Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Water Resources
27.1.
Introduction
Water is essential for sustenance of life in all forms and fresh water is a finite resource,
progressively becoming more scarce due to persistent increases in its competing demands. It
is important to ensure water security for the people through a national water policy laying
down the outlines of an integrated water management strategy that aims at maximizing the
sustainable economic, social and environmental returns on the water resource development,
allocation among its competing demands, its use by consumers and safe disposal of post-use
effluents.
Pakistan possesses the worlds largest contiguous irrigation system commonly called
as Indus Basin Irrigation system. It commands an area of about 14.3 million hectares (35
million acres) and encompasses the Indus River and its major tributaries. The system
includes
three
large
reservoirs
(Tarbela,
Mangla
and
Chashma),
23
barrages/headworks/siphons, 12 inter-river links and 45 canal commands extending for
about 60,800 km to serve over 140,000 farmer operated watercourses.
Irrigated agriculture is the backbone of the national economy. The level of
agricultural production is directly related to the availability and effective use of water as a
major input. The demand for water is increasing rapidly while the opportunities for further
development of water resources or maintaining their use to existing levels are diminishing.
The shortage of water particularly in Rabi season has further aggravated the ongoing water
crisis. The current per capita water availability at 1200 m3/person is low, with Pakistan in
the category of a high water stress country (table 1).
Table 1
Per Capita Water Availability
Year
Population
(Million)
1951
34
2003
146
2010
168
2025
221
Source:-WAPDA reports
The storage capacity, which is one of the key development indicators, at 9 percent
(live storage) of its average annual flow (table 2), is low when compared with 40 percent
world average, 33 percent in India, 347 percent of Nile river basin and 497 percen of
Colorado river basin (table 3).
Table 2
Storage loss of reservoirs
Original Gross
Storage Loss by the
Storage Capacity
Year 2003 (MAF)
(MAF)
Reservoir
Tarbela
11.62 (1974)
3.14 (27%)
3.95 (34%)
Chashma
0.87 (1971)
0.37 (43%)
0.48 (55%)
Mangla
5.88 (1967)
1.18 (20%)
1.60 (27%)
4.69 (26%)
6.03 (33%)
Total
18.37
Source:- WAPDA reports
S.
No.
1.
2.
3.
Table 3
Average annual flow and storage capacity of dams of some major river basins
No. of
Storage
% age
Average
River basin
Catchment Length
Dams
Capacity Storage
(km)
Annual
Area (1000
(MAF)
Flow
sq. km)
(MAF)
141
2,320
12
3
59.62
497
Colorado
Nile
Sutlej Bias
Basin
India(Total)
3,349
6,650
38
132.00
347
---
1,440
32
11.32
35
--745,920
--5,464
750
345
4,636
7
245
68.95
33
20
668
1,950
179
34.00
24.45
9.55
13.64
19
32.00
4.
Yellow River
5.
Columbia
6.
Indus &
other rivers
1,166
2,880
145
3
Canada : 2
USA
:1
3
7.
Yangtze
1,959
5,494
870
----20,000
--8,000
40
8.
World
Source:Medium Term Development Framework for Water sector (Group Report),
World Register of Dams 2003- ICOLD
The cereal production per m3 of irrigation water at 0.13 kg is also low as compared to
0.39 kg in India, 0.82 kg in China, 1.56 kg in USA and 8.22 kg in Canada (table 4).
Table 4
Name
of
country
Canada
USA
Cereal
per m3 of
irrigation
water (kg)
8.72
1.56
China
401
0.51
0.97
0.53
328
0.82
India
569
0.31
1.07
0.74
221
0.39
1,226
162
Pakistan
0.81
0.88
0.13
Source:- Food Security & Sustainable Agriculture in India, IWMI Publication No. 60, year 2003.
The seepage losses in the irrigation system are also very high at 61 percent (table 5).
Location
Table 5
Seepage Losses in Irrigation system
Delivery at Head (MAF)
106
90
83
58
41
Losses
% age
MAF
15
16
8
7
30
25
30
17
--61
65
The total loss of water in the system has been estimated at 65 million acre feet (MAF),
out of which 32 MAF is the loss of water underlain by the saline water areas (table 6), which
is difficult to recoup.
Table 6
Seepage losses in Irrigation System
Total loss of water in the system
Loss of water underlain by fresh water area
Loss of water underlain by saline water areas
Loss in bigger canals underlain by saline water
Loss in distributaries & minors underlain by saline water
Loss in water-courses underlain by saline water
Loss in field underlain by saline water
(MAF)
65.0
33.0
32.0
8.0
3.5
12.5
8.0
Issues
The key issues facing the water sector are (a) the absence of a holistic, integrated and
sustained approach, (b) sub-optimal use and low productivity of water, (c) inadequate
storage capacity with water escapages to sea, (d) extensive seepage losses in the irrigation
system, (e) inadequate operation & maintenance and poor cost recovery, (f) excessive
groundwater pumpage without groundwater recharge (mining of groundwater), (g) absence
of measures for rainfall harvesting, (h) unsafe disposal of drainage effluent to the sea, (h)
inadequate protection of infrastructure from floods, (i) lack of private sector participation, (j)
deteriorating institutional capacities of key water sector institutions, (k) increased poverty in
backward irrigated areas, and (l) poor linkage among water, agriculture and rural
development projects and related research.
The broad goal of development of water resources sector is to uplift the agro-based
economy on the national level by maximizing crop production, through progressively
increasing surface water supplies and conserving them using the latest technologies available
and protecting land and infrastructure from waterlogging, salinity, floods and soil erosion in an
integrated manner. The goal also includes catering to the increasing demands for drinking
water supplies and for industrial and commercial activities in a cost effective manner.
27.3.
Water Policy
A draft national water policy has been prepared by the Pakistan Engineering Council
with inputs from highly professional experts in water resources from all over the country.
The draft water policy is given in the following paragraphs.
Objectives
The National Water Policy prescribes an Integrated Water Resources Management
Regime that aims at:
i)
ii)
Providing food security for all in Pakistan and feed security for livestock;
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
ix)
x)
Guiding Principles
The processes of planning, development and management of water resources shall
have the guiding principles of equity, efficiency, participatory decision making,
sustainability and accountability.
Water Uses and Allocation of Priorities
Water shall have the following recognized sectors laying demand for consumptive
and non-consumptive use of water; and shall have the priorities for: drinking (including
requirement for livestock) and sanitation, irrigation including land reclamation, industry,
hydropower, fisheries, navigation, recreation, water related sports, environmental
sustainability and upgradation, forestry including social forestry and lakes and water
bodies.
Integrated Planning for Development and Use of Water Resources
i)
The principles of integrated and unified River Basin Development shall be adopted.
Water demand shall be estimated for all uses, public and private sectors, within the
basin. The process of holistic approach to planning shall aim at accommodating a fair
and stable economic and social development within an integrated drainage basin
management. Environmental impact assessment studies shall be carried out
concurrently with project feasibility studies for selecting project scope and layout that,
consistent with productivity, economic viability and social acceptability has the
environmental expediency.
ii)
The Guiding Principles mentioned above shall be invariably followed in all processes of
planning and developing of water resource. The accords/agreements on sharing of
water and rights, established by law or custom, shall be scrupulously respected.
iii)
Water resource planning for development shall be done in-coordination with the
policies and projects of other sectors, both public and private and in accordance with
planning and regulatory zones; as well as in accordance with manuals of good practice.
iv)
Water resource plans shall include such conservation measures that would upgrade the
available resource to the category of utilizable resource to the maximum possible extent.
Due importance shall also be given to measures that would enhance efficiency of water
usage.
v)
Delineation shall be promoted of the following zones to ensure that within each zone
the development of water is planned effectively:
Drought prone planning zones to ensure that adequate plans are in place
when and where droughts occur.
Watershed Management Zones in upland areas.
Environmental Management Zones in areas of environmental hazard.
The impacts of climate change on water resources development shall be assessed and
monitored and account for these impacts reflected in the strategies of water resources
planning, development and management.
vi)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
Irrigated Agriculture
i)
Strategies and Action Plans shall be prepared to ensure food security for the
people of Pakistan, and these shall be vigorously and diligently pursued.
ii)
The concept of More Crop per Drop shall be pursued by, among others, the
following
A national plan to enforce improved irrigation methods and practices;
Extensive research in developing crops with high yields and lower water
consumption and water saving techniques.
The concept of participatory management of irrigation system shall be
promoted, in the shape of Farmers Organizations (FOs) to enable the irrigation
stakeholders to participate effectively in the decision-making processes.
iii)
iv)
v)
ii)
Full financial sustainability shall be aimed at for the Urban Water Supply and
Sanitation Systems. This shall be facilitated by effective reduction in wastages,
theft and reduction of non-revenue water, and 100 percent metering. However,
effective safety nets shall be provided for the poor communities.
iii)
The Rural Water Supply and Sanitation services shall be priced at affordable
rates.
iv)
v)
vi)
Industry
i)
ii)
iii)
Hydropower
i)
ii)
iv)
Ground Water
i)
The Indus aquifer, underlying the vast Indus plains, and other aquifers in
valleys, and in the hard rock formation are recognized as important national
resources and deserve protection from pollution and unsustainable abstractions.
Detailed Action Plans shall be prepared, including legal provisions towards this
end.
ii)
iii)
iv)
The transition of SCARP tubewells in the public sector to the private sector shall
be expedited leaving development of fresh groundwater entirely to the private
sector, as a local resource.
v)
vi)
Water Rights/Obligations
i)
All citizens of Pakistan have the right of equal access to clean drinking water
and appropriate sanitation facilities.
ii)
The water rights as specified in law and agreements shall be fully respected.
iii)
All users of water, public or private, shall have the right to receive water of
specified quality at their premises of use; and they shall concurrently have the
obligation not to degrade quality of water more than what is acceptable.
Stakeholders Participation
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
ii)
iii)
Water-related Hazards
The policy for water-related hazards is described below:
i)
ii)
Flood Management
Drought Management
for livestock and social forestry. In such areas aquifer recharge facilities shall
be promoted.
iii)
The incidence of water logging and salinity continues to persist despite huge
investments in this sector. A new approach that tackles the problem in a
holistic manner on a basin-wide level shall be followed for future
infrastructure development.
The entire country shall be divided into distinct Drainage Basins and
Sub
Basins. Inventory of all existing infrastructure shall be prepared to
determine the need for additional measures.
Quality Management
i)
The water quality in rivers, reservoirs, lakes, canals, water bodies and coastal
areas including groundwater shall be a national priority for progressive
improvement to acceptable standards of NEQS through improved agricultural
drainage, municipal, rural and industrial wastewater treatment and safe
effluent disposal. Full compliance with NEQS for drinking water shall be
implemented vigorously.
ii)
In the plans for water resources development, such measures shall be promoted
beyond acceptable limits that eliminate contamination of surface water bodies
and groundwater aquifers from industrial and domestic emissions of pollutants,
over-use of agro-chemicals and urban run-off. Full compliance with NEQS for
wastewater disposal shall be implemented vigorously.
iii)
iv)
Establish water quality standards for water for different uses and for surface
and groundwater.
v)
Information Management
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
The telemetry system at all diversion points from the rivers and reservoirs
shall be refined, updated, uniformly calibrated and managed to make
available real-time data to IRSA, WAPDA, Provincial Governments and
major users.
Research
i)
ii)
iii)
The water available in the national waterways, and Pakistans share in the
international rivers system, shall be shared by the Federating Units
(Provinces) in accordance with the agreements between the Provinces, and
ratified by the Council of Common Interests (CCI).
ii)
The disposal of surface run-off and the drainage effluent and other post-use
effluents through the Indus Basin and other inter provincial basins, shall be
on the alignment, and of the capacity that shall be agreed (Drainage Accord)
between the provinces and ratified by the CCI.
The delivery services of water for all its uses shall be made economically and
financially sustainable and the social economic value of water shall be
emphasized.
ii)
For production sectors of the economy, full cost recovery shall be effected;
For social uses, the concept of affordability shall be applied;
For environmental and ecological needs, water supply shall be free of cost;
Wherever subsidy becomes inevitable, it shall be carefully estimated and the
source of its financing clearly indicated; further provided that the source
shall be such as to have adequate resources for subsidy financing; further
provided that the extent of subsidy shall be periodically reviewed and
adjusted.
Demand Management
i)
It is recognized that fresh water, being a finite resource, cannot fulfill unlimited
demand of numerous users. Demand Management of various uses shall,
therefore, be accorded high priority.
ii)
Increasing population is recognized as the dominant factor in multidimensional increased water demand. Appropriate Action Plans shall be
formulated by the concerned agencies to manage these increases.
iii)
iv)
Use efficiency in all sectors shall be vigorously pursued, and towards this end
all
avenues like professional, administrative, legal, technological-research,
transfer and application coupled with appropriate economic and financial
incentives shall be applied.
Conservation of Water
i)
The criticality of fresh-water for sustenance of human life, coupled with scarcity
dictates the resource conservation to be accorded the highest national priority.
ii)
iii)
iv)
The water conservation plans shall include re-use and recycling of municipal
and industrial waste water effluent after appropriate treatment at sources,
research in and adoption of technology to upgrade the agricultural drainage
effluent for sustainable re-use in agriculture, horticulture and forestry sector,
adoption of rainwater harvesting technology.
Institutions
i)
ii)
It is recognized that an effective institution is the one that has a clear mandate, a
legal framework, a well-structured organization with clear responsibilities and
accountability at various levels. Performance capacity commensurate with
mandate and Operational Autonomy. The existing institutions shall be critically
reviewed and the identified deficiencies made up.
iii)
iv)
Legal Framework
27.4.
i)
All water-related Acts shall be reviewed for updating where found appropriate,
they shall be combined with one another to constitute small number of more
comprehensive and updated Acts.
ii)
Programme
Irrigation
out of studies under the supervision of the office of Chief Engineering Advisor/Chairman
Federal Flood Commission. These studies deal with the seawater intrusion and environmental
concerns of areas below Kotri, as well as environmental concerns of other areas of the
provinces.
The water demand both for irrigation and non-irrigation by the year 2009-10 is
estimated at 168.99 MAF. The current water supply at farmgate is 135.7MAF(including
groundwater), which is expected to increase to 150.3 MAF (including groundwater) by the
year 2009 -10. Thus, without efficiency improvements, there will be a gap of 18.69 MAF of
water by the year 2009 -10 (table 7).
Table 7
Water Demand and Availability
(MAF)
Water Demand
Year 2004
Year 2010
Agricultural at farm gate
143.29
155.90
Non -Agricultural
Urban and Rural
4.50
7.70
Industrial
3.50
3.89
Environmental
1.30
1.50
Total demand at farm gate
152.59
168.99
B.
Water availability at farm gate
135.68
150.30
C.
GAP
16.91
18.69
Source: i) National Water Policy 2004, ii) Pakistan Water Sector Strategy 2002
A.
i.
ii.
27.6.
Table 8
Area under various Depths to Water Table
(000 Acres)
Province
Punjab
GCA
24623
%of GCA
NWFP
1450
%of GCA
Sindh
14172
%of GCA
Balochistan
987
%of GCA
Pakistan
%of GCA
41232
(5 10) ft
>10 ft
1121.0
4966.0
18534.0
4.5
20.2
75.3
84.0
447.0
919.0
5.8
30.8
63.4
3343.0
7722.0
3107.0
23.6
54.5
21.9
321.0
271.0
395.0
11.8
32.5
55.7
4869.0
13408.0
22955.0
11.8
32.5
55.7
27.7.
The OFWM Programme aims at reducing conveyance losses and field losses by
improving watercourses, precision land leveling, organizing Water User Associations and
establishing demonstration plots. In addition, water storage tanks will be constructed and
lifting devices installed on streams to provide irrigation water to barani agricultural land.
Province-wise summary of key watercourse data is given in table 9.
Table 9
Watercourse Data (No.)
S. No.
Description
Number of Watercourses
Total
To be improved
1.
Punjab
58,110
28,000
2.
Sindh
42,314
29,000
3.
Balochistan
19,703
16,463
4.
NWFP
20,500
10,000
5.
Other areas
---
3,537
140,627
87,000
Total
Source: PC-I of OFWM-IV
Flood Control/protection
Colossal losses are caused to private properties and public infrastructure by the
recurring onslaught of floods and hill torrents. Province wise existing embankments and spurs
are given in the table 10.
Table 10
Province-wise embankments and spurs
Punjab
Sindh
NWFP
Balochistan
Total
Embankments (Km)
3000
2200
90
150
5440
Spurs (No.)
365
36
176
*---
577
* Not applicable
The Flood Protection Sector Project Phase-I has been completed, and phase-II has
started in addition to Normal Flood Sector Programme meant for emergency schemes. Besides,
an extensive programme of harnessing hill torrents is being prepared to regulate the flash flows
of hill torrents. Further improvements in the flood forecasting and warning system through
installation of three more 10 CM radars, provision of the HF Radio system, and updating of
flood plain manual have also been planned. As part of an integrated flood management
programme, 453 km of embankments, 150 spurs and 40 hill torrents structures are planned to
be constructed in the provinces. An allocation of Rs. 3.60 billion has been proposed for
achieving the above- mentioned targets.
27.9.
Research
The water requirement figures are based on the assumption that there will be
at least 25 percent increase in crop yields due to non-water inputs.
ii)
The water availability at the farm gate is calculated on the basis of saving of
water at the rate of 100 AF/watercourse. This needs to be further studied
during the MTDF.
iii)
iv)
v)
Decisions to implement large water storages will have to be taken early to set
a stage for a major development of water resources.
Annex I
Financial Allocation (2005-10)
(Rs. Billion)
Sub-sector
Allocation
a) Federal
Irrigation
140.909
23.856
6.519
46.781
Research
0.228
Total (Federal)
218.293
b) Provincial
Total (Provincial)
58.200
276.493
Annex II
Physical Targets (2005 - 10)
Sr.
No
1.
2.
3.
4.
Item
Unit
200405
Total
Targets
2005-06
2006-07
2007-08
2008-09
2009-10
2005-10
Water Availability
Incremental
MAF
0.90
2.90
3.57
5.50
1.80
0.90
14.67
Cumulative
MAF
135.68
138.58
142.15
147.65
149.45
150.35
150.35
Disastrous area
Mac
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.60
3.0
Mha
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
1.20
Installation/rehab.
No
220
220
220
220
250
350
1260
Transition
No
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
5000
km
458
500
500
500
543
200
2243
New
km
242
300
300
300
362
350
1612
Sub-surface Drain
Ac
49,420
50,000
60,000
70,000
82,000
100,000
362,000
ha
20,000
20,235
24,282
28,329
33,185
40,469
146,500
Embankment
Km
90
90
90
90
90
93
453
Spurs
No
33
30
30
30
30
30
150
No
16,500
21,500
23,000
24,000
---
68,500
Land Ac
37,060
37,060
37,060
37,060
--36,500
54,000
201,680
21,854
81,619
SCARP Tubewells
Surface Drains
Rehabilitation
/remod.
5.
6.
7.
Flood Control
OFWM
Watercourses
Precision
Leveling
ha
14,998
14,998
14,998
14,998
14,771
Annex III
Water Availability Estimates At Farm Gate
(MAF)
Year
Total
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
2007-08
2008-09
2009-10
Incremental
0.90
2.90
3.57
5.50
1.80
0.90
14.67
Cumulative
135.68
138.58
142.15
147.45
149.45
150.35
150.35
Surface water
85.66
88.26
91.83
97.33
99.13
99.73
99.73
Groundwater
50.02
50.32
50.32
50.32
50.32
50.62
50.62
2005-10
Basis:
(Water saved through 68,000 watercourses (6.80 MAF) + Gomal Zam (0.9 MAF) +Mirani
Reservoir (0.15 MAF)+Mangla-II (2.9 MAF)+Kurram Tangi Dam (0.6 MAF)+canals (3.03)
+Small Dams (0.3 MAF)+ Other measures (0.49) + Groundwater (0.6 MAF) - siltation(1.10
MAF ) = 14.67 MAF