in Figure 9.38, using data taken at = 55 MPa
(8000 psi) and temperatures of 427C and 538C. Since is a constant, Equation 9.21 takes the form

Q
Q
s = K 2s nxp c = K 2' xp c
RT
RT

where K 2' is now a constant. (Note: the exponent n has about the same value at these two temperatures per Problem
W9.22.) Taking natural logarithms of the above expression

ln s = ln K 2'

Qc
RT

For the case in which we have creep data at two temperatures (denoted as T and T ) and their corresponding steady1

state creep rates ( s and s ), it is possible to set up two simultaneous equations of the form as above, with two
1
2
unknowns, namely K 2' and Qc. Solving for Qc yields

R ln s

1
Qc =
1

T1

ln s
2

T2

From the problem statement, we take T1 as 427C (700 K) and T2 as 538C (811 K); then from Figure 9.38, at =
55 MPa, s = 10-7 h-1 and s = 8 10-6 h-1. Substitution of these values into the above equation leads to
1

Qc =

(8.31 J / mol K) ln (107 ) ln (8 106 )

1
1
700 K 811 K

= 186,200 J/mol

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

(b) We are now asked to estimate s at 649C (922 K). It is first necessary to determine the value of K 2' ,
which is accomplished using the first expression above, the value of Qc, and one value each of s and T (say s and
1

T1). Thus,

Q
K 2' = s xp c
1
RT1

186,200 J / mol
6 1
= 107 h1 exp
= 8.0 10 h
(8.31 J / mol K)(700 K)

Now it is possible to calculate s at 649C (922 K) as follows:

Q
s = K 2' xp c
RT

186,200 J / mol
= 8.0 106 h1 exp

(8.31
J
/
mol

K)(922
K)

= 2.23 10-4 h-1

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

9.21 Steady-state creep data taken for an iron at a stress level of 140 MPa (20,000 psi) are given here:

s (h1)

T (K)

6.6 104

1090

8.8 102

1200

If it is known that the value of the stress exponent n for this alloy is 8.5, compute the steady-state creep rate at 1300
K and a stress level of 83 MPa (12,000 psi).
Solution
This problem gives s values at two different temperatures and 140 MPa (20,000 psi), and the value of the
stress exponent n = 8.5, and asks that we determine the steady-state creep rate at a stress of 83 MPa (12,000 psi) and
1300 K.
Taking natural logarithms of both sides of Equation 9.21 yields

Q
ln s = lnK 2 + n lns c
RT
With the given data there are two unknowns in this equation--namely K2 and Qc. Using the data provided in the
problem statement we can set up two independent equations as follows:

) = ln K2

+ (8.5) ln(140 MPa)

Qc
(8.31 J / mol K)(1090 K)

) = ln K2

+ (8.5) ln(140 MPa)

Qc
(8.31 J / mol K)(1200 K)

ln 6.6 104 h1

ln 8.8 102 h1

Now, solving simultaneously for K2 and Qc leads to K2 = 57.5 h-1 and Q = 483,500 J/mol. Thus, it is now possible
c

to solve for s at 83 MPa and 1300 K using Equation 9.21 as

Q
s = K 2s nxp c
RT

483,500 J / mol
= 57.5 h1 (83 MPa)8.5 exp

(8.31 J / mol K)(1300 K)

4.31 10-2 h-1

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

DESIGN PROBLEMS

Principles of Fracture Mechanics

9.D1 (a) For the thin-walled spherical tank discussed in Design Example 9.1, on the basis of critical
crack size criterion [as addressed in part (a)], rank the following polymers from longest to shortest critical crack
length: nylon 6,6 (50% relative humidity), polycarbonate, poly(ethylene terephthalate), and poly(methyl
methacrylate). Comment on the magnitude range of the computed values used in the ranking relative to those
tabulated for metal alloys as provided in Table 9.3. For these computations, use data contained in Tables B.4 and
B.5 in Appendix B.
(b) Now rank these same four polymers relative to maximum allowable pressure according to the leakbefore-break criterion, as described in the (b) portion of Design Example 9.1. As above, comment on these values in
relation to those for the metal alloys that are tabulated in Table 9.4.
Solution
(a) In the development of Design Example 9.1, it was noted that critical crack length is proportional to the
square of the KIcy ratio. Values of KIc and y as taken from Tables B.4 and B.5 are tabulated below. (Note:
when a range of y or KIc values is given, the average value is used.)

Material

K Ic (MPa m )

y (MPa)

Nylon 6,6

2.75

51.7

Polycarbonate

2.2

62.1

Poly(ethylene terephthlate)

5.0

59.3

Poly(methyl methacrylate)

1.2

63.5

On the basis of these values, the five polymers are ranked per the squares of the KIcy ratios as follows:

Material

K 2
Ic (mm)

PET

7.11

Nylon 6,6

2.83

PC

1.26

PMMA

0.36

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

These values are smaller than those for the metal alloys given in Table 9.3, which range from 0.93 to 43.1 mm.
2 - ratio is used. The five polymers are ranked
(b) Relative to the leak-before-break criterion, the K Ic
y

according to values of this ratio as follows:

Material

2
K Ic
(MPa - m)
y

PET

0.422

Nylon 6,6

0.146

PC

0.078

PMMA

0.023

These values are all smaller than those for the metal alloys given in Table 9.4, which values range from 1.2 to 11.2
MPa-m.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

Data Extrapolation Methods

9.D2 Consider an S-590 iron component (Figure 9.39) that is subjected to a stress of 55 MPa (8000 psi).
At what temperature will the rupture lifetime be 200 h?
Solution
We are asked in this problem to calculate the temperature at which the rupture lifetime is 200 h when an S590 iron component is subjected to a stress of 55 MPa (8000 psi). From the curve shown in Figure 9.39, at 55 MPa,
the value of the Larson-Miller parameter is 26.7 103 (K-h). Thus,

26.7 103 (K - h) = T (20 + log tr )

= T [20 + log (200 h)]

Or, solving for T yields T = 1197 K (924C).

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

9.D3 Consider an 18-8 Mo stainless steel component (Figure 9.42) that is exposed to a temperature of
650C (923 K). What is the maximum allowable stress level for a rupture lifetime of 1 year? 15 years?
Solution
We are asked in this problem to calculate the stress levels at which the rupture lifetime will be 1 year and 15
years when an 18-8 Mo stainless steel component is subjected to a temperature of 650C (923 K). It first becomes
necessary to calculate the value of the Larson-Miller parameter for each time. The values of tr corresponding to 1
and 15 years are 8.76 103 h and 1.31 105 h, respectively. Hence, for a lifetime of 1 year

T (20 + log t r ) = 923 20 + log (8.76 103 ) = 22.10 103

And for tr = 15 years

T (20 + log t r ) = 923 20 + log (1.31 105 ) = 23.18 103

Using the curve shown in Figure 9.42, the stress values corresponding to the one- and fifteen-year lifetimes
are approximately 110 MPa (16,000 psi) and 80 MPa (11,600 psi), respectively.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.