DECLARATION

I Ms. POONAM RAJNIKANT CHOUHAN the student of M.Com-1 (Evening) 2nd Semester
(2015-2016), hereby declare that I have completed the project on International Labour Migration.
The information submitted is true and original to the best of my Knowledge.

Signature of Student:
_________________
POONAM RAJNIKANT CHOUHAN
Roll No.: 41

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would firstly like to thank the UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI for giving us the liberty of
choosing such topic which will be benefited to us in future. I would like to thanks the Principal
of Sydenham College Dr. Annasaheb Khemnar for giving me the opportunity to study in this
esteemed college and doing the course of Banking and Finance. I would like to express my
sincere gratitude and thanks to DR. ANIL CHOGALE MCOM, B. Ed, M.Phil, Ph. D who is
my project guide, as he has been the guiding light for this project and has also provided me with
the best of my knowledge, advice and encouragement which helped me in successful completion
of my project.
My colleagues and specially my parents who have also supported and encouraged me, the success
of the project to the large extent is also dedicated to them.
I would also like to thank all those who have helped me and whom I have forgotten to mention in
this space.

SIGNATURE OF STUDENT:
_______________

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Ms. POONAM RAJNIKANT CHOUHAN M.Com-2 (Evening) Semester3 (2015-2016) has successfully completed the project on International Labour migration under the
guidance of
DR. ANIL CHOGALE MCOM, B. Ed, M. Phil, Ph. D

1) Project Guide:___________

2) Internal Examinar:___________

3) External Examinar:___________

DATE: __________
PLACE: __________

SEM ---(3)

ROLL NO: ---41

SUB:---

(ECONOMICS)

INTERNATIONAL LABOUR MIGRATION

.

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT UNDER SEMESTER BASED

CREDIT &

GRADING SYSTEM FOR POST GRADUATE SEMESTER 2

Program under faculty of Commerce

MASTER OF COMMERCE (EVENING)
SYDENHAM COLLEGE OF COMMERCE & ECONOMICS
SUBMITTED BY:
POONAM RAJNIKANT CHOUHAN
ROLL NO: 41
PROJECT GUIDE:
DR. ANIL CHOGALE
MCOM, B. Ed, M. Phil, Ph. D.
SYDENHAM COLLEGE OF COMMERCE & ECONOMICS
2015-2016

INDEX

What is Research
Objectives
Types of Research
Significance of Research
The Research Process
Introduction to Telecommunication
Objective of Research
Introduction to Samsung
Research Methodology
Research Design
Data Collection
Hypothesis
Questionnaires
Limitation to the Research
Bibliography

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:
AN INTRODUCTION
MEANING OF RESEARCH
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define
research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact,
research is an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current
English lays down the meaning of research as a careful investigation or inquiry especially

through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. Redman and Mory define research as a
systematized effort to gain new knowledge.
Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown. It is
actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the
unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and
fuller understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the
method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be
termed as research.
Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making
deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia
of Social Sciences define research as the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the
purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in
construction of theory or in the practice of an art.
Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for
its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and
experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalisation and
the formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term research refers to the systematic
method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or
data, analysing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s)
towards the concerned problem or in certain generalisations for some theoretical formulation.

NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH:

All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than over-confidence, for it leads to inquiry,
and inquiry leads to invention is famous Hudson Maxim in context of which the significance of
research can well be understood. Increased amounts of research make progress possible. Research
inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits of

thinking and organization. The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether
related to business or to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. The
increasingly complex nature business and government has focused attention on the use of research
in solving operational problems. Research, as an aid to economic policy, has gained added
importance, both for government ad business.
Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.
For instance, governments budgets rests in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the
people and on the availability of revenues to meet these needs. The cost of needs has to be
equated to probable revenues and this is a field where research is most needed. Through research
we can devise alternative policies and can as well examine the consequences of each of these
alternatives. Decision making may not be a part of research, but research certainly facilitates the
decisions of the policy maker. Government has also to chalk out programmes for dealing with all
facets of the countrys existence and most of these will be related directly or indirectly to
economic conditions. The plight of cultivators, the problems of big and small business and
industry, working conditions, trade union activities, the problems of distribution, even the size and
nature of defence services are matters requiring research. Thus, research is considered necessary
with regard to the allocation of nations resources. Research has its special significance in solving
various operational and planning problems of business and industry. Operations research and
market research, along with motivational research, are considered crucial and their results assist,
in more than one way, in taking business decisions. Market research is the investigation of the
structure and development of a market of the purpose of formulating efficient policies for
purchasing, production and sales. Operations research refers to the application of mathematical,
logical and analytical techniques to the solution of business problems of cost minimization or of
profit maximization or what can be termed as optimization problems. Motivational research of
determining why people behave as they do is mainly concerned with market characteristics. In
addition to what has been stated above, the significance of research can also be understood
keeping in view the following points:

1. To those students who are to write a masters or Ph.D.thesis, research may mean a careerism or
a way to attain a high position in the social structure;
2. To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood.
3. To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;
4. To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations of new theories.
Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important source of
providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social problems. It is a sort
of formal training which enables one to understand the new developments in ones field in a
battery way.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
The basic types of research are as follows:
1

Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding

enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the
state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business research we quite often
use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies. The main
characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can
only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects
are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for
example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto
studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot
control the variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey
methods of all kinds, including comparative and co-relational method. In analytical
research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyse these to make a critical evaluation of the material.

Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or
fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas
fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation
of a theory. Gathering knowledge for knowledges sake is termed pure or basic
research. Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics
are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human
behaviour carried on with a view to make generalisations about human behaviour, are also
examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a
solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research.
Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular
institution or the copy research (research to find out whether certain communications will
be read and understood) or the marketing research or evaluation research are examples of
applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for

some pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding
information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing
organized body of scientific knowledge.
3

Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of

quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of
quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when
we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why people think
or do certain things), we quite often talk of Motivation Research, an important type of
qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and
desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are
word association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other
projective techniques Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how
people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative
research. Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioural sciences where the
aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour. Through such research we
can analyse the various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or
which make people like or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to
apply qualitative research in practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing
such research, one should seek guidance from experimental psychologists.

Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s)
or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or
observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based
research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation
or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is
necessary to get at facts first hand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain
things to stimulate the production of desired information. In such a research, the
researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the
probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his
hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the
persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information. Such
research is thus characterised by the experimenters control over the variables under study

and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is
appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way.
Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the
most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
5

Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of one or
more of the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time
required to accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the
basis of some other similar factor. Form the point of view of time, we can think of
research either as one-time research or longitudinal research. In the former case the
research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter case the research is
carried on over several time-periods. Research can be field-setting research or laboratory
research or simulation research, depending upon the environment in which it is to be
carried out. Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such
research follows case-study methods or indepth approaches to reach the basic causal
relations. Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things or events that interest us,
using very small samples and very deep probing data gathering devices. The research may
be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the
development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies
are those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested. Historical
research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study
events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote
point of time. Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decisionoriented. While doing conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a
problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he
wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the
researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research according to his own
inclination. Operations research is an example of decision oriented research since it is a
scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for
decisions regarding operations under their control.

NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

1. Scientific Method:
Research uses scientific method to find facts or to provide solutions to scientific problems.
The researcher needs to follow a systematic procedure to conduct research. There is a set
of procedures that have been tested over a period of time and are thus suitable to use in
research. This means each step in the research procedure must follow the other.
Scientific research in any field of knowledge cannot be conducted in a haphazard manner.
Scientific research cannot be merely based on one s beliefs and imagination. To get the
best possible research results, the researcher need to adopt the scientific method of inquiry
or investigation.

2. Objective and Logical:

The scientific research is objective and logical in nature. Research is based on valid
procedures and principles.

There is a need to collect relevant, accurate and objective data to investigate into the
research problem. Researchers need to make every possible effort to avoid bias in data
collection. After collection of objective data, the researcher needs to systematically
process the data, analyse and interpret it, and arrive at logical conclusions. Wherever
required, the researcher needs to systematically verify the findings and conclusions.

3. Applied and Basic Research:

The research can be broadly classified into two broad groups:
Applied Research
Basic Research
Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than
to acquire knowledge for knowledge sake. The goal of applied research is to improve the human
condition. It is generally used to solve a particular problem. For instance, a social research can be
conducted to study the problem of unemployment in rural areas and based on the research
findings, appropriate measures can be taken by government authorities to reduce the problem of
unemployment.
Basic or fundamental research is driven by a scientist curiosity or interest in a scientific
question. The main goal of basic research is to expand man s knowledge. There is no obvious
commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic research. For instance, basic research
can be undertaken to study the origin of the universe. Basic research lays down the foundation for
the applied science that follows.

4. Empirical Nature of Research:

Research can be based on direct experience or observation by the research. Empirical is
undertaken to study certain situations or events based on experiments, observations and surveys.
In empirical research, the researcher develops a hypothesis and then collects data to prove it or
disprove it.

5. Generalisation:
Research findings can be applied to larger population. A researcher can conduct a research on a
sample of respondents that represent the universe. The sample selection must be done
systematically so that it properly represents the whole population or the universe. The research
findings based on sample population can then be generalised and applied to the whole universe.
Therefore, generalisation takes place when research findings based on sample responses are
applied to whole population.

6. Controlled Nature of Basic Research:

In real life experience there are many factors that affect an outcome. A single event is often the
result of several factors. When similar event is tested in research due to the broader nature of
factors, some factors are taken as controlled factors while others are tested for possible effect. In
pure sciences it is very easy to control certain factors because lab experiments are conducted.
However, it is difficult to perform controlled laboratory experiments in the case of social science
research, although to a limited extent laboratory experiments are possible in social science as
well.

7. Development of principles and Theories.

A systematic research helps to develop new principles and theories. Such principles and theories
can be useful to several organisations to manage and deal with people and things in a better way.
The general laws or theories developed through research may enable us to make reliable
predictions of events which have not yet occurred.

8. Multipurpose Activity:
Research is a multipurpose activity. It helps to discover new facts or verify old facts. It helps
not only to predict future events, but also may help to control such events. It establishes casual
relationship between variables. It also helps to develop new scientific tools, concepts and
theories, which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human behaviour and other
aspects.

9. Manipulation of Concepts:
The researcher tries to manipulate things or concepts. The manipulation or purposeful control of
things or concept is one with a definite purpose so as to arrive at statements of generality. D
Slesinger and M. Stephenson in The Encyclopdia of Social Sciences define research as the
manipulation of things, concept or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or
verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an
art.
For instance, a researcher may manipulate the environment in a workplace such as lighting or
layout or seating arrangement to find out its impact on the productivity of the employees.

10. Quantitative and Qualitative Research:

Research undertaken to measure quantity or amount is called as quantitative research. For
instance, research undertaken to find out the number of unemployed graduates or the number of
unemployed in general. On the other hand, research, which is undertaken to find out the quality of
a particular situation or phenomenon is called as qualitative research. For Instance, a research
undertaken to find out the reasons as to why employees remain absent from work, or why people
behave in certain manner. The motivational research is an important type of qualitative research.
Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioural sciences where the main aim is to
find out the underlying motives of human behaviour.

11. Research a Process:

Research is a systematic process. It involves a number of steps. The main steps include:

Formulating the research problem or situation.

Development of a hypothesis.
Preparing the research design.
Determining sample design.
Collecting of data.
Analysis of data
Testing of Hypothesis.
Generalisation and Interpretation.
Preparation of report or thesis.
Follow up of Report.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
Researcher undertake research with definite objectives. Some of the important purposes or
objectives of research are briefly stated as follows;

1. To find solutions to problems:

Research can be undertaken to find solutions to solve specific problems. For instance, an
organisation may initiate research to find solution to the problem of declining sales of their
product in the market. An educational institution can undertake research to find out the
cases of low attendance of poor results. A government organisation may undertake
research to solve the problem of water scarcity in a particular area or district or to
ascertain the impact of slums on the quality of life in a particular city, and such other

research activities. The research enables to find appropriate solutions to specific problems,
which in turn helps to improve the quality of performance in various organisations or
institutions.

2. To verify and test existing laws and theories:

Research may be undertaken to verify and test existing laws or theories. Such verification
and testing of existing theories helps to improve the knowledge and ability to handle
situations and events. This is true when the existing theories may not be sufficient or
relevant to handle certain situations and events and therefore through research,
improvements or modifications can be made in the existing law or theories.

3. To obtain information:
Research is undertaken to obtain information, which may be not easily obtained during the
ordinary course of functioning of an institution or an organisation. For instance, marketing
may be undertaken to understand the changes in consumer behaviour. A firm may
undertake product research to bring about improvements or modification in the existing
product on the basis of feedback obtained from consumers, dealers and others.

4. To extend Knowledge:
Researchers undertake research to extend the existing knowledge in physical sciences as
well as in social science. The knowledge can be enhanced by undertaking research in
general and by fundamental research in particular.

5. To establish generalisation and general laws:

Research can be undertaken to establish generalisations and general laws in a particular
society. In other words, statements of generality can be stated through research. For
instance, various laws, principles and models have been developed through research. The
AIDA, model the law of demand and supply, the law of gravitation etc, has been
developed through observation, experimentation and other models of research.

6. To predicts events:
Research may be undertaken to predict future course of events. For instance, research may
be undertaken to find out the impact of growing unemployment of educated youth on the
social life of the society in future. The findings of such research research would not only
indicate the possible impact but also would make the concerned authorities to take
appropriate measures to reduce unemployment to reduce the growth of population, and the
overcome the negative consequences as and when they take place.

7. To analyse inter-relationships:
Research may be undertake to analyse inter-relationships between variables, so as to drive
casual explanation, which in turn would enable to have a better understanding of our
society and the universe in which we live. Researcher often develop hypothesis and test
them to analyse the casual relationship between variables. For example, a researcher may

study casual relationship between advertising and sales i.e. to find out whether or not
advertising causes higher sales.

8. To develop new tools and concept:

Research helps to develop new tools and concepts for a better study of an unknown
phenomenon. For this purpose exploratory research is undertaken to achieve new insights
into such phenomenon.

9. To develop new principles and theories:

A systematic research helps to develop new principles and theories. Such principles and
theories can be useful to several organisations to manage and deal with people and things
in a better way. The general laws or theories developed through research may enable us to
make reliable predictions of events which have not yet occurred.

10. To develop innovative ideas:

Research may be undertaken to generate innovative ideas for the welfare of mankind. For
instance, research may enable an organisation to develop innovative ideas in respect of:
New and improved products.
Improved organisation structure.
Better technology.
New sources of raw material, etc.

NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN BUSINESS

1. Product Development:
Through marketing research, a business firm can identity the customer requirements and
therefore it is possible to design new models or to modify existing products to satisfy the
customers. For instance, through marketing research a car manufacturing company may
out that the customers look for features, after sale service, re sale value, right price, fuel
efficiency, and so on. Accordingly, the product will be designed and marketed.
Also, with the help of research and development, the car company would make every
possible effort to develop the car with the best possible features at the right prices
depending upon the target customers.

2. Reduction in Costs:
Research in business helps a firm to reduce costs. The research may indicate the areas
where high costs are involved. It may be possible for the firm to cut down the costs in
certain areas. Therefore, cost reduction will improve the overall efficiency of the
organisation, i.e. the organisation will be in a position to achieve higher returns at a lower
cost.

3. Marketing Mix Decisions:

Marketing research enables a firm to arrive at sound marketing mix decisions with respect
to product, price, promotion and physical distribution.
a) Product Decisions: As mentioned earlier, marketing research enable a firm to design
the right product to satisfy customer requirements.
b) Pricing Decisions: Marketing research enables a firm to analyse competitors pricing,
customers, price sensitiveness etc., and accordingly, the firm can fix the right prices.
For instance if the customers for a particular product are not price sensitive, the firm
may charge a higher price, especially when it enjoys a good image in the market.
c) Promotion mix Decisions: Marketing research may enable a firm to adopt effective
promotion mix (publicity, advertising, sales promotion etc.) If promotion mix research
is not conducted, the firm may give more emphasis on certain elements of promotion
mix, thereby ignoring the other elements.
d) Place Decisions: Marketing research may also enable the firm to take appropriate
place decisions, with reference to area of distribution, channel selection, incentives to
channel intermediaries etc. For instance, the firm may increase marketing efforts in
those areas where it gets low sales or if the existing channels are not effective, it may
select alternative channels etc.
e)
4. Customers Relationships:
Marketing research may help the firm to develop good relations with its customer,
especially the priority customers. Research can help the customers to collect valuable
inputs about the priority customers. Based on the inputs, the firm can adopt various
relationship techniques such as package of loyalty incentives, one to one marketing,
effective after sale service incentives for customers suggestions etc.

5. Dealer Relationships:
Nowadays firm need to build, maintain and enhance corporate image in the minds of
stakeholders customers, dealers, employees and others. For instance consumer research
may enable the firm to obtain feedback on customer requirements and expectations and
accordingly the company would make the right efforts to satisfy customer and develop
good image in the minds of customers. Also dealers research enables the company to
obtain feedback on dealer requirements and expectations and thus the company would
make efforts to enhance dealer satisfaction, which in turn would make efforts to develop
good image of the firm in the minds of minds.

6. Competitive Advantage:

Through research a company can take proactive decisions such as introduction of new
models, introduce price changes undertaken innovative promotional schemes and so on.
The proactive decisions can confer competitive advantage to the firm.
Also, through research the firm can find out the strengths of the competitors, which make
certain buyers to prefer competitors, which make certain buyers to prefer competitors
brands. Based on competitors research the firm can improve its market vis--vis that of the
competitors, and thereby enhance its competitive advantage.

7. Human Resource Plans and Policies:

Research may be undertaken to frame effective HR plans and policies in respect of:
Recruitment and Selection
Training to employees
Performance appraisal
Promotion and Transfers
Compensation Plans, etc.

8. Financial Management:
Research may be undertaken for efficient management of Finance. Financial management
covers two broad areas:
Sources of funds
Application of funds
Proper research may enable a company to determine the best sources of funds, and to
ensure proper application of funds for working capital and fixed capital.

9. Market Expansion:
With the help of marketing research inputs the company can identify the markets that have
good potential. Accordingly, the marketer can enter in new markets. Entry in new markets
can be undertaken with the help of appropriate marketing activities such as promotional
activities publicity, advertising, salesmanship, and sale promotion etc.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Methodology implies more than simply the methods you intend to use to collect data. It is often
necessary to include a consideration of the concepts and theories which underlie the methods.

The process used to collect information and data for the purpose of making business decisions.
The methodology may include publication research, interviews, surveys and other research
techniques, and could include both present and historical information.
In simple terms, methodology can be defined as, giving a clear cut idea on what methods or
process the researcher is going to use in his or her research to achieve research objectives. In
order to plan for the whole research process at a right point of time and to advance the research
work in the right direction, carefully chosen research methodology is very critical. In other words;
what is Research methodology can be answered as it maps out the whole research work and gives
credibility to whole effort of the researcher.
More over methodology guides the researcher to involve and to be active in his or her particular
field of enquiry. Right from selecting the topic and carrying out the whole research work till
recommendations; research methodology drives the researcher and keeps him on the right track.
The entire research plan is based on the concept of right methodology. Further, through
methodology the external environment constitutes the research by giving an in depth idea on
setting the right research objective, followed by literature point of view, based on that chosen
analysis through interviews or questionnaires findings will be obtained and finally concluded
message by this research.
On the other hand from the methodology, the internal environment constitutes by understanding
and identifying the right type of research, strategy, philosophy, time horizon, approaches,
followed by right procedures and techniques based on his or her research work. Research
methodology acts as the nerve centre because the entire research is bounded by it and to perform a
good research work, the internal and external environment has to follow the right methodology
process.
Methodology is the systematic analysis of the methods applied to a field of study. It comprises the
theoretical analysis of the body of methods and principles associated with a branch of knowledge.
A methodology does not set out to provide solutions. Therefore, it is not the same thing method.
Instead, it offers the theoretical base for understanding which method, set of methods or so called
best practices can be applied to specific case. For example, it may indicate the method that can
be used to collect data to solve the problem of declining sales.

Research methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem. It is a science of studying how

research is to be carried out. Essentially, the procedures by which researchers go about their work
of describing, explaining and predicting phenomena are called research methodology.
It is also defined as the study of methods by which knowledge is gained. Its aim is to give the
work plan of research. Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research
problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it
we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research
problem along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the
research methods/techniques but also the methodology.
Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the
mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular
research techniques, but they also need to know which of these methods or techniques, are
relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and indicate and why. Researchers also
need to understand the assumptions underlying various techniques and they need to know the
criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques and procedures will be applicable to
certain problems and others will not.
All this means that it is necessary for the researcher to design his methodology for his problem as
the same may differ from problem to problem. For example, an architect, who designs a building,
has to consciously evaluate the basis of his decisions, i.e., he has to evaluate why and on what
basis he selects particular size, number and location of doors, windows and ventilators, uses
particular materials and not others and the like. Similarly, in research the scientist has to expose
the research decisions to evaluation before they are implemented. He has to specify very clearly
and precisely what decisions he selects and why he selects them so that they can be evaluated by
others also.

DEFINITIONS
Merriam- Webster Dictionary provides two definitions on research methodology as follows:
1. The analysis of the principles of methods, rules, and postulates employed by a discipline.
2. The systematic study of methods that are, can be, or have been applied within a discipline.
Research methodology is the name of the methods and ways through which a research process is
going to be completed and measured.

FEATURES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1. Systematic Process:
Research methodology is a systematic process of analysing selecting the best method to
conduct research. The research methodology process consists of the following main
stages:
Identification of research design.
Formulation of research design.
Designing the sample.
Collection of data.
Processing of data.
Analysis and Interpretation.
Drawing conclusions and providing recommendation.
Preparation of Research Report.

2. Purpose of Research Methodology:

The main purpose of research methodology is to select the best method to conduct the
research. After selecting the research methodology, the researcher proceeds to collect the
data, analyse it, and draws conclusions and recommendations order to solve the research
problem. In the final analysis research methodology helps to solve the research problem in
a systematic manner.

3. Reliance on Empirical Evidence:

Research methodology involves a systematic process to find a solution to the research
problem. The solution to a problem is found not on the basis of intuition or imagination.
The research methodology involves collection of data through survey, observation or
experimentation. The collected data is analysed and accordingly conclusions are drawn.
The conclusions are based on empirical evidence and not on imagination or on one own
build belief.

4. Commitment to Objectivity:
Research methodology is objective in nature because it makes use of scientific methods to
collect and analyse data. Objectivity involves forming a judgement based on accurate
facts. The researcher examines the facts in a scientific manner. Objectivity also ensures
that the conclusions drawn do not vary from one person to another.

5. Verifiability:
Research methodology ensures that the conclusions drawn by the researcher are verifiable.
With the help of research methodology, the researcher is in a position to justify the

conclusions. When others verify the researcher conclusions under the same conditions,
then they are accepted as correct. The verification through replication by others may either
confirm established conclusions of the researcher or modify them or even invalidate them.
Therefore, the researcher must expose the method and conclusions to critical scrutiny.

6. Ethical Neutrality:
Research methodology is based on ethical neutrality. It aims at making correct statements
about facts. The researcher should not be biased and distort the facts. For a researcher,
truth should be primary objective. Distortion of facts will not help the researcher to solve
the researcher problem. Distortion of facts may even aggravate the research problem
especially in the case of commercial research.

7. Development of Principles and Theories:

Systematic research methodology helps to develop new principles and theories. The
principles and theories can have universal application. This means, the research findings
can be used by several organisation to manage and deal with the people and things in a
better way. The general theories develop through research also enable the researcher to
make reliable predictions of events, which have not yet occurred.

8. Multipurpose Activity:
Research methodology is a multipurpose activity. It helps to discover new facts or verify
old facts. It helps not only to predict future events, but it also helps to control such events.
It establishes casual relationship between two or more variables. It also helps to develop
new scientific tools, concepts and theories, which would facilitate reliable and valid study
of human behaviour and other aspects.

9. Use of Induction and Deduction Methods:

Research Methodology makes use of induction and deduction methods to arrive at logical
conclusions.
Inductions method follows the logical reasoning process. It is a process of
reasoning whereby, the researcher arrives at universal generalisation from
particular facts. The method involves studying several individual cases and then
drawing a generalised conclusion. Conclusions drawn from induction are tentative

interferences and they are subject to further confirmation based on more evidence.
Deduction method is a reasoning process of applying generally accepted principles
to a specific individual case. It involves application of a general phenomenon to a
individual phenomenon. It establishes a logical relationship between a major
premise and a minor premise and thereby arrives at a conclusion.

10. Limitations or Constraints:

The effectiveness of research methodology in social sciences affected due to certain
constraints. Some of the constraints are:
Social science deal with human beings their behaviour and social life. The

human behaviour cannot be predicted with accuracy.

The research methodology in social sciences is affected by the problem of bias of
researcher and the respondents. Some researcher may draw biased conclusions
depending upon their likes, dislikes, feelings and emotions. The respondents may

also give biased responses.

There are also problems relating to sampling. The selected sample may be small in
size and may not represent the universe and therefore the data collected from the
sample respondents may be inadequate to solve the research problem.

STAGES IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH PROCESS

Scientific research is a systematic process undertaken to study the research problem and to arrive
at conclusions. Each research problem is unique and requires a special emphasis and approach.
One way to face the uniqueness of every problem is to tailor the research work according to needs
of each problem.
The scientific research process consists of a consequence of steps that have to be followed while
understanding a research project:

1. Identifying and Selection of Research Problem:

Identification or formulation of research problem is the first and the most important step
of research process. The problem formulation is like an identification of a destination
before undertaking a journey. It is often said that a well-defined problem is half solved.
Before formulating the research problem the research must think what the problem is,
why it is a problem, and for whom the problem is. Precise definition of the problem would
help the researcher to collect the relevant data for solving the research problem. The
researcher would be in a better position to arrive at suitable conclusions based on the
analysis of data collection and accordingly solutions can be designed to solve the problem
to deal with a particular situation.
The following are some of the essentials of the good problem formulation:

a) Researchable - the problem can be investigated through the collection and

analysis of data.
b) Interesting the problem keeps the researcher involved it throughout the research
process.
c) Purposeful the of which must be useful to solve the problem or situation.
d) Understandable well formulated and logically structure with main questions
and sub questions.
e) Manageable fits the researchers skills, resources, and restrictions.
f) Ethical does not embarrass or harm the research respondents and the society.

2. Review of Literature:
The researcher should undertake extensive literature survey relating to the problem. He
may consider various publications such as journals, books, research reports, and other
publish matter. Particularly, the researcher should go through similar research studies that
were conducted previously; such review of literature would provide a good insight into the
problem.

3. Formulation of Hypothesis:
The researcher should formulate the hypothesis. The hypothesis is a tentative assumption
made to test its logical or empirical consequences. The hypothesis should be formulated
on the basis of insights and knowledge about the problem. The hypothesis may prove to be
either wrong or right.
For instance, the researcher studying the declining sales trend, may hypothesize that sales
are declining because:
Product price is too high and / or
Middlemen are not getting adequate margin, and / or
The product is becoming obsolete.
If the test of the first hypothesis leads to its acceptance, one conclusions is that product price is
too high. If it is rejected, the researcher concludes that the price is not too high and proceeds to
test the other hypothesis. Thus, the hypothesis guides the research effort and suggests what data
are required.

4. Research Design:
The researcher must prepare a research design. It is a logical and systematic plan prepared
for conducting a research study. It can be called as a blue print for collection,
measurement and analysis of data. The research design provides guidelines to researcher
regarding the time period within which research is conducted, the type of data is to be
collected, the techniques of data collection and data analysis and so on.
The research design must include the following aspects:

A clear statement of the research problem.

The sources of data collection.
The time period of research study.
The area or place where research is to be conducted.
The resources required to conduct the research.
The techniques of data collection.
The techniques of data analysis.
The universe of research.
The sample size of respondents, if any,
The aims or objective of the research.

5. Designing the Questionnaire:

If the researcher cannot solve the problem with the help of secondary data, observation
and experimentation, then he should make efforts to collect the primary data from the
field for which he requires a questionnaire. While designing a questionnaire the following
points must be kept in mind:
What type of information is required?
What type of technique will be used for conducting the research, i.e, whether

telephone interview, personal interview or mail?

There should be proper wording and proper sequence questions.

6. Sampling Design:
Generally it is not possible to collect the data from each member of the universe or
population under the study due to limitations of time, effort and money. Therefore the
researcher need to select a sample of respondents that represent the universe. Sampling
design is a plan to select the appropriate sample to collect the right data so as to achieve
the research objectives. A sample represents those individuals chosen from the population
of interest as subjects in an experiment or to be respondents to a survey.
There are certain essentials of a good sampling design:
The sample must be representative of the universe.
The sample must be decided depending on the research objectives.
The researcher must use proper method of sampling to select a sample.
The sample size must be economical or cost-effective.
There must be proper sampling plan.
The sample size should be suitable to collect relevant data.
The sample unit must be selected properly.
The sampling frame must be up-to-date to collect information of members of the

universe.
The sample size must be flexible and not rigid.

7. Collection of Data:

Problem solving is essentially a process of collecting information. The data can be

collected from various sources primary and secondary. While collecting data care should
be taken of:
Information is up-to date and free from bias.
It is objective and relevant to the needs of the problem.
It is complete in all aspects.

8. Processing of Data:
The collected data is mostly available in a raw form and therefore, it needs to be
processed. Processing of data involves:
a) Editing it helps to weed out unwanted and irrelevant data. It also helps to check
errors and omissions in data collection.
b) Coding it involves assigning codes to the categories or responses. It is required
especially when the sample size is large and when there is large number of
responses.
c) Classification It refers to grouping of data under different categories or classes
such as age, gender, education, area tec. It facilitates tabulation of data.
d) Tabulation It involves transferring of classified data in a tabular form.
Tabulation of data facilitates analysis and interpretation of data.

9. Data Analysis:
Organisation of data is generally followed by its analysis and interpretation. The purpose
of analysing data is to establish a relation between the information and problem. Analysis
review the data in the light of hypothesis or research problem. It is difficult to demarcate a
line between analysis and interpretation. They quite often overlap and so it is difficult to
find out the end of analysis and the beginning of interpretation. Interpretation refers to
analysis of generalization of results. It enables to clear the meaning and implication of
study. It enables to link findings with research problem and arrive at logical conclusions.

10. Hypothesis Testing:

After analysis and interpretation of data, the researcher must be in a position to test the
hypothesis. The researcher should find out whether or not the research findings support the
hypothesis or prove to be contrary. Various test such as Chi-square, F-test etc. have been
developed for such testing. The testing of hypothesis will result in either accepting it or
rejecting it.

11. Preparation of Research Report:

The research findings and conclusions are presented with the help of research report. The
research report is divided into three parts:

a) Preliminary Contents which includes title of the report, letter of authorization,

letter of transmittal and the table of contents (index).
b) Main Body which includes introduction, methodology, findings, limitations if
any, conclusions and recommendations.
c) Concluding Part which includes appendix and bibliography.

12. Follow up of Report:

The researcher should submit the report to concerned authorities. For instance, doctorate
thesis is to be submitted to guide for approval and then to the concerned university. A
business research report is to be submitted to the concerned management of business
organisation. The researcher should find out whether his report is accepted, whether his
recommendations are accepted and implemented. If implemented whether the
recommendations are successful in solving the problem.

UNITII: Research Design Meaning, Purpose and Principles Types of Research Design- Exploratory
Descriptive Experimental, Data Collection- Sources of Data-Methods of Data Collection-Questionnaire
Design and Pre Testing of Questionnaire.

UNITIII: Sampling & Sampling Designs- Determination of Sample Size-Census Survey Vs Sample
Survey-Advantages of Sampling Sampling Methods-Probability Sampling-Non Probability Sampling.

UNITIV: Data Tabulation-Analysis and Interpretation: Editing, Decoding and Classification of DataPreparation of Tables-Analysis of Data - Scaling Techniques - Graphic and Diagrammatic Representation
of Data.

UNIT-V: Research Analysis and Report Writing: Multiple Regression(General Linear Model), Principals
of Component Analysis, Discriminate Analysis Factor Analysis- Types of Reports- Contents of ReportFormats of Reports-Presentation of Reports.

Text Book

Kothari, C.R., Research Methodology Methods and Techniques, New Age International Publishers, New
Delhi,2007.

Reference Books

1. Boyd, Westfall and Stouch, Marketing Research, Text and cases, All India Travel Book Sellers,
New Delhi, 2005.
2. Brayman, Research Methods, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2005.
3. Krishnaswami, O.R., Methodology of Research in Social Sciences, Himalaya Publishing
House, Mumbai, 2006.
4. R.Pannersalvem, Research Methodology, Prentice-hall of India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 2004
5. R.S. Dwivedi, Research Methodology in Behavioral Science, Macmillan India ltd, New Delhi,
2005.
6. Wilkinsan and Bhandarkar Methodology and Techniques of Social research, Himalaya
Publishing house, New Delhi, 2005.

HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis is a principal instrument in research

Most research is carried out with the deliberate intention of testing hypothesis

Decision makers need to test hypothesis to take decisions regarding alternate courses of action

In Social Sciences, hypothesis testing is often used for deciding whether a sample data offers
support for certain generalizations

Hypothesis-testing, thus, enables us to make probability statements about population parameters

MEANING OF HYPOTHESIS

Simply, a mere assumption to be proved or disproved

But for a researcher, hypothesis is a formal question that he intends to resolve

Definition: A proposition or a set of propositions, set forth as an explanation for the occurrence
of some specified group of phenomena asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some
investigation or accepted as highly probable in the light of established facts

Often hypothesis is a predictive statement capable of being tested by scientific methods, that
relates an independent variable to some dependent variable

Ex: students who receive counselling will show greater increase in creativity than students not
receiving counselling; or Car A is performing as well as Car B

In sum, hypothesis is a proposition which can be put to test to determine its validity

CHARACTERISTICS OF A HYPOTHESIS
1) Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear and precise, the
inferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken as reliable.
2) Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. In a swamp of un-testable hypothesis,
many a time the research programs have bogged down. Researcher may do some prior
study in order to make hypothesis a testable one. A hypothesis is testable if other
deductions can be made from it which, in turn, can be confirmed or disproved by
observation.

3) Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a relational

hypothesis.
4) Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A researcher must
remember that narrower hypotheses are generally more testable and he should develop
such hypothesis.
5) Researchers should state hypothesis as far as possible in most simple terms so that the
same is easily understandable by all concerned. But one must remember that simplicity
of hypothesis has nothing to do with its significance.
6) Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts i.e., it must be consistent with
a substantial body of established facts. In other words, it should be one which judges
accept as being the most likely.
7) Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time. One should not
use even an excellent hypothesis, if the same cannot be tested in reasonable time for
one cannot spend a life-time collecting data to test it.
8) Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation. This
means that by using the hypothesis plus other known and accepted generalizations, one
should be able to deduce the original problem condition. Thus hypothesis must
actually explain what it claims to explain; it should have empirical reference.

Basic Concepts of Hypothesis

1. Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis
2. The Level of Significance
3. Type I and Type II Errors

1. Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis

In the context of statistical analysis:
If we are to compare Method A with Method B about its superiority and if we proceed
on the assumption that both methods are equally good, then this assumption is
termed as the Null Hypothesis

As against the above, we may think that the Method A is superior or that the Method
B is inferior, we are then stating what is termed as Alternative Hypothesis

Alternative Hypothesis is usually the one which we wish to prove and the Null
hypothesis is the one which we wish to disprove

Thus, a null hypothesis represents the hypothesis we are trying to reject, and the
alternative hypothesis represents all other possibilities

2. The Level of Significance

In the context of hypothesis-testing, the level of significance is an important concept

It is always some percentage (usually 5%)

This implies that the null hypothesis will be rejected, when the sampling result
(observed evidence) has less than 0.05 probability of occurring if the null hypothesis is
true

That is, the 5% level of significance means that the researcher is willing to take as
much as a 5% risk of rejecting the null hypothesis when it happens to be true

3. Type I and Type II Errors

Basically two types of errors are possible:

Type I Error we may reject the null hypothesis when it is true; and
Type II Error we may accept the null hypothesis when in fact the null hypothesis is
not true
That is, Type I error means rejection of the hypothesis which should have been
accepted and Type II error means accepting the hypothesis which should have been
rejected

Steps in Hypothesis-testing
To test a hypothesis means to state (on the basis of data the researcher has
collected) whether or not the hypothesis seems valid

In hypothesis testing the main question is whether to accept the null hypothesis or
not to accept the null hypothesis?
Steps for hypothesis testing refer to all the steps we take for making a choice
between rejection and acceptance of the null hypothesis
1. Making a formal statement
2. Selecting a significance level
3. Deciding the distribution to use
4. Selecting a random sample
5. Calculation of the probability
6. Comparing the probability
Making a Formal Statement
Consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis and also the alternative
hypothesis
Ex: The average score in an aptitude test at the national level is 80. To evaluate a
states education system, the average score of 100 of the states students selected
on random basis is 75. The state wants to know if there is a significant difference
between the states scores and the national scores.
Hypothesis may be stated as follows:

Null hypothesis: population mean = 80

Alternative hypothesis: population mean is not equal to 80

Selecting a Significance Level

The hypothesis are tested on predetermined level of significance and should be
specified
Generally, either 5% level (0.05) or 1% level (0.01) is adopted
Deciding the distribution to use
The next step is to determine the appropriate sampling distribution
Generally, follow the principles of Normal Distribution

Selecting the Random Sample

Select the random sample and compute an appropriate value

The sample should furnish the empirical data

Calculation of the Probability

The next step is to calculate the probability that the sample result would diverge as it
has from expectations, if the null hypothesis were in fact true
Comparing the Probability
The next step is to compare the probability thus calculated with the specified value
(the significance level)
If the calculated probability is equal to or smaller than the significance level, then
reject the null hypothesis (i.e. accept the alternative hypothesis); but if the calculated
probability is greater, then accept the null hypothesis

Statistical Tests of Hypothesis

Tests of hypothesis are also known as tests of significance
They are classified as:
1. Parametric Tests or Standard Tests ex. are z-test, t-test, F-test etc. and are
based on the assumption of normality
2. Non-Parametric Tests or Distribution-free tests of hypothesis

UNITII: Research Design Meaning, Purpose and Principles Types of Research Design- Exploratory
Descriptive Experimental, Data Collection- Sources of Data-Methods of Data Collection-Questionnaire
Design and Pre Testing of Questionnaire.

Research Design

A major issue in research is the preparation of the research design of the research
project
Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means, concerning an
enquiry or a research study constitute a research design

Research Design Definition

A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure

Is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint
for the collection, measurement and analysis of data

More explicitly:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.

What is the study about?

Why is the study being conducted?
Where will the study be carried out?
What type of data is required?
Where can the required data be found?
What period of time will the study include?
What will be the sample design?
What techniques of data collection will used?
How will the data be analyzed?
In what style will the report be prepared?

Research Design has the following parts:

i.

The Sampling Design which deals with the method of selecting items to be
observed for the given study
The Observational Design which relates to the conditions under which the
observations are to be made
The Statistical Design which concerns with the question of how many items
are to be observed and how the information and data gathered are to be
analyzed
The Operational Design which deals with the techniques by which the
procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can
be carried out

ii.
iii.
iv.

In brief, a research design must contain:

a.
b.
c.
d.

A clear statement of the research problem

Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information
The population to be studied
Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data

Research Design Important Concepts

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Dependent and Independent Variables

Extraneous Variable
Control
Confounded Relationship
Research Hypothesis
Experimental and Non-experimental Hypothesis-testing

Dependent & Independent Variables

A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable. Ex: weight,
height, income etc., are examples of a variable
Qualitative phenomena (the attribute) are also quantified on the basis of the presence or
absence of the concerning attribute
Dependent variable (DV) if one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other
variable, it is termed as a DV
And the variable that is antecedent to the DV is termed as the Independent variable IV

1.Dependent & Independent Variables

Ex: if we say that height depends upon age, then height is the DV and age is the IV.
Further, if height also depends upon the individuals sex then, height is the DV and age
and sex are the IVs

2. Extraneous Variable
IVs that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the DV are termed as
Extraneous Variable (EV)
Ex: suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship
between childrens gains in social studies achievement and their self-concept. Here, selfconcept is an IV and social studies achievement is a DV. Intelligence may as well affect the
social studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of the study, it will be
termed as an EV

Therefore, a study must be always so designed that the effect upon the DV is attributed
entirely to the IVs and not to some EV.

3. Control
One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize the influence or
effect of the EV. The term Control is used when we design the study minimizing the
effects of extraneous variables

4. Confounded Relationship

When the DV is not free from the influence of the EVs, the relationship between DV and IV
is said to be confounded by the EV

5. Research Hypothesis
When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is
termed as a Research-Hypothesis
The Research-Hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an IV to a DV

6. Experimental and Non-Experimental Hypothesis testing research

When the IV is manipulated it is an experimental design
Research in which the IV is not manipulated is called Non-experimental hypothesis-testing
research

Ex: a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects reading ability for a group of
students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50 students and tests their intelligence
and reading ability by calculating the co-efficient of correlation between the two sets of
scores this is an example of non-experimental hypothesis testing, because the IV,
intelligence is not manipulated

But now ,suppose that the researcher randomly selects 50 students from a group of
students who are to take a course in statistics and then divides them into two groups by
randomly assigning 25 to Group A, the common program, and 25 to Group B, the special
program. At the end of the course, he administers a test to each group in order to judge the
effectiveness of the training program on the students performance. This is an example of
experimental hypothesis testing because the IV (the type of training program) is
manipulated.

Types of Research Designs

1. Exploratory
2. Descriptive & Diagnostic
3. Experimental

Exploratory Research Design

Also known as Formulative Research Design

Main purpose is that of formulating a problem for precise investigation or
developing hypotheses from an operational point of view
Major Focus discovery of new ideas and insights
Exploratory studies must have flexibility in design to provide opportunity for
considering different aspects of a problem under study
Exploratory Research Design
The following 3 methods are used:
The survey concerning literature
The experience survey
The analysis of insight-stimulating examples
1. The Literature Survey
The most simple and useful method of formulating the research
problem or developing a hypothesis
Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their
usefulness evaluated as a basis for further research
Use the bibliographical survey of studies already done in ones area of
interest for formulating the problem
An attempt must be made to apply concepts and theories
2. Experience Survey
Is the survey of people who have had practical experience with the
problem
The object is to obtain insight into relationships between variables and
new ideas relating to the research problem
3. Analysis of insight-stimulating examples
The method consists of the intensive study of selected instances of the
phenomenon in which one is interested

For this purpose, existing records may be examined; unstructured

interviews with experts may be conducted; etc.

II. Descriptive & Diagnostic Research Design

Descriptive Studies are those which are concerned with
describing the characteristics of a particular individual or
of a group.
Studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration
of facts and characteristics concerning individual, group or
situation are ex.'s of descriptive research studies
Diagnostic Studies determine the frequency with which
something occurs or its association with something else
Studies about whether certain variables are associated,
are ex.s of diagnostic studies
The research design here must focus on the following:
1. Formulating the objective of the study
2. Designing the methods of data collection
3. Selecting the sample
4. Collecting the data
5. Processing and analyzing the data
6. Reporting the findings
III. Hypothesis-Testing research design
Generally known as Experimental Studies where the
researcher tests the hypothesis of causal relationships
between variables
Such studies require procedures that not only reduce bias
and increase reliability but will permit drawing of inferences
about causality
Prof. R A Fishers name is associated with experimental
designs.
He developed certain experimental designs for testing
hypothesis

Principles of experimental designs

The three important principles are:
1. Principle of Replication
2. Principle of Randomization
3. Principle of Local control
Principle of Replication
The experiment should be repeated more than once to
ensure that each treatment is applied in many experimental
units instead of one.
By doing so the statistical accuracy is increased
Principle of Randomization
Provides protection against the effect of extraneous factors in
an experiment.
That is, we design the experiment in such a way that the
variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined
under the general heading of chance.
Principle of Local Control
Here the extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is
made to vary deliberately over as wide a range as necessary
and this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it
causes can be measured and hence eliminated from the
experimental error
Important Experimental Designs
There are several designs:
Informal Experimental Designs
Formal Experimental Designs
Informal Experimental Designs
1. Before-and-after without control design
2. After-only with control design
3. Before-and-after with control design
Formal Experimental Designs
1. Completely Randomized design
2. Randomized block design
3. Latin Square design
4. Factorial design
Methods of Data Collection

Essentially two types:

1. Primary data are those which are collected for the first
time and are original in character
2. Secondary data are those which have already been
collected by someone else and which have through some
statistical analysis
Collection of Primary Data
Primary data may be collected thru:
Experiments
Surveys (sample surveys or census surveys)
Observation
Personal Interviews
Of the above, the important ones are:
1.Observation Method
2.Interview Method
3.Thru Questionnaires/Schedules
I. Observation Method
Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method
of data collection, when it serves a formulated research
purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is
subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability
Under observation the information is sought by way of
investigators own direct observation without asking from the
respondent
Main advantages are:
Subjective bias is eliminated
The information relates to what is currently happening
This method is independent of respondents willingness to respond
Main Limitations are:
It is expensive
The information provided by this method is very limited
Unforeseen factors may interfere with the observation task

Types of Observation
Essentially two types:
1.Structured vs. Unstructured Observation
2.Participant vs. Non-participant Observation

Structured vs. Unstructured Observation

Structured Observation when the observation is characterized
by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the style of
recording the observed information, standardized conditions of
observation and the selection of pertinent data of observation
Unstructured Observation when it takes place without the above
characteristics
Participant vs. Non-participant
This distinction depends upon the observers sharing or not sharing the life of the
group he is observing

II.

Interview Method

The Interview Method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and
reply in terms of oral verbal responses

Personal Interview

PI Method requires the interviewer asking questions in a face-to-face contact with

the person.
Collecting information thru PI is structured the use of a set of predetermined
questions and highly standardized techniques of recording.
Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid procedure, asking
questions in a form and order prescribed
In unstructured interviews there is a flexibility of approach to questioning
Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and
standardized techniques of recording information
Focused Interview to focus attention on the given experience of the respondent and
its effects
The Interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and sequence of questions to
elicit/explore reasons and motives. The main task is to confine the respondent to a
discussion of issues

Clinical Interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with

the course of an individuals life experience. Eliciting information is left to the
interviewers discretion

Non-Directive Interview the interviewer's function is simply to encourage the

respondent to talk about the topic with a bare minimum of direct questioning. The
interviewer often acts as a catalyst to a comprehensive expression of the respondents
feelings and beliefs

Advantages

1. More information and in greater depth can be obtained

2. Resistance may be overcome by a skilled interviewer
3. Greater flexibility an opportunity to restructure questions
4. Observation method can also be applied to recording verbal answers
5. Personal information can be obtained
6. Possibility of spontaneous responses and thus more honest responses
Disadvantages
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Expensive method
Interviewer bias
Respondent bias
Time consuming
Under the interview method the organization required for selecting, training,
and supervising the field staff is complex with formidable problems
6. Establishing rapport to facilitate free and frank responses is very difficult

Data Collection thru Questionnaires

Popular in major studies

Briefly a Questionnaire is sent (by post) to the persons concerned with a request to
answer the questions and return the Questionnaire.
A Questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed in a definite order on a
form.
The Questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and
understand the questions and write down the reply in the space provided
Merits of Questionnaire Method
1.
2.
3.
4.

Low cost even when the universe is large and is widespread

Free from interviewer bias
Respondents have adequate time to think thru their answers
Respondents who are not easily approachable, can also be reached
conveniently
5. Large samples can be used
Demerits
1. Low rate of return
2. Respondents need to be educated and cooperative

3. Inbuilt inflexibility
4. Possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of items
5. This method is slow
Features of a Questionnaire

Questionnaire is the heart of a survey needs to be carefully constructed

Need to understand the features of the Questionnaire its general form, question
sequence and question formulation and the wording of the questions
1. General Form
May be either structured or unstructured
Structured Questionnaires are those in which there are definite, concrete,
predetermined questions
The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in the same
order to all respondents
The form of the questions may be either closed (yes or no) or open (inviting free
responses
Structured Questionnaires may also have fixed alternative questions in which
responses are limited to the stated alternatives
Thus, a highly structured Questionnaire is one in which all the questions and
answers are specified and comments in the respondents own words are held to
the minimum
Unstructured Questionnaire when the above characteristics are absent, it is
known as a unstructured Questionnaire
The Interviewer is provided with a general guideline on the type of information to be
obtained
2. Question Sequence
Proper sequence is needed to elicit valid responses
Sequence must be clear that is, the relation of one question to the next
To establish rapport and to gain cooperation from the respondent difficult
questions, personal questions etc should preferably come at the appropriate time
rather than at the beginning
3. Question Formulation & Wording
Phrasing the questions must be clear and unambiguous
Questions should be impartial and unbiased
Should be easily understood
Should be simple (one idea at a time)
Should be concrete
Form of questions may be multiple choice or open-ended

Data Collection thru Schedules

Very similar to the Questionnaire method
The main difference is that a schedule is filled by the enumerator who is
specially appointed for the purpose
Enumerator goes to the respondents, asks them the questions from the Performa
in the order listed, and records the responses in the space provided.
Enumerators must be trained in administering the schedule

Other Methods of Data Collection

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Warranty Cards
Distributor or Store Audits
Pantry Audits
Consumer Panels
Mechanical Devices
Depth Interviews
Content Analysis
Projective Tests

Collection of Secondary Data

Published data are available in:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Publications of State/Central govt.s

Publications of International Bodies
Technical and Trade Journals
Books, Magazines and Newspapers
Reports/Publications of various organizations (banks, stock exchanges, business
houses, etc)
6. Reports by scholars, Universities, etc
7. Public records, Historical Documents, etc
Secondary Data must possess the following characteristics:
Reliability of data may be tested by checking:
Who collected the data?
What were the sources of the data?
Was the data collected properly?
Suitability of data data that are suitable for one enquiry may not be
necessarily suitable in another enquiry.
Therefore, the researcher must scrutinize the definition of various terms and units
of collection. Also, the objectives, scope and nature of the original enquiry must
be studied.
Adequacy of data the data will be considered inadequate, if they are related
to an area which may be either narrower or wider than the area of the present
enquiry

UNITIII: Sampling & Sampling Designs- Determination of Sample Size-Census Survey Vs Sample
Survey-Advantages of Sampling Sampling Methods-Probability Sampling-Non Probability Sampling.

UNIT III - Sampling Design

Census & Sample Survey
All the items in any field of inquiry constitute a Universe or Population
A complete enumeration of all items in the population is known as Census Inquiry
Most times census inquiry is not practically possible

Sample Survey of a few items of the population

The respondents selected should be representative of the total

population
The sampling process is called the sampling technique
The survey so conducted is known as the sample survey
The researcher must prepare a sample design for his study that is,
how a sample should be selected and what size such a sample would be

Steps in Sample Design

The following are crucial:
1. Type of Universe define the set of objects, technically called the Universe,
to be studied
2. Sampling Unit sampling unit may be a geographical one (district, city,
village) or it may be a social unit (family, club, school) or it may an individual
3. Source List also known as sampling frame from which the sample is to be
drawn. It contains all items of a universe
4. Size of Sample refers to the number of items to be selected from the
universe to constitute a sample; a major issue here is the size should

neither be excessively large nor too small. An optimum sample is one which
fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and
flexibility
5. Budgetary Constraint cost considerations have a major impact upon
decisions relating to the size of the sample
6. Sampling Procedure finally, the type of sample to be used, that is, the
technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample. There are several
sample designs, from which the researcher can choose.

Criteria of Selecting a sampling Procedure

There are two costs involved in a sampling analysis the cost of collecting the
data and the cost of an incorrect inference resulting from the data

The researcher, therefore, must be aware of the two causes of incorrect inferences:
a) Systematic bias
b) Sampling error

A systematic bias results from errors in the sampling procedures and it

cannot be reduced or eliminated by increasing the sample size
Sampling Errors are the random variations in the sample estimates around
the true population. Generally, sampling errors decreases with the increase in
the size of the sample
Types of Sample Designs

All the sample designs are based on two factors the representation basis and
the element selection technique

Representation Basis the sample may be probability sampling or non-probability

sampling. Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection; nonprobability sampling is non random sampling.

Element Selection Basis the sample may be either restricted or unrestricted.

Unrestricted sampling is when each element is drawn individually from the
population at large. Restricted sampling is when all other forms of sampling are
used.

Thus, sample designs are basically of two types:

1. Probability Sampling
2. Non-Probability Sampling

Non-Probability Sampling

Is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for estimating the
probability that each item in the population has of being in included in the sample?

Also known as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling and judgment sampling

Here, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher, that is,
purposively choose the particular units of the universe for constituting a sample on

the basis that the small mass that they select out of a huge one will be
representative of the whole.

Ex.s if the economic condition of people living in a state are to be studied, a few
towns and villages may be purposively selected for intensive study on the principle
that they can be representative of the entire state.

Here, personal element (bias) has a great chance of entering into the selection of
the sample

However, if the investigators are impartial, work without bias and have the
necessary experience the results obtained may be tolerably reliable.

Sampling Error cannot be estimated and the element of bias is always

This is why; this design is rarely adopted in large inquiries of importance
Quota Sampling is also an example of non probability sampling. Under quota
sampling the interviewers are simply given quotas to be filled from the different
strata
Very convenient and inexpensive

Probability Sampling
Also know as Random sampling or Chance sampling

Under this design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the
sample

It is a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the whole group
not deliberately but by some mechanical process

It is blind chance alone that determines whether one item is selected or not

The results obtained from probability or random sampling can be assured in terms of
probability, that is, we can measure the errors of estimation or the significance

Random sampling ensures the law of statistical regularity (which states that if on an
average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have the same
composition and characteristics as the universe)

This is why it is considered as the best technique of selecting a very representative

sample

In sum, Random sampling:

1. Gives each element in the population an equal probability of getting into the
sample; and all choices are independent of one another
2. Gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being chosen

How to select a Random Sample

In actual/ideal practice the Random Sample is taken by the following process:

write each of the possible samples on a slip of paper, mix these slips in a
box/container and then draw as a lottery. In complex and large universes this is
practically possible.

An easier method is without taking the trouble of enlisting all possible samples
on paper slips, we can write the name of each element of a finite population on a
slip of paper, put the slip into a box and mix them thoroughly and then draw
(without looking) the required number of slips.

In doing so we must make sure that in successive drawings each of the remaining
elements of the population has the same chance of being drawn
This procedure will also result in the same probability for each possible sample
Thus, to draw a sample from a finite population is easy, with the aid of random
number tables, only when lists are available and items are readily numbered

Complex Random Sampling Designs

Systematic Sampling: the most practical way of sampling is to select every ith item
on a list; an element of randomness is introduced into this kind of a sampling by
using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start.
Ex.s if a 4% sample is desired, the first item would be selected randomly from
the first 25 and thereafter every 25 th item automatically be included in the sample.
Thus, in systematic sampling, only the first unit is selected randomly and the
remaining units of the sample are selected at fixed intervals.
The merits of systematic sampling are:
It is an improvement over simple random sampling because the sample is
spread more evenly over the entire population
It is easier and less expensive
Can be used in large population
The demerits are:
If there is a hidden periodicity in the population
Stratified Sampling: if a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not
constitute a homogeneous group, stratified sampling is applied in order to obtain a
representative sample; here, the population is divided into several sub populations
that are individually more homogeneous (these sub populations are called strata).

Cluster Sampling: if the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a

convenient way to take a sample is to divide the area into a number of smaller non
overlapping areas and then to randomly select a number of these smaller areas
(called clusters), with the ultimate sample consisting of all units in these clusters.

Area Sampling: if clusters happen to be some geographic subdivisions, then it is

better known as area sampling

Multi-stage Sampling: is a further development of the principle of cluster

sampling.
Ex. suppose we want to investigate the working efficiency of nationalized banks in
India and we want to take a sample of few banks for this purpose the first stage is
to select large primary sampling units such as States then we select certain
districts and interview all the banks in the chosen districts. This is two-stage
sampling design

Conclusion

Normally one should resort to simple random sampling because under it, bias is
generally eliminated and the sampling error can be estimated. But purposive
sampling is more appropriate when the universe happens to be small.
At times several methods of sampling may be used in the same study.

UNITIV: Data Tabulation-Analysis and Interpretation: Editing, Decoding and Classification of DataPreparation of Tables-Analysis of Data - Scaling Techniques - Graphic and Diagrammatic Representation
of Data.

Data Tabulation
The data after collection has to be processed processing means editing, coding, classification and
tabulation of the collected data, so that they are amenable to analysis.
Analysis refers to the computation of certain measures, along with searching for patterns of relationships
among data groups.
In other words, analysis of data is performed with the purpose of summarizing the collected data and
organizing these in such a manner that they answer the research question (s)

Processing Operations
The following are the processing operations:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Editing
Coding
Classification
Tabulation

Editing

Editing is the process of examining the collected data (especially in surveys) to detect errors and
correct these where possible
Involves a careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires/schedules
Editing can take place at two stages: i) field editing and ii) central editing
Field editing consists of reviewing of the questionnaire forms by the investigator for completing
(translating or rewriting) what the respondent has written in abbreviated and/or illegible form;
should not correct the errors of omission.
Central editing should take place when all forms/schedules have been
completed and returned
Editors may correct the obvious errors such as an entry in the wrong place, etc

Coding

Refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that responses can be
put in to a limited number of categories or classes.
Such classes should be appropriate and have the characteristic of exhaustiveness, that is, there
must be a class for every data item; and also mutual exclusivity, meaning that a specific answer
can be placed in one and only one cell in a given category set.
Coding is necessary for efficient analysis
Coding decisions should usually be taken at the designing stage
Coding is usually done by hand and the usual method is to code in the margin with a color pencil
or to transcribe the data taken from the questionnaire to a coding sheet.

Classification

Classification of data is the process of arranging data in groups or classes on

the basis of common characteristics
Data having a common characteristic are placed in one class and in this way
the entire data gets divided into a number of groups or classes
Classification is of two types:
1. Classification according to Attributes
2. Classification according to Class Intervals
1. Classification according to attributes
It is classified on basis of common characteristics which can be either descriptive (such as
literacy, sex, honesty) or numerical (like weight, height, income)
Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon, which cant be measured
quantitatively only their presence or absence in an individual item can be observed
2. Class Intervals
The numerical characteristics refer to quantitative phenomenon which can be measured
thru some statistical unit data relating to income, production, age, weight are examples
Such data are classified on the basis of class intervals each group of class interval, thus
has an upper and a lower limit, known as class limits
The difference between two classes is known as the class magnitude
The number of items which fall in a given class is known as the frequency
All the classes/groups, with their respective frequencies taken together and put in the form of a table are
described as group frequency distribution or simply frequency distribution

Important points to consider:

i.
ii.

How many classes should be there? (typically 5 15 classes are usual)

How to choose class limits? (normally, class limits should be located at multiples of 2, 5, 10, 20,
100, etc)
Class intervals may be stated thus:
Exclusive Type Class interval:
10 20
20 30
30 40
40 50

These are known as exclusive because, the upper limit of a class interval is excluded and items with
values less than the upper limit (but not less than the lower limit) are put in the given interval
Inclusive Type Class interval

11 20
21 30
31 40
41 50
In the inclusive type class interval the upper interval is also included in the class interval
iii.
How to determine the frequency of each class?
Can be done by tally sheets or mechanical devices

Tabulation

When a mass of data has been collected, it becomes necessary to arrange it in a concise and logical
order
Thus, tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying it in a compact form, for
further analysis
Tabulation is essential for:
It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum
It facilitates the process of comparisons
It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions
It provides a basis for various statistical computations

Principles of Tabulation
1. Should have a clear, concise title, which is self explanatory
2. Should be distinctly numbered, for easy reference
3. The column headings (captions) and row headings (stubs) of the table should
be clear and brief
4. Explanatory footnotes, if any, concerning the table should be placed directly
beneath the table
5. Sources of the table must be indicated just below the table
6. Usually the columns are separated by lines, which make the table more
readable and attractive
7. Those columns whose data has to be compared should be kept side by side.
So also the percentages and/or averages close to the data
8. It is important that all column figures be properly aligned. Decimal points and
+ or minus signs should be in perfect alignment
9. Abbreviations should not be used
10.Table should be made as logical, clear, accurate as possible
11.Total of rows should normally be placed in the extreme right column and that
of the columns should be placed at the bottom
12.The arrangement of the categories in a table may be chronological,
geographical, alphabetical, etc., to facilitate computation

UNIT-V: Research Analysis and Report Writing: Multiple Regression(General Linear Model), Principals
of Component Analysis, Discriminate Analysis Factor Analysis- Types of Reports- Contents of ReportFormats of Reports-Presentation of Reports.

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Mean
Median
Mode
Measures of Central Tendency

These statistics provide a measure of what values lie at the center of the
distribution.
The most common is called the MEAN or sometimes the AVERAGE (or the
EXPECTED VALUE)
The formula for the sample mean is the sum of all values divided by the
number of observations.

Mean

Mean is used for interval (ratio) data such as income, age, wage rate and
test score etc.

Response

Percent of respondents

Town -I

Town - II

Very important

10

Important

30

20

Neither Imp nor unimportant

20

10

Unimportant

25

40

Very unimportant

15

25

Mean

Median

Median is used for ordinal or interval level of data, but not for nominal level of Data
as it requires ordering of items from Highest to lowest or vice versa.
Table - 1

Age in Group
(In years)

No of respondents

0-20

15

20-40

32

40-60

54

60-80

30

80-100

19

Mode
Mode is used to measure the qualitative data. Since mode requires only frequency, it
can be applied to any set of data at the nominal, level of data
Discipline

Frequency( No of applicants)

Engineering

210

Commerce

180

Arts

110

Science

90

Others

50

Total

640

Table -2

Table-3

Life in Hours

No of Bulbs

0-20

20-40

17

40-60

45

60-80

46

80-100

32

100-120

18

120-140

14

140-160

10

160-180

Measures of dispersion or variability

The formula for the sample variance is the sum of squared deviations from the
mean divided by the number of observations minus 1:

The sample standard deviation (= s) is simply the square root of the sample
variance.
The book ignores another common measure of dispersion, the COEFFICIENT
OF VARIATION, which is, simply a mean-standardized standard deviation. The
coefficient of variation is the standard deviation divided by the mean, and is
thus a measure of relative dispersion rather than absolute dispersion.

Skewness
Skewness tells us about whether the data is symmetric or not.
Shape of the Distribution

The shape of the distribution provides information about the central tendency
and variability of measurements.
Three common shapes of distributions are:
Normal: bell-shaped curve; symmetrical
Skewed: non-normal; non-symmetrical; can be positively or negatively
skewed
Multimodal: has more than one peak (mode)

Relative Locations for Measures of Central Tendency

Mean

Mode

Mean
Median
Mode

Mode

Median
Negatively
Skewed

Symmetric
(Not Skewed)

Karl Pearson Coefficient of Skewness is given by

Skew=

Bowleys Coefficient of Skewness

Skew=

Karl Pearson Coefficient of skewness Lies between -3 and +3.

Bowleys Coefficient of skewness lies between -1 and +1

Kurtosis

Kurtosis refers to the degree of flatness or peakedness of a curve.

Positi
Skew

Measures of Kurtosis
Kurtosis is a measure of the flatness or peakedness of a Distribution
Normal Kurtosis - Mesokurtic
Flat Kurtosis - Platokurtic
Peaked Kurtosis - Leptokurtic
A Measure of Kurtosis based on the 4th moment about

If less then 0 = Platokurtic

More than 0 = Leptokurtic
If 0 then = Mesokurtic

Correlation

Correlation tells us the degree of association

between two or more variables. The limits for correlation coefficient are -1 to +1

1. The annual advertising expenditure (in lakhs of rupees) and the corresponding
annual sales ( in crores of rupees) for the past ten years of a company are
presented in the table. Find the correlation coefficient between annual
advertising expenditure and annual sales. Also test the significance of
correlation coefficient at 5% L.O. S
Year

10

Annual
advertising
expenditure

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

Annual Sales

20

30

37

50

56

78

89

100

120

110

Test for significance of correlation coefficient:

Test statistic:

Fallows t-distribution with n-2 degrees of freedom

Probable error of correlation coefficient is used to in determining

the reliability of the value of coefficient of correlation.

If r< P.E then there is no significant relation between the variables.

If r>6( P.E) then there is significant relation between the variables.

Using probable error we can find the limits for the population correlation
coefficient by using the relation

Regression
Line of regression of y on x is
Line of regression of y on x is

Find the lines of regression and estimate the value of y when x= 16 and value of x
when y=17

Price (Rs)
Supply (Tonnes)

4
8

6 9
10 12

10 8 12 14
15 11 13 15

Find the line of regression of y on x for the following data

Annual sales
Sales force

:20 23 25 27 21 29 22 24 27 35
:8

13 8

18 23 16 10 12 14 20

Annual advert
Expenditure

:28

23 38 16 20 28 23 30 26 32

Preparation of Report/Thesis
Has to prepare the report
The layout of the report is as follows:

10
10

15 12
16 10

 The prefatory part

The Main Body/Text
The Supplemental Part
The Prefatory Part

Title page
Certification
Acknowledgments
Preface
Contents page
The Main Body
Introduction
Summary of Findings
Main Report
conclusion

The Supplemental Part

References, or
Bibliography
Appendices
Index

ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA

PRESENTING RESULTS: Written and Oral Reports
Written Research Report

Short report
For well-defined, limited-scope problems with straight-forward
methodology
Usually 5 or fewer pages
Formats
Findings summary (graphical or tabular) attached to letter of
transmittal
Business letter
Internal memorandum
Short Report (Memorandum)
Reason for writing
Answer direct inquiry with specific answer and supporting detail

Long

Expository style with brevity and directness

Attach detailed materials as appendices when needed
report
Technical report
Management report

LONG REPORT COMPONENTS

PREFATORY ITEMS
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
TITLE PAGE
AUTHORIZATION LETTER
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
PROBLEM STATEMENT
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
BACKGROUND
METHODOLOGY
SAMPLING DESIGN
RESEARCH DESIGN
D ATA COLLECTION
D ATA ANALYSIS
LIMITATIONS
CONCLUSIONS
SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS
RECOMMENDATIONS
APPENDICES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
WRITTEN REPORT CONSIDERATIONS

ORDER OF REPORT
SENTENCE OUTLINE
TOPIC OUTLINE
COMPREHENSIBILITY

READABILITY INDICES
PACE
TONE

PRESENTATION OF STATISTICS

TEXT PARAGRAPH FORMAT

SEMI-TABULAR FORMAT
TABULAR FORMAT
GRAPHICAL FORMAT

GRAPHICAL FORMATS

LINE GRAPHS
AREA CHARTS
PIE CHARTS
BAR CHARTS
PICTOGRAPHS /GEO-GRAPHICS
3-D GRAPHICS

ORAL PRESENTATIONS

PREPARATION
LENGTH
CONTENT
STYLE
SCRIPTED
EXTEMPORANEOUS
AUDIOVISUALS
TYPE
ROLE
CONTENT
OPENING
FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS
RECOMMENDATIONS
DELIVERY
VOCAL CHARACTERISTICS
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

AUDIOVISUAL AIDS

CHALKBOARDS
W HITEBOARDS
H ANDOUT MATERIALS
FLIP CHARTS
SLIDES
OVERHEAD TRANSPARENCIES
COMPUTER-DRAWN VISUALS
COMPUTER ANIMATION

WRITING BUSINESS REPORTS

Objectives

AND

PROPOSALS

Discuss the structure of informational reports.

Explain the structure of analytical reports.
List the most popular types of visuals and discuss when to use them.
Clarify five principles of graphic design to remember when preparing visuals.
Identify and briefly describe five tools that writers can use in long reports to
help readers stay on track.

Deciding on Length and Format

When selecting a format, you have four options:

Preprinted form
Memo
Letter
Manuscript

Organizing Informational Reports

To arrange your material, use a topical organization such as

Importance
Spatial orientation
Sequence
Geography
Chronology
Category

Analytical Reports
What are some drawbacks of using the direct approach for a research and
analysis report?
Under what circumstances would you write a justification report?
Under what circumstances would you write a report based on a logical
argument?

Structural Approaches for Logical Argument

2 + 2 = 4 Approach
Scientific method
Yardstick approach
Preparing the Final Outline
What is the purpose of a final outline?
What does a final outline force you to reevaluate?
Are outline headings important?

 The final outline gives you a visual diagram of the report.

You reevaluate the information you have collected.
Yes, they affect the tone of the report.
Visual Aids

Clarify and simplify the text

Depict relationships between points
Emphasize and summarize points
Attract and build credibility
Reinforce understanding

Visualizing Information

Decide on the message.

Identify points requiring visual support.
Maintain a balance between illustrations and words.
Consider your production schedule.

Which Graphic Should You Use?

What is the best use of each of the following types of graphics?

Tables
Bar charts
Pie charts
Line charts

Flow charts
Maps
Drawings
Organization charts

Using Graphic Design Principles

Continuity
Emphasis
Contrast
Simplicity
Experience

Fitting Graphics Into Text

Introduce graphics in the text.

Place them near the text they illustrate.

Choose titles and legends that convey a message and explain the graphic
clearly.
Match title and legend style to heading style (informative or descriptive).
Phrase all legends and titles consistently throughout the report.

Composing Reports -- True or False?

All reports are written formally.

To achieve a formal tone, use personal pronouns.
By using verb tense consistently, you add to the clarity of your report.
False, many can be informal.
False, use impersonal words.
True

Guiding Readers through Reports

Start with an opening that indicates the reports subject and importance.
Use headings, subheadings, and
lists effectively.
Use transitions to bind the report.
Use preview and review sections.
Create an ending that leaves a strong, lasting impression.

Test Your Knowledge

What are your options for structuring an informational report?

What are your options for structuring an analytical report?
How does topical organization differ from logical organization?
When is it appropriate to use tables, line charts, surface charts, and pie charts
in a report?
What five principles apply to effective visuals for business reports?
How does a flowchart differ from an organization chart?
What tools can you use to help readers follow the structure and flow of
information in a long report?
What ethical issue is raised by the use of technology to alter photographs in
reports?
What is the purpose of adding titles and legends to visual aids in reports?
How do writers use transitions in reports?

COMPLETING FORMAL REPORTS AND PROPOSALS

Objectives

List the three tasks involved in completing reports and proposals, and briefly
explain what is involved in revising them.
Explain the prefatory parts of a formal report
Describe four important functions of a formal reports introduction, and
identify the possible topics it might include.

Discuss the four areas of specific information that must be covered in a

proposal.
List four questions to ask when proofing visual aids.

Revising Formal Reports and Proposals

Revise by evaluating both content and organization.

Review for style and readability.
Edit and rewrite your message clearly and concisely.
Refer to Chapter 6 for more tips on revising and proofreading.

Deciding on Report Format

Formal reports
Can be short or long

Can be direct or indirect

Can be informational or analytical

Can be external or internal

The parts you use depend upon what type of report it is.
For long reports, prefatory parts should have their own pages.
Components of a Formal Report
Prefatory parts
Text parts
Supplementary parts
Prefatory Parts for a Report
What is contained in each of the following?
Cover

Transmittal letter

Titles fly

Table of contents

Title page

List of illustrations

Authorization letter
Acceptance letter

Executive summary
Synopsis