Documenti di Didattica
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Subject
Pre training briefing
Objectives
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
Fabrication Standards
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
Weld Symbols
4
4.1
4.2
4.3
Introduction
Joining methods
Welding processes
Joint configuration
Types of weld
Features of the completed weld
Weld preparation
Types of preparation
Size of butt welds
Size of fillet welds
Welding position, slope, rotation and weaving
IWS revision questions on general introduction
Application standards and codes
Approval of welding procedures and welders
Process terminology
Revision questions on standards
Standards
Basic representation
Edge preparation symbols
Weld sizing
Revision questions on weld symbols
Creation and protection of weld pool
Direction of welding
Bead shape
IWS questions on fusion welding Introduction and safety
5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
Gas Welding
7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
8
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
Power Sources
9
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
TIG Welding
Introduction
Electric shock
Heat
Light
Fumes and gases
Noise
Gas handling and storage
Working at height and in restricted access areas
Mechanical hazards
Oxyacetylene welding
Equipment
Operating characteristics
Equipment safety checks
IWS questions on gas welding
Introduction
Ions and electrons
Electricity generation
Current, voltage, watts and resistance
Direct and alternating current
Transforming electricity
Rectification
Series and parallel
Inductance
Transistors and thyristors
Inverters
Revision questions on electricity
Types of power source
Power source characteristics
Pulsed power
Slope control and gas purging
Duty cycle
Bibliography
Revision questions on power sources
Process characteristics
Arc Initiation
Current and polarity
Preparing the tungsten electrode
Shielding gas
Filler wires
Potential defects
Advantages of the TIG process
Disadvantages of the TIG process
Revision questions on TIG
10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
MIG/MAG Welding
11
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10
12
12.1
12.2
12.3
Welding Consumables
13
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
14
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
Electroslag Welding
Process characteristics
Transfer modes
Welding parameters
Contact tip and nozzle set-up
Shielding gases
Solid wire consumables
Flux-cored arc welding
Revision questions on MIG/MAG
History
Process characteristics
MMA basic equipment requirements
Electrode types
Setting up for welding
Welding parameters
Practical aspects of MMA
Storage and handling
Baking electrodes
Electrode classification
Revision questions
Consumables for MMA welding
AWS A 5.1- and AWS 5.5Inspection points for MMA consumables
History
Process characteristics
Power source
Equipment
Consumables
Welding parameters
Potential defects
Classification of consumables
Revision questions
History
Process characteristics
ESW materials other than steel
Stainless steel and nickel alloys
Current status
Benefits and disadvantages
15
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7
15.8
15.9
15.10
15.11
16
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
Introduction
General safety
Oxy-fuel cutting
Powder cutting
Oxy-fuel gouging
MMA gouging
Air carbon arc gouging
Plasma arc cutting
Plasma arc gouging
Laser cutting
IWS Revision questions
Background
Friction surfacing
Surfacing by arc welding
Thermal spraying
IWS Revision questions.
Objectives
Objectives
What the Welding Processes and Equipment Module is About
Welcome to the International Institute of Welding (IIW) and European Welding
Federation (EWF) approved Diploma course offered by TWI Training and
Examination Services. Successful completion of your course leads to
qualification recognised in more than 40 countries. TWI-TES also offers tuition
to those who do not meet the IIW/EWF access criteria. The syllabus and
expected learning outcomes are given in an IIW publication, IAB-252r8-07, of
which a short version may be downloaded from either the IIW website:
www.iiw-iis.org or from the EWF website: www.ewf.be.
This course is designed to cover the syllabus but we emphasise that self-study
should account for at least as much time as the lectures. Larry Jeffus (Welding Principles and Applications) is an excellent source for basic information, with
coloured easy to follow diagrams. There are good books covering the topics in
greater depth: AC Davies - The Science and Practice of Welding is a classic, but
now rather dated, reference. Jeffries (Welding Principles and Application) and
Althouse, Turnqist, Bowditch, Bowditch, Bowditch (Modern Welding) are newer
titles with good explanations.
The internet is, of course, a prime source of reference, though care must be
taken as anyone can set up a website and post information, not all of which is
accurate. We strongly suggest that you use the technical information available
from TWIs website http://www.twi.co.uk/content/tec_index.html
Others that you may find helpful are:
www.gowelding.com
www.welding-technology-machines.info
www.electronics-tutorials.com
With the changing face of the internet we cannot say that these sites will
remain in place and as useful as they seemed when we looked at them. We
recommend that you use a search engine to explore what is available for any
topic that you to learn more about.
We hope that you enjoy this learning experience. Good luck in the exams!
What does this module cover?
We will take you from the absolute basics - defining a weld, for instance through to quite detailed understanding of the make-up and characteristics of
arcs and plasmas. You will learn the basic electricity functions applicable to
welding and the relationship between such fundamentals as transformation,
rectification, inductance, etc and the behaviour of a welding process.
We cover all of the commonly used processes and many of those considered
advanced or specialised. The basic principles behind each process are described
together with the equipment and materials necessary for a quality joint.
Standards applicable to welding and symbols used on drawings to indicate
specific joints are covered and safety aspects are emphasised throughout.
Much of the module concerns fusion welding but solid state processes, brazing,
soldering, surfacing and cutting are also dealt with.
What is the final outcome that I can expect?
We emphasise that we work to an international syllabus, at one of three levels,
in order to prepare you for examinations that will qualify you to the same level
as welding co-ordinators trained in any of the countries complying with the
International Accreditation Boards requirements. Your qualification will be
recognised in more than 40 countries around the world.
This module prepares you for specific exams on welding processes and
equipment, one of four modules that you need to achieve the end qualification.
Even if you choose not to be tested in this way, your involvement in the course
will have given you a much greater understanding of the most influential
parameters in welding and how to exert control over them in order to achieve
quality welds.
What sort of material and learning methods are used?
The rest of this volume contains notes and slides that show you the depth to
which we take each topic. We lecture and expect active participation. This
involvement increases as you progress through the levels - we expect those at
the Engineer Level to be making significant personal input into the learning
process.
We must point out that simply learning the notes is not enough. We make
frequent reference to private study and expect you to use all facilities - library,
reference books and the internet, especially the TWI website with its Job
Knowledge series of articles - to give you a fuller understanding of the subject.
Our lecturers and course manager are always keen to hear from you. If you
have input to give, ideas for improvement, or you just have a concern over the
learning or examination, please speak to us.
Why is this module important to me?
All welding engineers, technologists and specialists are expected to know the
fundamentals of the welding processes. There is no-one in the company with
better knowledge, so if the welding operation does not go smoothly everyone
will turn to the specialist, ie you, for advice.
A key decision the welding specialist must make is to determine the best
process for the company to use for any application. This will require an
understanding, not only of the pros and cons of each process, but also any
attendant requirements necessary to make the process work efficiently.
This module will give you an understanding of how each process works and the
differences between them; the equipment, control and operator skill required
for each and the economic factors associated with choosing a welding process.
Section 1
General Introduction to Welding
1.1
Introduction
Welding and joining, like any other technologies, have their own terminology
and are liberally endowed with abbreviations and acronyms, but these soon
become familiar. In this section we give the definitions of basic terms.
1.2
Joining methods
Joining is the most general term used to refer to any process or procedure by
which two or more separate pieces of material are physically attached to each
other so as to create a single larger piece.
1.2.1
Welding
Welding is defined as an operation in which two or more parts are united by
means of heat or pressure or both, in such a way that there is continuity in the
nature of the metal between these parts.
Many materials such as metals, plastics and ceramics may be welded though
some require the use of specific processes and techniques and a number are
considered unweldable, a term not usually found in dictionaries but useful and
descriptive in engineering.
The parts that are joined are termed parent material and any material added
to help form the join is called filler or consumable. The form of these
materials may see them referred to as parent plate or pipe, filler wire,
consumable electrode (for arc welding), etc. Consumables are usually chosen
to be similar in composition to the parent material thus forming a
homogenous weld but there are occasions, such as when welding brittle cast
irons, when a filler with very different composition and therefore properties is
used, such welds are called heterogeneous.
The completed welded joint may be referred to as a weldment.
1.2.2
Brazing
A process of joining generally applied to metals in which, during or after
heating, molten filler metal is drawn into or retained in the space between
closely adjacent surfaces of the parts to be joined by capillary attraction. In
general, the melting point of the filler metal is above 450oC but always below
the melting temperature of the parent material.
1-2
The composition of the filler for brazing is often very different from parent
material; for instance, steel may be brazed with a copper alloy filler.
1.2.3
Soldering
A similar process to brazing, relying on capillary attraction to draw molten filler
into a gap between parts that remain solid throughout. Solders melt at low
temperatures less than 450C. For steel and copper, solders are usually alloys
of tin.
1.3
Welding processes
Welding processes fall into two groups those in which fusion takes place and
those that achieve solid state bonding.
Fusion welding includes oxy-fuel gas welding (OFW); manual metal(lic)
arc (MMA); metal inert/active gas (MIG/MAG); flux-cored arc welding
(FCAW); tungsten inert gas (TIG); submerged arc welding (SAW);
electron beam welding (EBW); laser welding (laser is an acronym: light
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) and others. United States
codes and standards use different terminology and abbreviations for these
processes:
MMA
MIG/MAG
TIG
Laser
Solid state processes do not involve melting because some materials can be
permanently welded together by pressure if in a suitably malleable state. This
may require the application of some heat, eg forge welding as carried out by
blacksmiths and friction welding in its many forms. Explosive welding; cold
pressure welding and ultrasonic welding are examples of welding processes
in which heat is not deliberately generated.
The most common of the above mentioned welding processes are described in
these notes and some further ones are given in the Advanced Welding
Processes notes, but neither attempts to give an exhaustive listing of all of the
welding processes that have been demonstrated.
1-3
1.4
Joint configuration
The table below defines some of the more common configurations:
Type
of Sketch
Definition
joint
Butt joint
T joint
Corner
joint
Edge joint
A
connection
between
two
overlapping parts making an angle
to one another of 0-5 inclusive in
the region of the weld or welds.
Lap joint
1-4
1.5
Types of weld
1.5.1
Based on configuration
Butt weld
Fillet weld
Slot weld
Joint between two overlapping components made by depositing a fillet weld
round the periphery of a hole in one component so as to join it to the surface of
the other component exposed through the hole.
Plug weld
Weld made by filling a hole in one component of a workpiece with filler metal so
as to join it to the surface of an overlapping component exposed through the
hole (the hole can be circular or oval).
Based on penetration
Full penetration weld
Welded joint where the weld metal fully penetrates the joint with complete root
fusion. In US the preferred term is complete joint penetration weld (CJP, see
AWS D1.1).
1-5
1.5.2
Based on accessibility
1-6
1.6
Butt weld
Fillet weld
Parent metal
Metal to be joined or surfaced by welding, braze welding or brazing.
Filler metal
Metal added during welding; braze welding, brazing or surfacing.
1-7
Weld metal
All metal melted during the making of a weld and retained in the weld.
Heat affected zone (HAZ)
The part of the parent metal metallurgically affected by the heat of welding or
thermal cutting, but not melted.
Fusion line
Boundary between the weld metal and the HAZ in a fusion weld. This is a nonstandard term for weld junction.
Weld zone
Zone containing the weld metal and the HAZ.
Weld face
The surface of a fusion weld exposed on the side from which the weld has been
made.
Weld root
Zone on the side of the first run furthest from the welder.
Weld toe
Boundary between a weld face and the parent metal or between runs. This is a
very important feature of a weld since toes are points of high stress
concentration and often they are initiation points for different types of cracks
(eg fatigue cracks, cold cracks). In order to reduce the stress concentration,
toes must blend smoothly into the parent metal surface.
Excess weld metal
Weld metal lying outside the plane joining the toes. Other non-standard terms
for this feature: reinforcement, overfill. Note: the term reinforcement, although
commonly used, is inappropriate because any excess weld metal over and
above the surface of the parent metal does not make the joint stronger. In fact,
the thickness considered when designing a welded component is the design
throat thickness, which does not include the excess weld metal.
Run (pass)
The metal melted or deposited during one passage of an electrode, torch or
blowpipe.
Layer
1.7
1-8
1.7.1
1.8
Types of preparation
1.8.1
This preparation is used for welding thin components, either from one or both
sides. If the root gap is zero (ie if components are in contact), this preparation
becomes a closed square butt preparation (not recommended due to the lack of
penetration problems)! The exception to this is submerged arc welding, where
this preparation is used.
1-9
1.8.2
Single V preparation
Double V preparation
For thicker plates a double V preparation is preferred since it requires less filler
material to complete the joint and the residual stresses can be balanced on
both sides of the joint resulting in lower angular distortion.
The depth of preparation can be the same on both sides (symmetric double V
preparation) or can be deeper on one side compared with the opposite side
(asymmetric double V preparation). Usually, in this situation the depth of
preparation is distributed as 2/3 of the thickness of the plate on the first side
with the remaining 1/3 on the backside. This asymmetric preparation allows for
a balanced welding sequence with root back gouging, giving lower angular
distortions. Whilst single V preparation allows welding from one side, double V
preparation requires access to both sides (the same applies for all double side
preparations).
1-10
1.8.4
Single U preparation
Backing strips allow the production of full penetration welds with increased
current and hence increased deposition rates/productivity without the danger of
burn-through. Backing strips can be permanent or temporary. Permanent types
are made of the same material as being joined and are tack welded in place.
The main problems related to this type of weld are poor fatigue resistance and
the probability of crevice corrosion between the parent metal and the backing
strip. It is also difficult to examine by NDT due to the built-in crevice at the root
of the joint. Temporary types include copper strips, ceramic tiles and fluxes.
1-11
As a general rule:
Actual throat thickness = design throat thickness + excess weld metal.
Full penetration butt weld ground flush
Actual throat
thickness = design
throat thickness
Butt weld between two plates of different thickness
1.10
1-12
1.11
Sketch
Flat
Horizontalvertical
Horizontal
Vertical-up
Vertical-down
Horizontaloverhead
1-13
Weld slope
The angle between root line and the positive X axis of the horizontal reference
plane, measured in mathematically positive direction (ie counter-clockwise).
Weld rotation
The angle between the centreline of the weld and the positive Z axis or a line
parallel to the Y axis, measured in the mathematically positive direction (ie
counter-clockwise) in the plane of the transverse cross-section of the weld in
question.
Weaving
Weave
Transverse oscillation of an electrode or blowpipe nozzle during the deposition
of weld metal, generally used in vertical-up welds.
Stringer bead
A run of weld metal made with little or no weaving motion.
1-14
Sketch a double bevel T butt weld with full penetration and superimposed mitre fillet
welds.
Indicate the typical excess weld metal dimension on a butt weld in 6mm thick
material.
1-15
Section 2
Fabrication Standards
Fabrication Standards
Application standards and codes of practice ensure that a structure or
component will have an acceptable level of quality and be fit for the intended
purpose.
The requirements for standards on welding procedure and welder approval are
explained below. It should be noted that the term approval is used in European
standards in the context of both testing and documentation. The equivalent
term in the ASME standard is qualification.
A standard has also been constructed that gives a unique number to a welding
process. This is also described below.
2.1
2-1
Examples of application codes and standards and related welding procedure and
welder approval standards are listed below:
Application
Pressure
vessels
Process
pipework
Structural
fabrication
Storage
tanks
2.2
Application
code/standard
BS 5276
BS PD 5500
ASME Section VIII
BS 2633
BS 2971
BS 4677
ASME B31.1/B31.3
BS EN 1090
BS 8118
AWS D1.1/ D1.2/
D1.6
Welding procedure
approval
BS EN ISO 15614
ASME Section IX
BS EN 12285
BS EN 14015
API 620/650
BS EN ISO 15614
ASME IX
BS EN ISO 15614
ASME IX
BS EN ISO 15614
AWS D1.1/ D1.2/
D1.6
Welder approval
BS EN 287
BS EN ISO 9606
ASME Section IX
BS EN 287
BS 4872
BS EN ISO 9606
ASME IX
BS EN 287
BS 4872
BS EN ISO 9606
AWS D1.1/ D1.2/
D1.6
BS EN 287
BS EN ISO 9606
ASME IX
2-2
Process terminology
The European standard, BS EN ISO 4063:2000 Welding and allied
processes - Nomenclature of processes and reference numbers, assigns
a unique number to the main welding processes. These are grouped as follows:
Arc welding.
Resistance welding.
Gas welding.
Forge welding.
Other welding processes.
Brazing, soldering and braze welding.
Arc welding.
Gas-shielded metal arc welding.
Metal arc inert gas welding.
2-3
2-4
Section 3
Welding Symbols
Welding Symbols
Weld symbols are a simple way of communicating design office details to the
variety of shop floor personnel eg welders, supervisors and inspectors, in a
consistent manner. Non-company staff such as sub-contractors and insurers
may also need to interpret the engineering drawings. It is essential therefore
that everyone should have a full understanding of the system of weld symbols
in use to ensure that the design requirement is met.
3.1
Standards
The most common international standards for weld symbols are the ISO
2553/European EN 22553, published in the UK as BS EN 22553 and the
American AWS/ANSI A2.4. Most of the details are the same, but it is essential
that everyone concerned knows the standard to be used.
The UK traditionally used BS 499-2 to define weld symbols which was
superseded by BS EN 22553. Confusingly, the BSI still publishes BS 499-1
containing weld symbols as well as other terminology for welding and a chart,
BS 499-2C that shows the symbols pictorially.
3.2
Basic representation
All the standards use a reference line plus an arrow line and head placed at an
angle to the reference line, viz:
3-1
3.3
Supplementary symbols are added to the edge preparation to show the shape
of the finished bead profile:
Aspects of welding not immediately apparent from the basic symbols can be
added as complementary symbols:
3-2
3.4
Weld sizing
So that the correct size of weld can be applied, it is common to find numbers to
either the left or to the right of the symbol.
For fillet welds, numbers to the left of the symbol indicate the design throat
thickness, leg length, or both design throat thickness and leg length
requirements. Numbers to the right of the symbol show the length of the weld
and where the welding is intermittent, the number of welds to be made in the
location:
3-3
The large Z through the reference line shows that intermittent weld beads are
placed in a staggered arrangement on either side of the component.
When there are no specific dimensional requirements specified on the weld
symbol, it would normally be assumed that the requirement is for a full
penetration, full length weld.
Summary of information on symbols.
3-4
Site weld.
3-5
Section 4
Introduction to Fusion Welding
4.1
TIG welding.
MMA welding; Welding flux operates in two ways to protect weld metal. It forms
a gas around the arc that keeps air away from the pool and creates a slag that
freezes (usually at a similar temperature to the metal) and protects the
solidified, but still hot and reactive, metal from oxidation.
4-1
Gas shielding is usually with an inert gas, argon or helium, protecting the pool
and adjacent hot metal from oxidation, but there is no protection for the still
hot solid metal beyond the range of the gas flowing from the nozzle. A thin
layer of oxide therefore often tarnishes MIG and TIG welds. Some metals,
notably titanium, cannot accept exposure to air whilst hot, even if solidified, so
require extra, trailing shields to provide gas coverage until the metal has
dropped temperature considerably.
Carbon and C-Mn steels do not oxidise rapidly so the protective gas can be
active rather than inert, usually carbon dioxide or an Ar-CO2 mixture and the
process is then often referred to metal active gas (MAG).
4.2
Direction of welding
When welding with a manual technique, the torch is very rarely held upright
over the weld pool. It is usually inclined in the line of the welding direction, with
the tip either pointing away from the previously deposited weld metal or
towards it.
For a right handed person, the usual method is to move the torch or electrode
from right to left, with the torch/electrode pointing in the direction of travel.
This is often referred to as the pushing technique and results in a fairly smooth
weld profile. There are occasions where it is advantageous to weld in the
opposite direction using a dragging technique and this gives deeper penetration
but at the expense of a more convex weld profile.
When using the oxy-acetylene process the movement is usually similar and is
referred to as the leftward technique. However for oxy-acetylene pipe welding a
technique known as all positional rightward may sometimes be used, where the
filler wire is fed into the weld behind the weld pool. This allows greater
deposition (compared with leftward) but is again at the expense of weld
appearance, which will be coarser than a leftward weld.
4.3
Bead shape
If welding progresses directly in a straight line with no sideways movement, a
stringer bead is laid.
The weld bead is the same width as the molten weld pool. If travel speed
increases, the weld pool will become elongated in the direction of travel and
narrower in width. The resultant stringer bead will also be narrower. If the
current is insufficient for the travel speed adopted, there may be only limited
melting of the parent plate resulting in a bulbous cross-section bead and, in the
extreme, lack of fusion.
4-2
Conversely, excessive current will lead to the pool being pushed into the surface
of the plate and on freezing grooves will be left at either side of the bead,
termed undercut.
The welder can deliberately move the torch from side-to-side during the laying
of a bead, called weaving.
This has the advantage of dwelling at the edges of the bead giving more time to
melt the parent plate. It can achieve a better blend of the bead shape to the
parent plate surface and can be used by a skilled welder to bridge larger than
expected root gaps. It is particularly used for vertical up welding but care must
be taken to keep the depth of bead to only a few millimetres.
It is possible to use a wide, triangular weave technique when working in the
vertical position, often known as blocking out. This should be exercised with
caution as the very high heat input associated with it can cause deterioration of
the mechanical properties of the parent material. It is often thought that
blocking out is faster than using a stringer bead technique, but this is an
incorrect. The deposition rate is controlled by the welding current or wire feed
speed, not the movement of the torch.
It is important to attempt to achieve a smooth profile change from the weld
bead to the surface of the parent plate as sharp discontinuities create stress
raisers from which defects such as hydrogen or fatigue cracks may initiate.
4-3
4-4
Section 5
Arc Welding Safety
There are many aspects of arc welding safety that the co-ordinator needs to
consider:
Electric shock.
Heat and light.
Fumes and gases.
Noise.
Gas cylinder handling and storage.
Working at height or in restricted access.
Mechanical hazards: trips, falls, cuts, impact from heavy objects.
To find out if welders and other operatives are at risk the co-ordinator needs to
consider the working conditions. The Management of Health and Safety at Work
Regulations 1999 require employers assess the risks to health of employees
arising from their work. The actions arising from the risk assessment are
dictated by other more detailed regulations, eg the Control of Substances
Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations 2004.
The following sections give guidance on risk avoidance but continuous effort on
improvements to precautions and working conditions is essential for the
wellbeing of the workforce.
5.1
Electric shock
Contact with metal parts which are electrically live can cause injury or death
because of the effect of the shock upon the body or because of a fall as a result
of the reaction to electric shock. The electric shock hazard associated with arc
welding may be either from the primary 230 or 460V mains supply or from the
output voltage at 60-100V. Primary voltage shock is very hazardous because it
is much greater than the secondary voltage of the welding equipment. Electric
shock from the input voltage can occur by touching a lead inside the welding
equipment with the power to the welder switched on while the body or hand
touches the welding equipment case or other earthed metal. Because of such
hazards, only a qualified electrician should remove the casing of a welding
power source. Residual circuit devices (RCDs) connected to circuit breakers of
sufficient capacity will help to protect personnel from the danger of primary
electric shock.
5-1
The transformed power is available from terminals on the front of the welding
set. Heavy duty cables are attached to these terminals to carry the welding
current to the torch or electrode holder and to bring a return path from the
work or metal workbench to the other terminal. This return is often referred to
as the earth or ground and there may be secondary earthing arranged so that
the work is at zero volts. Secondary voltage shock occurs when touching a part
of the electrode circuit perhaps the jaws of an MMA electrode holder or a
damaged area on the electrode cable while another part of the body touches
the other side of the welding circuit (the work or welding earth) at the same
time.
Whilst most welding equipment is unlikely to exceed an OCV of 100V, electric
shock, even at this level, can be serious. The welding circuit should be fitted
with low voltage safety devices to minimise the potential of secondary electric
shock.
It is important that the welding cables can carry the maximum possible output
of the welding set without overheating as this can damage the insulation,
leading to an increased risk of electrical shock.
TWI Job Knowledge No 29, available from the TWI website (www.twi.co.uk)
gives more guidance on avoiding electric shock during welding.
5.2
Heat
As arc welding relies on melting metal to affect a joint, it follows that the metal
will in part be very hot. All metals conduct heat to a greater or lesser degree so
the area heated to a temperature that will cause skin burns is very much larger
than the weld bead itself. It is a wise precaution to assume that all metal on a
welding workbench or adjacent to a site weld is hot. Temperature indicating
sticks should be used to check that material is cool enough to handle. Patting
metal with the bare hand to check its temperature is a way of being burnt!
The welding arc creates sparks with potential to cause flammable materials
near the welding area to ignite and cause fires. The welding area should be
clear of all combustible materials and is good practice for all personnel working
in the vicinity of welding to know where the nearest fire extinguishers are and
the correct type of fire extinguisher to use if a fire does break out.
Welding may also produce spatter, globules of molten metal expelled from the
weld area which can cause serious burns, so protective clothing, such as
welding gloves, flame retardant coveralls and leathers must be worn around
any welding operation to protect against heat and sparks. It is most important
that traps in clothing are avoided. Trousers should not have turn-ups nor be
tucked into boots very serious injury can occur if spatter drops inside a work
boot.
Radiant heat from welding can be quite intense, particularly when welding at
high current and duty cycle. Sufficient air movement is required to keep the
welder at a sensible temperature, especially important when working in
restricted access areas where reflected heat will intensify the effect. Welders
should also take water regularly to avoid potential dehydration.
5-2
5.3
Light
Light radiation is emitted by the welding arc in three principal ranges:
Type
Infra-red (heat)
Visible light
Ultra-violet
radiation
5.3.1
Wavelength,
nanometres
>700
400-700
<400
5.3.2
5.3.3
Visible light
Intense visible light particularly approaching UV or blue light wavelengths
passes through the cornea and lens and can dazzle and in extreme cases
damage the network of optically sensitive nerves on the retina. Wavelengths of
visible light approaching the infra-red have slightly different effects but can
produce similar symptoms. Effects depend on the duration and intensity of
exposure and to some extent, upon the individual's natural reflex action to close
the eye and exclude the incident light. Normally this dazzling does not produce
a long-term effect.
5-3
5.3.4
5.4
Fuel gases which on combustion form carbon dioxide and if the flame is
reducing, carbon monoxide.
Shielding gases such as argon, helium and carbon dioxide, either alone or in
mixtures with oxygen or hydrogen.
Carbon dioxide and monoxide produced by the action of heat on the welding
flux or slag.
Nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone produced by the action of heat or
ultra-violet radiation on the atmosphere surrounding the welding arc.
Gases from the degradation of solvent vapours or surface contaminants on
the metal.
The degree of risk to the welder's health from fume/gases will depend on:
Composition.
Concentration.
Length of exposure.
5-4
It is essential to know the type of parent plate, together with any coating and
the composition of the fume generated. This is because different fume
components vary in toxicity. The limits to which welding fume and its
component parts must be controlled are provided in Guidance Note EH40
Workplace Exposure Limits available from the Health and Safety Executive
(HSE). This is updated annually.
5.4.2
5-5
5-6
5.4.4
What they must do, the precautions that must be taken and when they
must take them.
What cleaning, storage and disposal procedures are in place, why they are
required and when they are to be carried out.
Procedures to be followed in an emergency.
Training must be provided for the effective application and use of:
Methods of control.
Personal protective equipment.
Emergency measures.
To keep such records and to inform and train a workforce may seem onerous
but it is the law and it is necessary to plan and implement these things
effectively. Do things correctly and welding is a safe operation. Ignore the
precautions and it can be very costly both for your company and your welders.
5-7
5.5
Noise
Exposure to loud noise can permanently damage hearing, cause stress and
increase blood pressure. Working in a noisy environment for long periods can
contribute to tiredness, nervousness and irritability. If the noise exposure is
greater than 85 decibels averaged over an 8 hour period then hearing
protection must be worn and annual hearing tests carried out. The employer
has the responsibility of ensuring that workers wear the protection.
If noise levels are between 80 and 85dB averaged over 8 hours, hearing
protection must be available.
Normal welding operations are not associated with excessive noise level
problems with two exceptions: plasma arc welding and air carbon arc cutting. If
either of these two operations is to be performed then hearing protectors must
be worn. The noise associated with welding is usually due to ancillary
operations such as chipping, grinding and hammering. Hearing protection must
be worn when carrying out, or when working in the vicinity of, these operations.
5.6
5.7
5-8
Mechanical hazards
The environment in which a welder works has a number of hazards not specific
to the welding process itself. Manual handling of heavy awkward metal
components is often required. Thinner, lighter metal sheet may have sharp
edges. Slips, trips and falls may be more likely as welding often requires thick
cables to be spread across the floor. Standard workshop safety and protection
practice should be used to counter these problems. Welders need training in
materials handling, both manual and with mechanical lifting assistance;
protective gloves, helmets, overalls and boots must be worn; cabling on the
floor should be minimised and clearly signed or marked as a trip hazard.
There are hazards that are a direct result of the joining process itself. During
welding, sparks and molten metal can be ejected. These are most common in
arc welding but can also occur in resistance processes. In mechanised
processes, guards should be used to contain the flying particles. This is not
possible in manual welding so personal protective equipment (PPE) must be
worn by the operator. All clothing should be fire resistant and use of leather
aprons, jackets, chaps, etc is recommended.
5-9
Grinding is commonly used in preparing metal for welding and during cleaning
and rectification of deposited metal. Wheel and angle grinders are favoured
tools for their speed of removal of material but create a hazard, not only for the
operator but for adjacent and passing personnel, as the ejected material may
be thrown some distance. Obviously the operator needs adequate protection
with clothing, gloves, full-face shields and sometimes a dust mask but the
whole area also needs screening with curtains to protect others.
One of the more serious dangers is from the persistent use of vibrating hand
tools: grinders, scaling hammers, pneumatic burrs, etc which can lead to longterm illness hand-arm vibration syndrome, also known as white finger or dead
hand. Studies of the incidence of the condition have shown that action to
prevent physical damage may be required when the operator has as little as 30
minutes per day use of a chipping hammer.
5-10
Section 6
Gas Welding
Gas Welding
6.1
Oxy-acetylene welding
This is the most common gas welding process. When mixed together in correct
proportions oxygen and acetylene create a flame with a temperature of about
3,200C. Added to this, the chemical action of the oxy-acetylene flame can be
adjusted by changing the ratio of the volume of oxygen to acetylene.
Three distinct flame settings are used, neutral, oxidising and carburising (also
called reducing). Welding generally uses the neutral flame setting with
approximately equal parts of oxygen and acetylene. The oxidising flame is
obtained by increasing the oxygen flow rate while the carburising flame is
achieved by increasing acetylene flow rate.
Neutral flame
The neutral flame has three combustion zones. The innermost at the end of the
nozzle is the cone and has a distinct contoured nucleus with a slightly rounded
shape and glows white. This is surrounded by an almost colourless tongue and
an outer zone which has a slightly blue coloration.
Overall, the flame is mainly colourless and is characterised by a fizzling sound.
Neutral flames are used for welding carbon, alloy and stainless steels and
nonferrous alloys, for brazing steels and for preheating.
Oxidising flame
6-1
The oxidising flame is only used where there is a positive benefit to creating
oxide during welding. It is mostly limited to welding zinc-containing alloys.
Carburising (reducing) flame
Equipment
Oxy-acetylene equipment is portable, easy to use and comprises oxygen and
acetylene gases stored in steel cylinders. The cylinders are fitted with regulators
and flexible hoses which lead to the blowpipe. The oxygen is stored under
pressure (up to 300bar) in a cylinder usually painted black and has a standard
right-handed thread to the regulator and hose fittings. Acetylene cannot be
stored under pressure as it is liable to explode so it is dissolved in acetone held
in a porous clay/fibre/charcoal mixture within a steel cylinder usually painted
maroon. It is fitted with left-handed threads to avoid any possibility of incorrect
assembly. The cylinders must be held in specially designed stands or carriers to
keep them upright and stable during use and storage.
Pressure reducing regulators are fitted to both the oxygen and acetylene
cylinders so that the pressure and flow of the gases can be regulated to the
torch. The torch itself has a flow valve for each gas so that the operator has
control over flame size and composition readily to hand.
6-2
Safety devices called flashback arrestors are fitted between the hoses and the
cylinder regulators on both the oxygen and acetylene lines and are flame traps
designed to prevent flames generated by a flashback from reaching the
cylinders. Flashbacks can occur if the gas flow is insufficient to prevent the
flame burning back into the torch, if the hoses have not been purged before
ignition or if the blowpipe nozzle is overheated. Non-return valves are also
fitted in the hose run to avoid any possibility of back flow due to a blocked
nozzle or other flow restriction.
A range of nozzles is available for the welding torch allowing choice of flame
size suited to the material thickness to be welded as described below.
When welding the operator must wear protective, flameproof clothing and
coloured goggles. As the flame is less intense than an arc and very little ultraviolet light is emitted, general purpose tinted goggles provide sufficient
protection.
Operating characteristics
The oxy-acetylene flame can produce a soft or harsh action on the surface of
the material to be welded by varying the gas flow, but there are practical limits
to the type of flame that can be used for welding. A harsh forceful flame will
cause the molten weld pool to be blown away; too soft a flame will not be
stable near the point of application. The blowpipe is therefore designed to
accommodate different sizes of swan neck copper nozzle which allows the
correct intensity of flame to be used.
When carrying out fusion welding the addition of filler metal in the form of a rod
can be made when required. The techniques used in oxy-acetylene welding are
described by the direction of travel of a right-handed operator - leftward,
rightward and all-positional rightward.
Leftward welding is most commonly used and is ideally suited for butt, fillet and
lap joints in sheet thicknesses up to approximately 5mm. The rightward
technique finds application on plate thicknesses above 5mm for welding in the
flat and horizontal-vertical position. The all-positional rightward method is a
modification of the rightward technique suited to welding steel plate and
pipework where positional welding, (vertical and overhead) has to be carried
out. The rightward and all-positional rightward techniques enable the welder to
obtain a uniform penetration bead with added control over the molten weld pool
and weld metal. Moreover, the welder has a clear view of the weld pool and can
work in complete freedom of movement. These techniques are very highly
skilled and are less frequently used than the conventional leftward technique.
Equipment safety checks
Before commencing welding it is essential to inspect the condition and operation
of all equipment. As well as normal equipment and workplace safety checks,
there are specific procedures for oxy-acetylene. Operators should verify that:
Flashback arrestors and non-return valves are present in each gas line.
Hoses are the correct colour, blue for oxygen and red for acetylene, have no
sign of wear and should be as short as possible and not taped together.
Regulators are the correct type for the gas.
A cylinder key is in each cylinder (unless the cylinder has an adjusting
screw).
6-3
The latter two safety checks are necessary because of explosion risk. A
competent inspector should check all oxy-acetylene equipment at least annually
and regulators should be taken out of service after five years. Flashback
arrestors should be checked regularly according to the manufacturer's
instructions and, with specific designs, it may be necessary to replace the
arrestor if a flashback has occurred.
For more detailed information the following legislation and codes of practice
should be consulted:
6-4
State the advantages of the rightward technique over the leftward technique.
Describe the safety checks you would use when setting up a gas welding operation.
Include the reasons why they are required.
6-5
Section 7
Electricity as Applicable to Welding
7.1
Introduction
Electricity occurs naturally in a wide range of phenomena: lightning, the sting of
an electric eel, even the workings of your brain, yet it was only in the late 19th
century that scientists began to understand its nature and how to use it.
Some materials, eg metals, graphite, salt water, allow the passage of electricity
(ie are conductors) and many, eg wood, rock, rubber, do not and are
considered to be insulators. Although all materials are made of atoms, the
difference between conductors and insulators lies in the strength of binding of
the orbiting electrons in the atom.
7.2
7.3
Electricity generation
Magnetism is also a naturally occurring phenomenon and we are familiar with
the North and South Pole concept with opposites attracting and likes repelling.
There is a link between magnetism and electricity as a magnet will provide the
positive/negative differential required for electron movement in a conductor.
The North-seeking pole is positive and will attract electrons and this is used in
the dynamo principle, which was the first practical generation of electricity.
7-1
If a metal wire, or any conductor, is moved through the magnetic field created
between the two poles of a magnet, the electrons will move within the wire to
try to head towards the positive pole. By winding many loops of wire and
mounting the assembly on an axle, a significant amount of electron movement
can be achieved. As the assembly swings through 180 and approaches the
other pole of the magnet, the electron flow will be reversed. By connecting the
loops of wire to individual strips of metal and contacting these only as they pass
one or other of the magnet poles, we can capture electron flow as positive on
one side and negative on the other, thus we have electrical current available at
the contacts.
The modern dynamo has many loops of wire, augmented by a soft iron core,
with each loop connected to a copper strip further along the axle. Carbon
brushes are held against the revolving copper strips, the commutator and leads
attached to the brushes deliver a direct current.
Electricity is no longer generated commercially with dynamos due to the
difficulty of maintaining brushes and commutators on very large machines, but
the principle of inducing a current in a moving conductor is still used in
generators.
7.4
7-2
Different materials allow the passage of current to differing degrees. The wiring
in your house between sockets is pure copper around 2mm in diameter. All of
your appliances washing machine, refrigerator, television run from this and
you give no thought to the passage around your ring main. However, you may
have an electric fire with a wire winding not very different in diameter and this
will heat up and glow red, not what youd want to be happening to your ring
main! But the nickel-chromium alloy of the fire element passes current much
less easily than copper and this causes it to heat whilst the copper does not.
This reluctance to pass current is termed resistance, R and is measured in
Ohms, . The greater the driving force (EMF), the more current passed
through the resisting material. This is Ohms Law, which may be expressed:
V=ixR
or:
V=Ax
In electrical circuitry, resistance is often required to protect components and
small devices are supplied with known resistance. These are called resistors
and are illustrated in circuit diagrams by a rectangular box. American and some
older UK publications may show a resistor as a zig-zag line:
Preferred symbol (BS EN 81714-2):
The heating effect in the electric fire is important in welding as it plays a part in
raising the temperature of a current-carrying consumable wire towards melting.
By experiment and measurement of the effect of changing variables, we can
show that this heating is proportional to the resistance of the wire and to the
square of the current it carries, often known as the i2R effect.
7.5
7-3
The number of times this happens in one second is called the frequency and
this is measured in Hertz, Hz. One change of direction per second is 1Hz; 50
per second is 50Hz. The National Grids of European countries operate at 50Hz,
but the US has a 60Hz supply.
To pass large amounts of electricity along the distribution wires of a Grid, a high
voltage (driving force) is required, usually around 400,000V. But to offer very
high voltage supply to households would be dangerous. The capacity for work is
a product of both voltage and current so drawing a very small current from
such a high voltage supply would still amount to high energy. The voltage must
therefore be changed to a lower value before the supply is connected to a
consumer.
7.6
Transforming electricity
We can change voltage using a transformer, a device that uses corollaries to
the principle of the dynamo, viz: if a wire moving through a magnetic field
creates electricity, the converse is also true, that a magnetic field moving past a
wire will create electricity. Furthermore, moving electricity through a wire will
create magnetism.
So, if a soft iron (a good magnetic medium) in the shape of a square has a
winding of wire on one side through which current is flowing, this will induce
magnetism, termed magnetic flux, flowing around the iron square. Thus, if a
second winding of wire is made on the opposite side of the iron square, the flow
of magnetism will induce electricity in this wire even though it is not electrically
connected to the first.
7-4
The voltage generated in the second coil of wire depends on the input voltage
and the ratio of turns in each of the coils. Thus if V1 and n1 are the voltage and
number of turns of the input coil and V2 and n2 are for the output coil:
V1 n1
V2 n2
or
n
V2 2 x V1
n1
To reduce the voltage from the high level of the grid to a lower level requires a
high number of turns on the input side and low number on the output:
Energy must be conserved in any system so, if we ignore losses through heat,
any reduction in voltage must be accompanied by an increase in current. This
may be expressed:
V1 A 2
V2 A 1
So if an input of 1000V and 2A has 100 turns on the input coil and there are 10
turns on the output coil, the output would be 100V and 20A.
This simple device can transform both DC and AC supplies. Transformers are
sited in the electricity supplier buildings in residential neighbourhoods with
warning signs about danger of electrocution and in rural areas they may be
mounted on telegraph poles. A large factory will almost certainly have a high
voltage supply to its vicinity and a local transformer to supply its power needs.
Welding requires relatively low voltage arc welding may run with only 20-30V
maintaining the arc - but needs high current, maybe 100-300A, to give the
power to melt metal. Transformers within the power source itself generate this
from the input voltage and current. Input from domestic supply (240V and
typically 15A from sockets) will limit welding possibilities. Transformation of
domestic mains supply to the 80V typically used for arc starting gives only 45A
maximum current.
Industrial supply is typically 415V with either 63 or 125A maximum, which can
supply around 320A and up to 650A respectively, hence most welding
workshops and power sources run on this supply.
7.7
Rectification
AC power may be used in some welding processes, but most require DC. To
generate DC from the AC supply requires filtering off, rectification, of one half
cycle, eg the negative part, leaving all current in the one direction. The simplest
form of rectification uses diodes, devices that transmit current in only one
direction. The semi-conductor, silicon, is especially useful as sandwiches can be
built that have this property of one-way transmission (see transistors below).
Rectifiers are sometimes referred to as silicon diode rectifiers.
7-5
This shows the direction of permitted current flow left to right, from the base
of the triangle and the blocked path right to left, encountering the straight
line.
Passing a simple single-phase supply (upper graph below) through a diode will
cut out the negative part of the cycle leaving the half wave in the positive
direction (middle graph below). This is half-wave rectification and is a rather
inefficient method of creating DC as it uses only half the energy of the input.
It is possible to capture both halves of the cycle as positive output by a process
called full-wave rectification and the input and output curves take the shape
shown on the lower graph below.
7-6
The frequency of the pulses is now twice that of the input so, if 50Hz mains is
input, full-wave rectification gives a pulsating DC at 100Hz. Three-phase
rectification achieves smoother output as the cycles overlap in time, but there is
still a pronounced ripple effect, as shown in the following image on next page.
7-7
7-8
7.8
In parallel, the current has multiple paths to use to travel from one side of the
resistor array to the other, so the overall resistance of the circuit is lower than
any individual resistor, according to the formula:
7.9
Inductance
Another feature of the interaction of electricity and magnetism is inductance.
Current passing through a wire generates a magnetic field and the amount of
magnetic flux is proportional to the current so, if the current is changing, it
follows that the magnetic field intensity will also vary.
Faraday found and defined in his Law that changing the field of magnetic flux
induces an EMF in the wire which opposes the increase in current. Known as
inductance, it is particularly useful in welding as there are instances where a
very rapid rise in current can cause instability so adding inductance to the
circuit can control this tendency to instability.
Although inductance is generated in a straight wire, purpose-built inductors are
usually wound as coils to maximise the magnetic effect. An inductor may have a
ferromagnetic core that amplifies the effect and some of these cores may be
moved to vary the inductive effect.
7-9
or
7.10
7.11
Inverters
Inverters are fast becoming the power source of choice for welding and it is not
difficult to see why, this MMA one is very small.
7-10
Conventional power sources are large and heavy because of the size of the
transformer required to convert 415V 63 or 125A mains to an output suitable
for welding. High current requires thick wires and large iron cores to avoid
overheating. An inverter creates very high frequency AC (maybe 100kHz) and
the transformer is much smaller than the conventional one.
7-11
What is half wave rectification and how can full-wave rectification be achieved?
7-12
Section 8
Power Sources
Power Sources
8.1
8-1
This may be by tapping the reactor at various points, giving differing numbers
of turns of wire so different levels of inductance or by moving an iron core
allowing a variable amount of leakage of the inductance. There is another
method whereby a small DC current controls the amount of magnetism in an
iron core which in turn determines the amount of inductance. This is a saturable
reactor which gives fine control but is more expensive and usually only used for
TIG machines. AC transformer welding sets.
8-2
8.2
8.2.1
Drooping characteristic
For manual processes such as TIG and MMA welding, the arc length is
dependent on how consistently the welder can hold the torch above the
workpiece. Arc length is directly proportional to arc voltage, so a longer arc has
a higher voltage and if the arc is shortened the voltage will decrease. Variation
of arc length by 3 or 4mm can easily vary the voltage by 5V. This would vary
the current between 300 and 375A in our theoretical machine.
Such variation would result in significant changes in weld pool size and
penetration and would make the process very difficult to control.
8-3
By design, the TIG or MMA power source has a limited range of current and a
reduced variation on changing voltage. Plotted as voltage against current this
appears as:
8-4
The MIG power source has an operating characteristic that produces only small
changes in potential (a few volts) as a result of bigger (at least one order of
magnitude) changes in current.
Any small increase in arc length and thus voltage results in a large reduction in
current and burn-off rate. Thus feed speed is momentarily in excess of the
burn-off so the wire advances from the end of the contact tip, reducing the arc
length, lowering the voltage and increasing the current, until the feed speed
and burn-off are in balance and equilibrium is restored.
The opposite is also true if the torch moves towards the workpiece. The voltage
drops causing a large increase in current and burn-off rate. This exceeds the
feed speed so the wire burns back, automatically increasing voltage and
dropping current until the equilibrium position of feed speed equalling burn-off
is achieved.
The OCV of a flat characteristic power source is only a few volts above the
operating range. In operation, both MIG and SAW arcs are initiated by
advancing the wire until it makes contact with the base plate, creating a short
circuit giving rapid heating and melting of the wire. As the molten filler drops
away an arc is established. No higher voltage is needed for this to happen.
8-5
8.3
Pulsed power
There are instances where having the ability to switch off full power
momentarily is advantageous. In TIG welding by pulsing between a high and a
low background current, a weld pool with the penetration of full power is
achieved without the overall heat normally associated with it, giving better
control over side and root fusion with less danger of overheating the whole area
leading to over-penetration. Pulsing the power also causes the solidification
front intermittently to advance rapidly then recede which can avoid crystal
growth along the weld line and in certain instances improves resistance to
solidification cracking.
Pulsing may be achieved in a number of ways. The earliest sets operated at
mains frequency and the current was determined by chopping the full-wave
rectified power:
8-6
8.4
8.5
Duty cycle
Section 2 stated that some energy is lost as heat and heat is generated by
passing current through a conductor according to the i2R effect. Pure copper
has a lower resistance than most other conductors but it will still be heated by
the effect. The amount of heat generated and lost partly depends on the design
of the machine and many have in-built fans to give forced air cooling. There are
temperature limits on most electrical components and, in the extreme,
insulation can breakdown causing shorting and even catching fire, so usage of
welding equipment is kept within the heat generation that can be adequately
dealt with by loss to the environment.
8-7
The balance between heating from the passage of power and cooling by loss to
the surroundings is dependent on the power passing through the circuit and the
length of time for which it passes the higher the power, the less time for
critical temperatures to be reached. This presents an issue in rating a power
source. A machine may be capable of delivering 400A but suffer unacceptable
heating levels after only a few minutes so does this have a 400A capability? The
welding equipment manufacturing industry has standardised the rating of
welding machines by use of duty cycle.
The duty cycle is the number of minutes, out of ten, that a machine can be
continuously operated at the power output claimed. The rest of the ten minutes
is for the machine to be cooling under no load. This definition is used both in
USA and European standard BS EN 60974-1. The common ratings are at 35%
(ie 3 minutes running, 6 minutes cooling); 60% (6 minutes on, 4 minutes
off) and 100% (continuous running). A plate must be fixed to the machine
showing its rating for it to comply with BS EN 60974:
8-8
8-9
Section 9
TIG Welding
TIG Welding
9.1
Process characteristics
A number of manufacturers publish very good guides covering theoretical and
practical aspects of TIG welding; one is available on-line from Miller at
http://www.millerwelds.com/resources/TIGhandbook/.
TIG welding is a process where melting is achieved by heating with an arc
struck between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the workpiece. An
inert gas shields the electrode and weld zone to prevent oxidation of the
tungsten electrode and atmospheric contamination of the weld and hot filler
wire (as shown below).
TIG welding.
Tungsten is used because it has a melting point of 3370C, well above any
other common metal. In the US the TIG process is also known as gas tungsten
arc welding (GTAW).
9.2
Arc initiation
There are three ways of striking the arc in TIG welding. Simple sets, eg
hobbyist attachments to MMA equipment, rely on scratch starting, essentially
the same as for MMA: the electrode is stroked on the workpiece and slightly
lifted clear. A short circuit current passes whilst the electrode is touching the
workpiece and as the electrode is lifted the arc is established. This method is
not favoured for intricate or quality work as the tip of the tungsten is liable to
be melted and transferred to the initial weld pool. These defects, whilst not the
most problematic, appear vividly on radiographic inspection films as white spots
(on the negative) as tungsten is very much more opaque to X- or gamma-rays
than the normal engineering metals being welded.
9-1
9-2
Clearly, AC will combine both DCEN and DCEP operation as the current flow
switches direction at each half cycle.
Current
type/polarity
DCEN
AC
DCEP
Weld profile
70% at work
30% at electrode
Deep, narrow
30% at work
70% at electrode
Shallow, wide
Cleaning action
No
Electrode
capacity
Excellent
(3.2mm/400A)
50% at work
50% at electrode
Medium
Yes every half
cycle
Good
(3.2mm/225A)
Heat balance
Yes
Poor
(6.4mm/120A)
9.4.1
Tungsten types
TIG electrodes may be 100% tungsten but more commonly have refractory or
rare earth oxides incorporated. These different types of electrodes are used to
suit different applications:
Pure tungsten (W)
Electrodes have by a green band, are cheaper than oxide-dosed ones but
generally have a shorter life. Used when welding light metals with AC because
of their ability to maintain a clean, balled end, but possess poor arc initiation
and arc stability in AC mode compared with other types.
9-3
Thoriated electrodes
Have a yellow or red band and contain 1 or 2% respectively of thorium oxide
(thoria) to improve arc initiation. Higher current carrying capacity than pure
tungsten electrodes and maintain a sharp tip for longer. Unfortunately thoria is
slightly radioactive (emitting radiation) and the dust generated during tip
grinding should not be inhaled. Electrode grinding machines used for thoriated
tungsten grinding should be fitted with a dust extraction system.
Ceriated electrodes
Have a grey band in Europe but an orange one in the US, contain nominally 2%
cerium oxide and have excellent arc starting on DC even at low current, often
the choice for mechanised orbital TIG welding of thin pipework and other
delicate operations.
Lanthanated electrodes
Have a black band, 1% lanthanum oxide, perform similarly to thoriated
electrodes and since lanthanum is not radioactive, are often used as direct
replacements for thoriated electrodes.
Zirconiated electrodes
Have a white band in Europe and a brown one in the US, are alloyed with 1%
zirconium oxide. Operating characteristics of these electrodes fall between the
thoriated types and pure tungsten. However, since they are able to retain a
balled end during welding, they are recommended for AC welding. Also, they
have a high resistance to contamination and so are used for high integrity welds
where tungsten inclusions must be avoided.
Tungsten electrode manufacturers offer recommended current ranges for the
various diameters available. A rough guide for thoriated, ceriated or
lanthanated electrodes on DCEN is:
Current range, A
50-150
130-250
240- 400
9.4.2
Electrode dia, mm
1.6
2.4
3.2
9-4
Electrode tip
vertex angle
Electrode tip
with flat end
9.4.3
9-5
Do not:
9.4.4
Electrode
extension
Stickout
9.5
Shielding gas
In TIG welding it is important to avoid oxidation of the tungsten electrode as
well as the weld pool. Gases are therefore usually inert, with argon, helium or
mixtures of the two being the most widely used. Nitrogen can be used when
welding copper, but is too reactive on most engineering alloys. For austenitic
stainless steels, nickel alloys and cupro-nickels, argon with up to 5% hydrogen
may be used to improve penetration.
Argon is denser than air, whereas helium is very much less dense which means
a higher flow rate of helium is needed to give good shielding except when
welding in the overhead position.
9.5.1
Flow rate
Whatever the gas, it is important that sufficient flow is used to give adequate
shielding to the pool and adjacent hot metal. A flow meter, such as a floating
ball type should be used after the pressure regulator but the flow should also be
checked at the torch. Simple floating ball gauges are available which can be
pressed to the upturned gas nozzle to read the flow at the torch. This can be
used in conjunction with a flow meter at the cylinder to ensure that there are
no significant leaks in the hose system.
9-6
The actual flow required depends on the welding configuration and position,
current, polarity and gas composition. Too low and the shielding gas cannot
remove the air from the weld area and this may result in porosity and
contamination - excessive tarnishing of the weld bead, disturbance of the arc or
oxidation of the tungsten are indicators that the flow is too low.
If the gas flow rate is too high turbulence occurs at the base of the shielding
gas column, air tends to be sucked in from the surrounding atmosphere and
this may also lead to porosity and contamination. This is usually rather difficult
to achieve but welding outside corners do present difficulties and it is
recommended that lower flow rates are used for these joints.
Shielding gas flow rates are typically in the range ~10 to ~12 l/min
9.5.2
9.6
Filler wires
For many applications, it is possible to use the TIG process without filler,
autogenous welding. Some applications, such as the mechanised welding of
Calrod for electrical heating elements, achieve high speed by using multiple inline welding heads. For most applications, however, the parent plate
composition does not produce satisfactory autogenous welds. Many
compositions are crack sensitive when melted and refrozen, some like
aluminium alloys, absorb hydrogen when liquid and expel it as porosity on
freezing and many require additional deoxidation from elements like titanium
that has been added to filler wire composition to give defect-free welds.
9-7
9-8
9.6.1
Solidification cracking
Some compositions are sensitive to solidification cracking. In ferritic and
stainless steels and nickel alloys, it is usually impurities such as sulphur and
phosphorus that cause the problem so filler wires are designed with manganese
additions as this reacts with the impurities and forms higher melting compounds
less likely to give solidification cracking. Stainless steels need the presence of a
small percentage (~5%) of ferrite in the austenitic matrix to avoid solidification
cracking, provided by careful selection of the filler composition. The amount of
dilution and composition of the parent plate have to be taken into account and
then the filler composition balanced to give the required ferrite level.
Fortunately diagrams exist, after Schaeffler and De Long that assist in this
estimation of composition.
Aluminium alloys may be sensitive merely from the percentage of alloying
element present and do not require the presence of impurities to create
conditions for cracking. Fillers are therefore chosen for their ability to withstand
freezing without cracking, eg the eutectic composition Al 12%Si is often used,
but care must be exercised to ensure that dilution will not introduce
incompatible elements such as Mg together with Si.
If weld metal compositions are sensitive to solidification cracking, they are likely
to show it when there is insufficient liquid to back-fill incipient cracks and when
the strain from shrinkage during cooling is high. These conditions apply in the
final crater as the arc is extinguished and a particular type of cracking, crater
cracking, is a common form of solidification cracking. As the final crater
solidifies, a star-shaped crack may be formed in its centre. Modern power
sources have a current slope-out device so that at the end of a weld when the
welder switches off the current it reduces gradually and the weld pool gets
smaller and shallower, resulting in the final crater being sufficiently small that
cracking does not occur.
9.7
Does not give weld spatter which makes it particularly suitable for
applications that require a high degree of cleanliness (eg pipework for the
food and drinks industry, semi-conductors manufacturing, etc).
A good welder can avoid inclusions and achieve fusion easily producing
superior quality welds.
Enables welding variables to be accurately controlled and is particularly
good for controlling weld root penetration in all positions of welding.
Can be used with filler metal so can weld almost all weldable metals,
including dissimilar joints and is especially useful in welding reactive metals
with stable oxides such as aluminium, magnesium, titanium and zirconium.
The heat source and filler metal additions are controlled independently so is
very good for joining thin materials.
On thin sections without filler, it can produce welds at relatively high speed.
Very low levels of diffusible hydrogen so there is less danger of cold cracking
in ferritic steels.
9-9
9.8
Gives low deposition rates compared with other arc welding processes.
Need for higher dexterity and welder co-ordination than with MIG/MAG or
MMA welding.
Less economical than MMA or MIG/MAG for sections thicker than ~10mm.
Difficult to shield the weld zone fully in draughty conditions so may not be
suitable for site/field welding.
Tungsten inclusions can occur if the electrode contacts the weld pool.
Does not have any cleaning action so has low tolerance of contaminants on
filler or parent metals.
9-10
What problems exist to the use of thoriated tungsten? What alternatives might you
use?
9-11
Section 10
MIG MAG Welding
10
MIG/MAG Welding
10.1
Process characteristics
The MIG/MAG welding process is versatile and suitable for thin sheet and thick
section components in most metallic materials. An arc is struck between the
end of a wire electrode and the workpiece, melting both to form a weld pool.
The wire serves as both the source of heat (via the arc at the wire tip) and filler
metal for the joint and is fed through a copper contact tube (also called a
contact tip) which conducts welding current into the wire. The weld pool is
protected from the surrounding atmosphere by a shielding gas fed through a
nozzle surrounding the wire. Shielding gas selection depends on the material
being welded and the application. The wire is fed from a reel by a motor drive
and the welder or machine moves the welding torch along the joint line. Wires
may be solid, (simple drawn wires of appropriate composition) or cored,
(composites formed from a metal sheath with a powdered flux or metal filling).
Consumables are generally competitively priced compared with those for other
processes and the process offers high duty cycle and therefore productivity,
because the wire is continuously fed. It is known in the USA as gas metal arc
welding (GMAW). The process is shown below.
10-1
The feed unit for the wire may be separate or incorporated into the body of the
welding set.
The wire is pulled from the reel or drum and pushed through a liner along the
cable assembly connecting the feed unit to the welding torch by a set of driven
rolls. For solid wires, there is usually one grooved roll and a second flat roll on
top. Cored wires, having less stiffness than solid wires, may require two
grooved or even grooved and knurled rolls. There are also four roll systems and
for fine soft wires, such as 0.8mm aluminium, a secondary drive motor may be
mounted on the torch. This is termed a push-pull system.
The umbilical connection from the welding set to the torch carries three main
supplies - the wire in a liner, shielding gas in a separate hose and a welding
power lead. In the torch, the liner abuts a copper contact tip that is screwed
into a gas diffuser. The contact tip receives welding power when a latching
trigger switch is activated, which also operates the wire drive motor. As the
wire passes through the tip it picks up the welding current supply. Shielding gas
passes through the diffuser and into the space inside the welding nozzle from
where it flows over the weld pool, see below.
10-2
Contact tip
Gas diffuser
Torch body
Liner
Gas nozzle
10-3
Disadvantages:
10.2
Transfer modes
Spray transfer
Key characteristics
In argon when the voltage is sufficiently high, >25V for a 1mm diameter wire
and the wire feed speed is adjusted to give more than 250A, the welding arc
burns continuously, metal melts from the wire and passes across the arc in a
series of small droplets, called spray transfer. The droplet size is typically
around 0.5-1 times the wire diameter and the arc burns in a stable manner
while metal transfer, becomes almost continuous.
10-4
The wire is the anode of the electrical circuit and electron impingement heats
the wire rapidly to melting. As the current is raised, the anode spot increases in
size, reaches the same diameter as the wire and starts to climb up its outside.
The higher the current, the larger the cylinder of wire defining the anode spot.
This leads to tapering of the wire tip as the melting occurs beneath the
cylindrical area of anode spot so the effective wire diameter is much reduced as
current is increased and the droplets formed are correspondingly smaller.
Electromagnetic forces induced by the high current density pinch the molten
droplets and project them across the arc.
2% oxygen is sometimes added to the argon shielding gas for spray transfer.
This diatomic gas dissociates then recombines at the anode creating more heat
and giving arc stability at lower currents. 5% CO2 also has a similar effect but if
CO2 greater than 20% CO2 is used spray conditions cannot be established.
Spray transfer gives a large weld pool that does not lend itself to positional
welding or large runs with poor toughness if not properly controlled. For this
reason, some company specifications will not allow the use of solid wire MAG for
critical applications. The process is considered applicable for PA and PB
positions.
Globular transfer
Key characteristics
When helium, CO2, or argon mixtures of these gases (CO2 levels higher than
20%) are used as shielding gases, spray transfer does not occur. The anode
spot does not grow so remains a small area on the wire end. Melting of the wire
commences but, with the small anode spot remaining beneath the droplet,
there is no direct impingement of electrons on the outside of the wire. The
droplet therefore grows by conduction until its size dictates that it detaches and
drops to the weld pool primarily under the action of gravity.
10-5
The severe disturbance to the arc during this process and fall of a large globule
into the weld pool causes very considerable spatter. Techniques have evolved
using lower voltage settings (<20V) and pushing the arc into the weld pool. The
arc force depresses the pool so that the arc is burning in a hollow (buried arc
technique), cutting down the amount of spatter emitted and also minimising the
UV radiation. It is cited, mostly in American literature as a means of achieving
high deposition with CO2 shielded MAG but is not widely used in Europe.
Globular transfer is not suitable for positional welding and is typically used on
larger diameter wires and high currents.
Dip transfer
Key characteristics:
With voltage of 16-24V, shielding gas with less than 80% argon and current
below 200A, the wire feed can be set so that the end of the wire touches the
weld pool and short-circuits the system, dip transfer. These short-circuits can
take place 20-200 times per second.
During the short, the wire heats rapidly and fuses so that molten metal is
transferred to the pool after which the arc is re-established. This re-ignition is
accompanied by spatter but adjusting the inductance of the system can give a
degree of control over this.
Inductance
When MIG/MAG welding in the dip transfer mode, the welding electrode touches
the weld pool, causing a short-circuit. During the short-circuit, the arc voltage is
nearly zero. If the constant voltage power supply responded instantly, very high
current would immediately begin to flow through the welding circuit. The rapid
rise in current to a high value would melt the short-circuited electrode free with
explosive force, dispelling the weld metal and causing considerable spatter.
Inductance is the property in an electrical circuit that slows down the rate of
current rise. Current travelling through an inductance coil creates a magnetic
field. This magnetic field generates a current in the welding circuit that is in
opposition to the welding current. Increasing the inductance will also increase
the arc time and decrease the frequency of short-circuiting.
10-6
For each electrode feed rate, there is an optimum value of inductance. Too little
results in excessive spatter, too much and the current will not rise fast enough
and the molten tip of the electrode is not heated sufficiently causing the
electrode to stub into the base metal. Modern electronic power sources
automatically set the inductance to give a smooth arc and metal transfer.
Pulsed transfer
Key characteristics:
10-7
A typical pulse waveform and the main pulse welding variables are shown in
Figure 13.2. A low background current (typically 20-80A) is supplied to
maintain the arc, keep the wire tip molten, give stable anode and cathode roots
and maintain average current during the cycle. Droplet detachment occurs
during a high current pulse at current levels above the transition current level.
The pulse of current generates very high electromagnetic forces, which cause a
strong pinch effect on the metal filament supporting the droplet; the droplet is
detached and is projected across the arc gap. Pulse current and current density
must be sufficiently high to ensure that spray transfer (not globular) always
occurs so that positional welding can be used.
Pulse transfer uses pulses of current to fire a single globule of metal across the
arc gap at a frequency of 50-300 pulses. Pulse transfer is a development of
spray transfer that gives positional welding capability for steels, combined with
controlled heat input, good fusion and high productivity. It may be used for all
sheet steel thickness >1mm, but is mainly used for positional welding of steels
>6mm.
Synergic
A normal MIG/MAG set requires a welder to set the wire feed speed (which
dictates the current) and select an appropriate voltage to suit. The two
variables are dependent on the wire diameter and gas used. This requires the
welder/operator to have knowledge on the relationship between current and
voltage.
A synergic (non-pulse) set has a one knob dial that defines the wire feed
speed. The microprocessor within the equipment will select the optimum
voltage from a look up table (a synergic curve) to match the given current. The
synergic curve has been developed to give the best possible settings for a
particular current/wire feed speed. Now the welder is not responsible to select
the right voltage. A trim button can be used, which allows the user to decrease
or increase the voltage by a small percentage. The trim action allows the welder
to make small correction in voltage to suit the variables at the work piece.
Pulse Synergic equipment will make adjustments to the pulse parameters ie
pulse height, width, frequency and background current based on the wire feed
speed.
10-8
10.3
Welding parameters
The primary variables in MIG/MAG welding are:
Welding current/wire feed speed.
Voltage.
Gases.
Travel speed and electrode orientation.
Inductance.
Contact tip to work distance.
Nozzle to work distance.
Shielding gas nozzle.
Type of metal transfer.
10-9
Material
Shielding gas
Ar 10%CO2
C-steel
Ar +2%O2
Stainless
steel
Ar +2%O2
Wire
mm
0.8
0.9
1.2
1.6
0.9
1.2
1.6
0.8
0.9
1.2
1.6
dia,
Transition
current, A
155-165
175-185
215-225
280-290
130-140
205-215
265-275
120-130
140-150
185-195
250-260
The welder does not directly set the welding current in MIG/MAG welding. His
control is over the wire feed speed and this is proportional to the current. The
relationship is not entirely linear but is sufficiently close that, over the normal
welding range, the chart below gives a good approximation.
1.6
Welding Current
A
1.2
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.9
1.2
1.6
10-10
Once the welder has established a good arc condition for the application, he
then has travel speed and weave to give control over the bead shape and
fusion. If travel speed is too rapid the weld bead will be narrow and convex with
poor fusion at the sides, too slow overheats the material, giving a wide HAZ and
high distortion combined with a flat wide bead.
Travel speed
The faster the travel speed the less penetration, narrower bead width and the
higher risk of undercut
10.4
10-11
Contact tip
Gas nozzle
Contact tip
setback
Electrode
extension
Nozzle-towork
(stand-off)
Arc length
Contact
tip-towork
distance
Workpiece
As the electrode extension is increased, the burn-off rate increases for a given
welding current due to increased resistive heating. Increasing the electrode
extension, eg in mechanised applications, is therefore one method of increasing
deposition rates, as the wire feed speed is increased to maintain the required
welding current.
Resistive (i2R) heating depends on the resistivity of the electrode, length of the
electrode extension and wire diameter. The effect is therefore more pronounced
for welding materials which have high resistivity, such as steels. The electrode
extension should be kept small when small diameter wires are used to prevent
excessive heating in the wire and avoiding the resulting
poor bead shape.
At short CTWDs, radiated heat from the weld pool can cause overheating of the
contact tube and welding torch, leading to spatter adherence and increased
wear of the contact tube.
The electrode extension should be checked when setting-up welding conditions
or fitting a new contact tube. Suggested CTWDs for the principal metal transfer
modes are:
Metal transfer
mode
Dip
Spray
Pulse
CWTD, mm
10-15
20-25
15-20
10-12
The contact tip may be positioned in-line with the nozzle end, protruding
beyond it or recessed inside the torch. This has an effect on gas shielding
efficiency and on visibility and accessibility; so, a compromise is necessary. The
following gives suggested settings for the mode of metal transfer being used.
Metal
transfer
mode
Dip
Spray
Spray (aluminium)
The purpose of the shielding gas nozzle is to produce a laminar gas flow to
protect the weld pool from atmospheric contamination. Nozzle sizes range from
13-22mm diameter. The nozzle diameter should be increased in relation to the
Contact
tip
extension
Contact
tip
recessed
Electrod
e
extensio
Electrod
e
extensio
size of the weld pool, larger diameter nozzles are used for high current, spray
transfer application and smaller diameter nozzles for dip transfer. The flow rate
must also be tuned to the nozzle diameter and shielding gas type to give
sufficient weld pool coverage. Gas nozzles for dip transfer welding tend to be
tapered at the outlet of the nozzle.
Joint access and type should also be considered when selecting the required gas
nozzle and flow rate. Too small a nozzle may cause it to become obstructed by
spatter more quickly and, if the wire bends on leaving the contact tube, the
shielding envelope and arc location may not coincide.
Penetration
Shallow
Excess weld metal
Deep
Moderate
Maximum
Moderate
10-13
10.5
Ar
He
Ar-He
CO2
The addition of some helium to argon gives a more uniform heat concentration
within the arc plasma and this affects the shape of the weld bead profile.
Argon-helium mixtures effectively give a hotter arc and so are beneficial for
welding thicker base materials and those with higher, thermal conductivity, eg
copper or aluminium.
For welding steels, all grades, including stainless steels, a controlled addition of
oxygen or CO2 helps to generate a stable arc and give good droplet wetting.
Because these additions react with the molten metal they are referred to as
active gases hence the name (metal active gas) MAG welding is the technical
term that is used when referring to the welding of steels.
10-14
100%CO2
CO2 is a relatively low cost gas so is an attractive consumable. In practice it is
oxidising and can also transfer carbon to the weld metal so is only applicable to
welding ferritic steels. It cannot sustain spray transfer as the ionisation
potential of the gas is too high so is normally restricted to dip transfer welding.
As noted above, it is possible to use higher current with a globular transfer but
this is not popular.
100% Ar
Argon is inert but as noted above has sufficiently low ionisation energy to
maintain a stable arc. This is, however, relative. MIG welding of non-ferrous
alloys, eg aluminium, copper or nickel alloys, is acceptable under Ar shielding
but the characteristics can be improved by using gas mixtures. Pure Ar
shielding of aluminium benefits from the presence of oxide which helps to give a
strong, deeply penetrating arc. Nickel alloys are notoriously sluggish and,
together with copper alloys benefit from the addition of helium to the shielding
gas.
Ar/He mixtures
Helium is more expensive than argon, making mixtures higher priced. The
advantage of adding He to the shielding is the increased arc stiffness and
greater heat transfer leading to a deeper, more rounded bead cross-section.
Helium addition also increases the operating voltage giving a wider bead.
Although pure He will not support spray transfer, addition of over 20% Ar
produces stable spray conditions. The mixtures are fully inert so can be used on
reactive metals such as titanium. Mixtures containing 70%Ar and 30%He are
often selected for welding non-ferrous alloys but up to 75%He with 25%Ar is
recommended for welding heavy sections as the high helium content gives
much greater depth of penetration.
Ar + 5 to 20%CO2
An Ar/CO2 mixture is a common shielding gas for spray transfer welding of
ferritic steels. Oxygen may be present at around 2%. The percentage of CO2
depends on the type of steel being welded and the mode of metal transfer
required. Ar + 5%CO2 is better for spray but 18-20%CO2 offers the prospect of
operating both in spray and dip conditions. The welding arc and pool gain the
benefit of both gases, ie good penetration with a stable arc and very little
spatter in spray. In dip transfer with mixed gas the spatter is much reduced
compared with 100%CO2. Industrial gas suppliers offer a range of gas mixtures
that they claim are designed for particular steels and thickness ranges, but all
are essentially argon rich with or without a small amount of oxygen and 525%CO2.
Increased extension
10-15
Ar + 1 to 5% O2
The addition of oxygen acts in a similar way to CO2 in that it helps to give a
strong stable spray arc. Carbon steels are often welded with 5%O2 as this gives
a fluid pool that wets the sidewalls easily. This mixture is significantly oxidising
and only suitable for carbon and C-Mn steels. Stainless steels may be welded
with 1 or 2%O2 mixtures, preferred to CO2 containing mixtures to avoid carbon
pick-up by the stainless steel. The 2% mix gives better wetting but does tend to
produce oxide that appears as a black powder alongside the weld bead.
A summary table of shielding gases and mixtures used for different base
materials is given in below.
10-16
10-17
10.6
Both methods feed well, though personal preference may be the cause of
considerable debate amongst welders on the merits and shortcomings of wire
winding! For heavy wire usage, especially for automated stations, drums of wire
up to 350kg may be used.
To feed wire from these large packs without it twisting on exiting the welding
torch, loading into the drum has to be done with a preset opposite twist.
Smooth feeding is an essential part of MIG/MAG welding, especially mechanised
or automated. Wire appearance is the most obvious differentiator to the welder
but is not a good indicator of feeding characteristics. Solid C-Mn wires are
traditionally copper-coated, variously thought to help feeding, improve current
pick-up, slow contact tip wear and slow rusting of the wire in storage. It is
difficult to prove any of these attributes. Bare wires became available in the
1980s and proved just as able to run on automated equipment.
It seems that the important characteristics when considering feeding are:
10-18
Cast
Most easily demonstrated by pulling a metre of wire from the reel or drum and
tossing it onto the floor. The diameter of the loop formed is the cast. If too
small the wire has a tendency to rub the walls of the liner with some pressure
and can give juddering during feeding.
Helix
The loop used to demonstrate cast also shows helix. If the loop is clipped to be
a single circle and is hung over a horizontal bar, the offset between the ends is
the helix. Excessive helix can give feeding issues, mostly with wear of the
contact tip and wander of the wire tip and therefore arc across the bead.
Lubrication
Welding wires need a thin layer of lubricant to give efficient feeding through the
liner. Fortuitously, drawn wire has a persistent film of oil left from the drawing
process. Some manufacturers deliberately control the lubrication of the final
stages of drawing and winding with a view to improving feeding.
Stiffness
This is more an issue between alloy types. All C-Mn steel wires are likely to be
in a cold-drawn state. Some alloys are very difficult to draw to welding wire
sizes and may be annealed just prior to final drawing. Aluminium alloys, even in
a cold-drawn condition, will not rival steel for stiffness. These are notoriously
difficult to feed through a welding torch and may need a plastic liner and even a
two motor, push-pull feeding system.
10.7
10-19
Check that the liner is the correct type and size for the wire. A size of liner will
generally fit 2 sizes of wire ie 0.6 and 0.8, 1.0 and 1.2, 1.4 and 1.6mm
diameter. Steel liners are used for steel wires and Teflon liners for aluminium
wires.
Contact tip
Check that the contact tip is the correct size for the wire being driven and check
the amount of wear frequently. Any loss of contact between the wire and
contact tip will reduce the efficiency of current pick. Most steel wires are copper
coated to maximise the transfer of current by contact between two copper
surfaces at the contact tip but this also inhibits corrosion. The contact tip should
be replaced regularly.
Connections
The length of the electric arc in MIG/MAG welding is controlled by the voltage
settings, achieved by using a constant voltage volt/amp characteristic inside the
equipment. Any poor connection in the welding circuit will affect the nature and
stability of the electric arc and is thus a major inspection point.
Gas and gas flow rate
The type of gas used is extremely important to MIG/MAG welding, as is the flow
rate from the cylinder, which must be adequate to give good coverage over the
solidifying and molten metal to avoid oxidation and porosity.
Other variable welding parameters
Checks should be made for correct wire feed speed, voltage, speed of travel
and all other essential variables of the process given on the approved welding
procedure.
Safety checks
Checks should be made on the current carrying capacity or duty cycle of
equipment and electrical insulation. Correct extraction systems should be in use
to avoid exposure to ozone and fumes.
A check should always be made to ensure that the welder is qualified to
weld the procedure being employed.
Typical welding imperfections:
10.8
Silica inclusions (on ferritic steels only) caused by poor inter-run cleaning.
Lack of sidewall fusion during dip transfer welding thick section vertically
down.
Porosity caused by loss of gas shield and low tolerance to contaminants.
Burn through from using the incorrect metal transfer mode on sheet metal.
10-20
Silica inclusions.
Lack of fusion (dip transfer).
Surface porosity.
Disadvantages
Lack of fusion (dip transfer)
Small range of consumables
Protection for site working
Complex equipment
High ozone levels
10-21
10-22
The second filling method overcomes this issue as the wire is seamless. A long
coil of seamless tube is mounted on a vibrating pad and powdered flux is
poured into one end whilst the coil is vibrated to encourage the filling to move
through the coil and form a central core with no voids. Once filled, the coil is
drawn to size, but, as there is no seam, die lubrication can be similar to that for
solid wire. These wires can reach very low hydrogen levels. The method
requires very careful control on particle size and shape to avoid segregation
during filling.
Cored wires are available in all the packages used for solid wire - layer or nearlayer wound reels are most common, but loose coils, drums and Marathon Pac
style bulk supplies are all used.
Types of wire
Wires are described by the type of core with the two main categories being gas
and self-shielded. Gas-shielded flux compositions are formulated for weld
composition, arc characteristics, positional welding ability and mechanical
properties. Self-shielded wires have the additional attribute of creating gasshielding in a similar fashion to MMA electrodes. There is a finite space within
the core of a wire and if self-shielding is a feature the possibilities for
compositional and mechanical property control are more limited than for gasshielded wires.
Nonetheless, self-shielded wires may be as diverse as 55%Ni-45%Fe for cast
iron welding and all-positional, high toughness C-Mn-Ni steel for offshore jacket
construction.
Gas-shielded wires are common in three alloy groups ferritic steels for general
and high mechanical property applications, stainless steels and hardfacing
alloys. All may be formulated in one of three fluxing systems:
Rutile
Give good bead shape and wide ranging positional capabilities.
Basic
Excellent positional capability and mechanical properties, but less smooth bead
shape and poorer slag release than rutile types.
Metal cored
Very little fluxing, designed for higher productivity, some having excellent root
run capabilities.
Note: Unlike MMA electrodes, the potential hydrogen levels and mechanical
properties of welds with rutile wires can equal those of the basic types.
10-23
10.10
Process variants
Electrogas
A vertical butt welding process for Carbon steel that resembles electroslag
welding (see Submerged Arc Welding) but uses MIG/MAG welding principles.
It is appropriate for thick plate and completes the joint in a single pass. The
parent plates have no edge preparation, are aligned with a gap of around 2540mm. They are clamped into position resting on a small steel start pad.
Water-cooled copper shoes are clamped either side of the gap to make a
rectangular shaped well at the bottom of the plates. Any small areas with
imperfect fit are packed with ceramic putty to give a receptacle that will hold
molten metal.
Parent
plate
Water-cooled
shoe
Start pad
A modified MIG torch is used to blow inert gas into the well and feed wire to the
bottom of the well where the arc is initiated. As the weld pool grows and fills
the gap between the parent plates, the torch is mechanically slowly withdrawn
allowing the bottom of the pool to solidify and the weld to progress slowly up
the gap. As the molten pool approaches the top of the water-cooled shoes, a
second pair is attached above the originals. Once the weld has solidified above
the top of the first pair, they are removed and placed above the working set.
Electrogas welding is an efficient method of making large vertical welds in thick
plate but the mechanical properties are limited. The weld bead is hot for a very
long time so microstructures are near equilibrium ferrite and pearlite in
hypoeutectoid steels giving little flexibility to optimise toughness etc.
Tandem wire
A method of increasing deposition by using two wires, each with its own power
supply, running into a single weld pool. Some manufacturers offer a special
torch with two electrically isolated contact tips within a single gas nozzle. The
arrangement seeks to provide faster travel speed and therefore improved
productivity.
10-24
The wires are arranged one behind the other creating a very elongated weld
pool. As there are separate controls, it is possible to run both arcs in the spray
condition, one spray and one pulsed, or both in pulsed mode. In pulsed mode
the two wires are alternately pulsed to avoid magnetic interaction between the
two arcs. The twin spray technique may be used for welding thick material
requiring deep penetration. The twin pulsed condition allows very high speed
welding of sheet material.
Due to the two arcs operating simultaneously the level of UV radiation emitted
is very high, combined with being heavy and difficult to manoeuvre and the
process requiring high travel speeds means that it is almost exclusively used as
a mechanised process.
Controlled short circuit transfer
With modern power sources it is possible to detect small changes to condition
instantly and apply a correction to the current waveform. Several
manufacturers make use of this for low current applications. Examples are
Lincoln Electrics Surface Tension TransferTM (STT) system and the Fronius cold
metal transfer (CMT) system, which also uses a synchronised pulsed wire feed
to aid droplet detachment. This attempts to control dip transfer to achieve
consistent controlled metal transfer without spatter.
A background current produces a molten end to the wire which grows until it
touches the surface of the pool as is normal in dip transfer. Immediately the
short circuit is recognised by the software a high current is applied to create the
pinch effect normally associated with spray transfer. This necks the droplet at
the solid wire interface. This is detected by the system and at this point, near
detachment of the droplet, the current is lowered to below background level so
that the droplet collapses into the pool with no violent recreation of the arc as is
in dip transfer.
The system immediately applies a high peak current to re-establish the arc and
commence wire melting once more. After a short time the current is slowly
decayed back to the background level and the cycle commences once more.
10-25
Explain the options available for shielding gas and how you would choose the right
gas for a particular application.
Why cant you weld vertically with a spray condition? What would you choose
instead?
Explain why there are different transfer modes in MIG/MAG. Give some examples of
when you would choose one over another.
What factors influence the ease of feeding wire? Comment on both equipment and
consumable factors.
Why might you use cored wire consumables for MIG/MAG welding?
10-26
Section 11
Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welding
11
11.1
History
Manual metal arc welding (MMA) had its origins in the last decade of the 19th
century as experimenters tried using metal rods to replace the hand-held
electrode in the recently invented Bernados carbon arc process. Originally the
metal rod was bare, with no flux coating to give a protective gas shield so welds
were poor quality with gross porosity and oxide inclusions. Improvements were
made by dipping the rods into a lime wash but it was not until the early 1900s,
when the Kjellberg process was patented in Sweden that coated electrodes
appeared and almost simultaneously, the Quasi-Arc method was introduced in
the UK.
MMA welding is the most versatile of the welding processes and is suitable for
welding most non-ferrous metals as well as steels, over a wide range of
thicknesses, can be used in all positions, with reasonable ease of use and
relatively economically. The final weld quality is primarily dependent on the skill
of the welder.
The process was for many years the most common but has been overtaken in
the last twenty years by MIG/MAG, especially as power source control and
pulsed power have developed. Some materials, like aluminium, magnesium and
titanium, are rarely welded by MMA now and the usage of stainless steel MMA is
declining in favour of MIG with solid or cored wires.
11.2
Process characteristics
The electrodes are produced in lengths, usually 300-450mm long and the core
wire diameter is typically 2-6mm with a flux covering that might double the
overall diameter. However, variants of the process over the years have used
electrodes well outside these ranges.
When an arc is struck between the coated electrode and workpiece, both melt
to form a weld pool. The temperature of the arc is reported to be a minimum of
6000C, sufficient to melt the parent metal, consumable core wire and flux
coating simultaneously. The flux forms gas and slag which protect the weld pool
from oxygen and nitrogen in the surrounding atmosphere. The molten slag
solidifies and cools and must be chipped off the weld bead once the weld run is
complete (or before the next weld pass is deposited where multi-run welding is
necessary). The process allows only short lengths of weld to be produced before
a new electrode needs to be inserted in the holder.
The presence of the slag changes the simple principles of anode heating and
cathode cooling explained in the section on Arcs and Plasmas. In general, DCEP
results in deeper penetration and DCEN has a higher burn-off for a given
current resulting in better deposition rate.
11-1
Arc
of
electrode
Gaseous shield
Molten weld pool
Parent
metal
Weld metal
The manual metal arc welding process.
A wide range of alloying can be achieved by additions to the flux coating. Many
steel electrodes have the same low C, low Mn steel core wire and flux additions
produce the high toughness, higher Mn weld metal.
For more information on MMA see
http://www.twi.co.uk/content/tec_index.html
11-2
11.3
10
3
8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
In the chapter on power sources it said that MMA requires a constant current
power source so that the unsteadiness of the welders hand has only a limited
effect on the current and thus the fusion characteristics.
11-3
As the process can be used DCEN, DCEP or AC, all types of power source are
used for MMA. Inverter sets are very popular as they give a wide range of
current from lightweight, portable units.
MMA is still used extensively for site work as it can operate successfully from
engine-driven generators.
When used in manufacturing, large transformer or transformer rectifier sets are
used, often running several operators from the same machine.
11.4
Electrode types
As described in Section 1 History, there are many types of electrode coating
and manufacturers are prone to claiming particular attributes for their formulae,
but they can be grouped into types.
11.4.1 Cellulosic
A strong arc action and give deep penetration, AWS E6010 types are DC
operating and E6011 run on AC. The gas shield generated is principally
hydrogen which gives good protection but high diffusible hydrogen in the weld
metal and HAZ.
Cellulosic coatings are only used on carbon and C-Mn steels and are noted for
their ability to weld in the vertically down position known as stovepiping. In
fact E6010 electrodes are often known as stovepipe rods.
11.4.2 Rutile
The coating of rutile electrodes has a high proportion of titanium dioxide.
AWS type E6012 electrodes are DC operating and E6013 run on AC. Early rutile
electrodes for steel were for welding in the flat position. They have fluid slag
that solidifies just after the metal giving a smooth bead surface and easy slag
removal.
E6013 electrodes may be for welding in the flat position, but many followed the
lead of Murex Weldings Vodex (vertical, overhead, downhand plus ex from
Murex) in offering all-positional capability. E6013 electrodes remain the
welders choice for general purpose welding having a smooth arc action and
good slag release.
11.4.3 Rutile high recovery
The addition of significant proportions of iron powder to a rutile coating has
advantages. The recovery is much greater so more weld metal is laid at the
same current. The coating is much thicker so forms a deeper cup in which the
arc burns, this is sufficiently recessed to allow the end of the coating to be
rested on the workpiece without risk of extinguishing the arc, making guiding
the rod easier, even novices can handle this touch welding technique. The
slag is also readily released, sometimes self-releasing behind the welder as he
progresses along the joint.
The downside is that these rods can only be used in the flat position, but for flat
butt or fillet work, these AWS E7024 electrodes are a good choice.
Manufacturers offer rods with 150-180% recovery, though some have tried up
to 240%. Recovery is calculated as:
Recovery %
11-4
11.4.4 Basic
The original coatings applied to electrodes by Kjellberg were basic coatings,
little more than ground limestone and clay bound by silicate, but these
ingredients are still used today.
Electrodes classified as E7015 in the AWS system were the first modern basic
rods, are for DC operation and have generally been superseded by E7016 or
E7018 types that can operate on AC and DC.
The main difference between E7016 and E7018 electrodes is the iron powder
content in the latter. Both give good mechanical properties, especially
toughness and low hydrogen weld metal.
11.5
11.6
Welding parameters
11-5
If the current selected is higher than recommended, the electrode will overheat
and towards the end of the run may begin to glow red.
Weld quality is affected by incorrect current settings:
11.6.2 Voltage
For current to flow through the circuit there needs to be a potential difference
or voltage (V). For MMA welding the voltage required to initiate the arc is called
the open circuit voltage (OCV), which is the voltage measured between the
output terminals of the power source when no current is flowing through the
welding circuit. For safety reasons the OCV should not exceed 100V and is
usually between 50-90V.
Immediately the arc is established a working (arc) voltage of 20-30V is
adopted. Arc voltage is a function of arc length which with MMA is controlled by
the welder. Arc voltage controls weld pool fluidity.
The effects of the wrong arc length and therefore arc voltage can be:
11-6
mm S.1000
Where:
I
V
S
K
=
=
=
=
current in Amps.
voltage in Volts.
travel speed in mm/sec.
thermal efficiency factor.
The thermal efficiency factor is taken as 0.8 for MMA, MIG/MAG and FCAW, 0.6
for TIG and plasma and 1 for submerged arc.
11.6.5 Polarity (type of current)
Polarity affects the distribution of heat differently in MMA than in MIG or TIG,
presumed to be because of the effects of the compounds in the flux. There is
evidence that DCEN can result in higher melting rates in MMA, completely
different from MIG or TIG. The preferred polarity of the MMA system depends
upon the electrode being used and the desired properties of the weld.
Manufacturers have developed coating systems that stabilise the arc in AC,
DCEP or DCEN. Many electrodes work on more than one polarity and some work
successfully on all three.
11.7
11-7
If the butt weld is in the vertical position the welder can work a triangular
weave into the root along one edge of the preparation, out along the other,
then across the face. In this block welding manner fewer runs are needed to fill
a thicker section joint. As the deposition rate of an electrode is controlled by
welding current (amps) the volume of metal deposited over a given time hence
the joint completion time, will be virtually the same regardless of whether a
weave or stringer technique is used. Some reduction in time may be achieved
by weaving as fewer runs means that less time spent in inter run cleaning.
Block welding creates very high heat input with correspondingly poor
mechanical properties and is not recommended for quality work and is often
banned as a technique. Some specifications place a limit on weave width to
avoid overly thick, near block welding.
The usual technique for filling deep and wide grooves is multiple layers - multipass welding requiring full removal of slag from underlying beads. If the lower
bead has been laid with a convex profile, it is possible for slag to be trapped in
the toes which needs removal by grinding and brushing before another layer is
laid otherwise there is a strong possibility of leaving a string of slag inclusions.
Multi-pass welding can result in excellent mechanical properties as each bead
gives an amount of heat treatment to the one below which can give areas of
very fine-grained recrystallised material with high toughness.
11.7.3 Skip welding or back stepping
A technique used to minimise distortion, particularly when welding thin material
with long lengths to be completed. A very short, 30-50mm weld is made then
the welder moves maybe 150mm along the seam and lays another short run.
This continues until the end of the seam is reached. He then returns to the start
and makes further 30-50mm welds in the gaps and repeats the procedure until
the seam is complete.
The disadvantage is that it requires a large number of starts and stops, the
areas most prone to defect formation like porosity or solidification cracking.
11.7.4 Preheat
When welding ferritic steels you have to guard against hydrogen diffusing
through the weldment and inducing cracking, one method is to apply preheat to
slow the cooling rate of the weld bead, giving the hydrogen time to be released.
11.7.5 Interpass
When multi-pass welding it may be necessary to avoid heat build-up as
excessive heating of the weld metal can lower its strength and reduce
toughness, so a maximum interpass may be specified. If preheat is applicable
to the situation, this still applies in a multi-pass weld, there may be a minimum
interpass temperature (equivalent to the original preheat) and a maximum.
11-8
11.9
Baking electrodes
The oven and quiver shown in the photograph of welding equipment are
required for electrodes where moisture is a problem, usually basic electrodes for
use on ferritic steels liable to hydrogen cracking. When aluminium was welded
with MMA, it was necessary to dry such rods but Al alloys are now exclusively
welded by MIG or TIG. Copper alloys are usually no problem but stainless steel
and nickel alloys need dry electrodes to avoid porosity formation.
Cellulosic
Should not be dried as they rely on a hydrogen atmosphere to create the
shielding and should be used directly from the manufacturers packaging. If
electrodes have been left exposed and become soaked they should be
discarded.
11-9
Rutile
Also require an amount of moisture in them to run correctly as dried rutile rods
have a very poor arc action and shielding. If rutile rods become inadvertently
wet they can be returned to condition by holding for an hour at around 80C.
Some texts have suggested 120C but excessive time at such a temperature
can easily over-dry the flux.
Basic
These coatings produce CO and CO2 as the limestone in their formulation
breaks down under heating. These gases generate good shielding and arc force
and do not require hydrogen or moisture. These can be baked totally dry and in
manufacture they may be produced at 450C, so temperatures up to this may
be used to restore them. To keep them in good condition after baking in an
oven, they may be held in a heated quiver beside the welder and used directly
from this.
Vacuum-packed basic
Basic electrodes can now be put into hermetically sealed vacuum packs by
directly after baking by the manufacturer. With help from the formulation, using
silicates with a low tendency to absorb moisture, these electrodes do not need
baking to achieve low hydrogen levels. Manufacturers now offer guarantees
that, at known humidity and temperature, vacuum-packs may be opened at the
start of a shift and the electrodes used throughout that shift without the need
to bake.
11.10
Electrode classification
Many national and international specifications cover MMA electrodes and the
detail in them is too much to be covered here so the student is advised to seek
the relevant specifications directly from the national standards office. TWI
published a series of Job Knowledge articles that make excellent additional
reading to these notes and the article on BS EN and AWS systems
(www.twi.co.uk/content/jk84.html ) is well worth studying.
11-10
Why are inverter power source finding increasing favour for MMA?
What types of MMA consumable are available for all-positional welding and which
gives the lowest weld metal hydrogen level?
11-11
Section 12
Welding Consumables
12
Welding Consumables
Welding consumables are defined as all that is used up during the production of
a weld.
This list could include all things used up in the production of a weld, however,
we normally refer to welding consumables as those items used up by a
particular welding process.
These are:
Wires
Fluxes
Gases
E 8018
Electrodes
SAW
FUSED
Flux
Size.
Type or specification.
Condition.
Storage.
12-1
12.1
Constituent
Titania
Shield gas
Mainly CO2
Basic
Calcium
compounds
Cellulose
Cellulosic
AWS A 5.1
E 6013
Mainly CO2
Uses
General
purpose
High quality
Hydrogen + CO2
E 6010
E 7018
Some basic electrodes may be tipped with a carbon compound, which eases arc
ignition.
12-2
12-3
Mandatory
designation:
Classified for impacts
at 47J + yield strength
Covered electrode
Minimum
yield strength
Charpy V notch
minimum test
temperature C
Chemical composition
Electrode covering
Optional designation:
Weld metal recovery
and current type
Positional designation
Diffusible hydrogen
ml/100g weld metal
12-4
Typical example:
560
B E XX XX XXX X X HX
Mandatory
designation:
Classified for impacts
at 27J + tensile strength
Covered electrode
Minimum
tensile strength
Electrode covering
Chemical composition
Heat treatment
condition
Optional designation:
Optional supplemental
impact test at 47J
at same test
temperature given
for 27J test
Diffusible hydrogen
ml/100g weld metal
Typical example: ISO 2560 B E 55 16 N7 A U H5
Classification of tensile characteristics
Method A
Symbol
Minimum yield a,
Tensile strength,
N/mm2
N/mm2
35
355
440-570
38
380
470-600
42
420
500-640
46
460
530-680
50
500
560-720
a Lower yield Rel shall be used. b Gauge length = 5 x
12-5
Minimum E% b,
N/mm2
22
20
20
20
18
Method B
Symbol
43
49
55
57
Method B
Impact or Charpy V notch testing temperature at 27J temperature in method
B is again determined through the classification of tensile strength, electrode
covering and alloying elements (Table 8B) ie a E 55 16-N7 which must reach
27J at -75C.
Classification of electrode characteristics and electrical requirements varies
between classification methods A and B as follows:
Method A
This method uses an alpha/numerical designation from the tables as
listed below:
Symbol
A
C
R
RR
RC
RA
RB
B
Symbol
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
12-6
Efficiency, %
< 105
<105
>105-<125
>105-<125
>125-<160
>125-<160
>160
>160
Type of current
AC or DC
DC
AC or DC
DC
AC or DC
DC
AC or DC
DC
Method B
This method uses a numerical designation from the table as listed
below
Symbol
03
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
18
19
20
24
27
28
40
Covering type
Rutile/basic
Cellulosic
Cellulosic
Rutile
Rutile
Rutile + Fe powder
Basic
Basic
Basic + Fe powder
Rutile + Fe oxide
(Ilmenite)
Fe oxide
Rutile + Fe powder
Fe oxide + Fe powder
Basic + Fe powder
Not specified
Positions
Allb
All
All
Allb
Allb
Allb
Allb
Allb
Allb
Allb
Type of current
AC and DC +/DC +
AC and DC +
AC and DC AC and DC +/AC and DC +/DC +
AC and DC +
AC and DC +
AC and DC +/-
PA/PB
AC and
PA/PB
AC and
PA/PB only
AC and
PA/PB/PC
AC and
As per manufacturers
recommendations
48
Basic
All
AC and
bAll positions may or may not include vertical-down welding
DC
DC
DC
DC
+/+
DC +
Further guidance on flux type and applications is given in the standard in Annex
B and C.
Hydrogen scales
Diffusible hydrogen is indicated in the same way in both methods, where after
baking the amount of hydrogen is given as ml/100g weld metal ie H 5 =
5ml/100g weld metal.
12-7
12.2
AWS A 5.1- and AWS 5.5A typical AWS A5.1 and A5.5 Specification
Reference given in box letter:
Min E %
In 2 min
General
E60xx
E 70xx
E 80xx
E 100xx
17-22
17-22
19-22
13-16
48,000
57,000
68-80,000
87,000
60,000
70,000
80,000
100,000
E 80 1 8 G
A) B) C) (D For A5.5 only)
B) Welding position
1
All positional
2
Flat butt & H/V fillet welds
3
Flat only
E 6011
48,000
60,000
22
20 ft.lbs at 20F
Grade 2
E 6012
48,000
60,000
17
Not required
Not required
E 6013
48,000
60,000
17
Not required
Grade 2
E 6020
48,000
60,000
22
Not required
Grade 1
E 6022
Not required
60,000
Not required
Not required
Not required
E 6027
48,000
60,000
22
20 ft.lbs at 20F
Grade 2
E 7014
58,000
70,000
17
Not required
Grade 2
E 7015
58,000
70,000
22
20 ft.lbs at 20F
Grade 1
E 7016
58,000
70,000
22
20 ft.lbs at 20F
Grade 1
E 7018
58,000
70,000
22
20 ft.lbs at 20F
Grade 1
E 7024
58,000
70,000
17
Not required
Grade 2
E 7028
58,000
70,000
20
20 ft.lbs at 0F
Grade 2
Code
Coating
Current type
Exx10
Exx11
Exx12
Exx13
E xx14
E xx15
E xx16
E xx18
E xx20
E xx24
E xx27
E xx28
Cellulosic/organic
Cellulosic/organic
Rutile
Rutile + 30% Fe powder
Rutile
Basic
Basic
Basic + 25% Fe powder
High Fe oxide content
Rutile + 50% Fe powder
Mineral + 50% Fe powder
Basic + 50% Fe powder
DC + only
AC or DC+
AC or DCAC or DC+/AC or DC+/DC + only
AC or DC+
AC or DC+
AC or DC+/AC or DC+/AC or DC+/AC or DC+
12-8
D) AWS
Symbol
A1
B1
B2
B3
B4
B5
C1
C2
C3
12.3
Condition
Cracks, chips and concentricity
E 46
Checks should also be made to ensure that basic electrodes have been
through the correct pre-use procedure. Having been baked to the correct
temperature (typically 300-350C) for 1 hour and then held in a holding oven
(150C max) basic electrodes are issued to the welders in heated quivers.
Most electrode flux coatings will deteriorate rapidly when damp and care should
be taken to inspect storage facilities to ensure that they are adequately dry and
that all electrodes are stored in conditions of controlled humidity.
Vacuum packed electrodes may be used directly from the carton only if the
vacuum has been maintained. Directions for hydrogen control are always given
on the carton and should be strictly adhered to. The cost of each electrode is
insignificant compared with the cost of any repair, thus basic electrodes that
are left in the heated quiver after the days shift may potentially be re-baked
but would normally be discarded to avoid the risk of H2 induced problems.
12-9
Section 13
Submerged Arc Welding
13
13.1
History
Union Carbide (Linde Division) described a fully submerged (invisible) arc
process in 1935 patents and the process was licensed to users as the Union
melt process.
The original Union melt process used a pre-fused flux, based on manganese
oxide and silicon dioxide which gave a manganese silicate glass that could be
crushed and ground to a coarse powder. The flux was sieved to give different
particle size distribution as operators found that different current ranges
favoured selection of different density flux. Union melt 20, the original formula,
was designed to operate at up to 2000A. It continues to be sold as OK Flux 20
in US by ESAB.
Lincoln Electric tried to introduce their version but were sued by Union Carbide.
Several of their offerings were found to infringe the patents but they were able
to replace the flux with two new formulae, Lincoln 770 and 780, which were
novel. Lincoln 780, still sold today, is a bonded or agglomerated, flux. The
ingredients are not fused together but mixed as dry powders then bonded
together with small amounts of silicate, similar in principle to an electrode
coating. Thus they were able to incorporate deoxidants and alloying; something
impossible with fused fluxes. Lincoln became the best known manufacturer of
high quality fluxes from the 1950s onward and popularised the process name as
submerged arc welding (SAW).
Many other manufacturers then became consumable suppliers. Consumables
were developed for hardfacing applications and SAW of stainless steel and
nickel alloys became possible. Developers devised ways of using multiple wires
and iron powder addition for high productivity welding and SAW quickly became
the process with more variants than any other.
13-1
13.2
Process characteristics
Submerged arc welding is where an arc is struck between a continuous bare
wire and the parent plate. The arc, electrode end and molten pool are
submerged in an agglomerated or fused powdered flux which turns into a gas
and slag in its lower layers when subjected to the heat of the arc, protecting the
weld from contamination. The wire electrode is continuously fed by a feed unit
of motor driven rollers, usually voltage-controlled to ensure an arc of constant
length. The flux is fed from a hopper fixed to the welding head and a tube from
the hopper spreads the flux in a continuous elongated mound in front of the arc
along the line of the intended weld and of sufficient depth to submerge the arc
completely so there is no spatter, the weld is shielded from the atmosphere and
there are no UV or infra-red radiation effects. Unmelted flux is reclaimed for
use. The use of powdered flux restricts the process to the flat and horizontalvertical welding positions.
Submerged arc welding is noted for its ability to use high weld currents giving
deep penetration and high deposition rates. Generally DCEP is used up to about
1000A because it produces a deep penetration. On some applications (eg
cladding operations) DCEN is chosen to reduce penetration and dilution. At
higher currents or in case of multiple electrode systems, AC is often preferred
to avoid the problem of arc blow. On multiple electrode systems, DCEP is
generally used for the lead arc and AC for any trailing arcs.
Difficulties sometimes arise in ensuring conformity of the weld with a
predetermined line owing to the obscuring effect of the flux. Where possible, a
guide wheel to run in the joint preparation is positioned in front of the welding
head and flux hoppers.
Submerged arc welding is widely used in the fabrication of ships, pressure
vessels, line pipe and railway carriages - anywhere that long welds are
required. It can be used to weld thicknesses from 3mm upwards, although its
main use is for section thicknesses greater than this.
13-2
13.3
Power source
DC SAW can be carried out with either constant potential/voltage (CP) or
constant current (CC) power sources. CP power sources are the accepted norm
as the control to maintain arc length on a CV set traditionally required rapidly
acting, low speed, low inertia motors that were expensive and difficult to build
with sufficient accuracy. With microprocessor control, fine adjustment is easy
and cost-effective so there is less reason to specify CP.
AC power is also usable for SAW. As noted above it is necessary to use AC when
there is more than one wire being used. Wires carrying several hundred amps
DC produce substantial magnetic fields that will deflect any subsidiary arc in the
vicinity. The normal method is to run the first wire on DCEP to give deep
penetration, followed by up to four AC wires to give extra weld metal into a
single elongated weld pool. Each wire has its own power source and control,
making set-up of optimum conditions particularly difficult. For repetitive
production where high speed is crucial, such multi-wire arrays are common. The
production of welded pipe, either spirally welded or longitudinal seamed, is a
typical application.
13.4
Equipment
The size and layout of a submerged arc installation can vary, but Lincoln
Electric has for many years marketed a hand held gun for SAW.
13-3
13.5
Consumables
13.5.1 Wires
Wires are usually available in 2-5mm diameter, though for special applications
diameters both below and above this range have been used. Traditionally they
are solid wires cold-drawn to size, cleaned and copper plated prior to spooling.
Spooling is most frequently as 25-30kg coils.
The wire is relatively stiff and requires a substantial feed motor and set of rolls
to give smooth delivery to the contact tip at the welding head so is wound on a
larger diameter reel than for MIG.
13-4
Tubular, mainly flux cored, wires are also produced for the SAW process and
can result in an increase in deposition rate and can be used to produce small
quantities of low alloy compositions using a carbon steel sheath and are often
used for surfacing and hardfacing applications, as well as welding of high
strength low alloy (HSLA) steels.
13.5.2 Fluxes
Flux may be categorised in two ways: by method of manufacture (fused or
agglomerated) or by its activity (neutral, active or alloying). Within these broad
groupings fluxes may be classified further by constituents, silica, manganese
oxide, calcium fluoride, etc.
Fused fluxes are produced by mixing the ingredients then melting them in an
electric furnace to form a chemically homogeneous product, cooled and ground
to the required particle size. Fused fluxes are limited in composition, primarily
manganese silicates so are relatively neutral in their reaction with weld metal
although pick-up of Mn and Si may be detected. The main benefits are that they
are entirely homogeneous so recycled flux is of the same composition as the
original. They also are non-hygroscopic so do not pick up moisture in storage
and need baking before use. Because of the temperature of their manufacture
they have compositional stability up to melting and can accept very high
current arcs. Smooth stable arcs, with welding currents up to 2000A and
consistent weld metal properties, are the main attraction of these fluxes.
Agglomerated fluxes have more flexibility of composition, may be classified as
acidic, neutral, basic and alloyed and can be formulated to give deliberate
addition to the weld metal composition or to deoxidise and nucleate fine grained
structures for high toughness.
Acidic or active fluxes (though in truth all fluxes are active), transfer Mn and Si
to the weld composition which helps with weld metal strength but must be kept
within limits to avoid cracking. Some of these fluxes are recommended for
single pass, or maximum two-layer, work.
Neutral fluxes have been balanced to minimise the Mn and Si pick-up and is
required. They will achieve reasonable toughness weld metal but for maximum
properties basic fluxes should be used.
Basic fluxes, like MMA electrode flux compositions, use fluorspar, to create the
molten slag and may also contain limestone, alumina and manganese oxide.
During manufacture, they are baked at maybe 500C but it is still possible to
add and retain deoxidants such as titanium, aluminium or magnesium powder.
The principle of adding metals and alloying through the flux is used to great
advantage for welding stainless steel and hardfacing. When welding stainless
steel, the high reactivity of chromium results in it oxidising and being absorbed
into the flux, quite significant reductions in Cr content may ensue, but this is
compensated for by adding Cr, usually as ferro-chrome, to the flux. Welding
engineers should be aware of this deliberate addition and not attempt to use
flux formulated for welding stainless steel on C-Mn steel.
A disadvantage of agglomerated fluxes is they are prone to picking up moisture
so should therefore not be left in the dispensing hopper overnight and storage
should be in a dry, warm store room. The flux can be baked prior to use but it
needs to be spread thinly on trays in the baking oven or agitated repeatedly in
order for moisture to be released from within its bulk.
13-5
Welding parameters
The flux depth is often poorly controlled in practice and the powder simply
heaped around the wire until the arc is completely covered. For optimum
results, the flux depth should be just sufficient to cover the arc although, at the
point where the electrode enters the flux cover, light reflected from the arc
should be just visible. Too shallow and the arc may flash through and can cause
porosity and a rough surface because of inadequate protection of the molten
metal. Too deep can give poor bead appearance and lead to spillage on
circumferential welds. On deep preparations in thick plate it is particularly
important to avoid excessive flux cover as weld bead shape and slag removal
can be unsatisfactory.
13.6.2 Arc voltage
Arc voltage has an important effect on the weld bead shape and penetration
depth; the precise effect being dependent on the joint preparation. Bead-onplate and square edge close butt welds have increased bead width and dilution
as the arc voltage increases, although the depth of penetration is relatively
unaffected
13.6.3 Wire diameter and welding current
13-6
The preferred wire diameter is governed by the welding current required for a
particular application. Commonly used SA wire diameters are 2-6mm. For a
given wire diameter, the deposition rate and depth of penetration increase with
increasing welding current. Excessive current causes the electrode wire to
overheat causing arc instability, a deterioration in weld profile and, sometimes,
undercutting. Below a minimum current level, arc instability will also occur,
giving arc wander and poor penetration.
For single pass (and one pass either side) procedures the current should be
sufficient to achieve the required depth of penetration without burn-through.
For multi-pass welding, the current should be selected to give the required weld
bead size whilst ensuring adequate fusion to the underlying material. In the
case of circumferential joints, the selection of welding current will also be
affected by the diameter of the workpiece.
13.6.4 Travel speed
Bead size is inversely proportional to welding speed at the same current. Higher
speeds reduce bead width, increase the likelihood of porosity and if taken to the
extreme, produce undercutting and irregular beads. At high welding speeds the
arc voltage should be kept low to minimise the risk of arc blow. If the welding
speed is too low, burn-through can occur. A combination of high arc voltage and
low welding speed can produce a mushroom-shaped weld bead with
solidification cracks at the bead sides. Excessive travel speed can also produce
centreline solidification cracking.
For a given arrangement of wires and wire diameters, welding speed is limited
by the welding current tolerated by the flux: Some fluxes are specially
formulated to allow high speed operation and higher speeds are possible with
multiple wire operation or by holding a more acute electrode angle.
13.6.5 Electrode positioning
As the angle between the electrode and the plate determines the point of
impingement and direction of the arc force, it has a critical effect on the weld
bead profile and depth of penetration. Welding can be carried out with the
electrode wire leading, trailing or normal to the plate surface and the effects on
weld shape, penetration and undercut are shown below:
13-7
For most applications weld with the electrode wire pointing forwards, ie leading
by 10 to obtain the best combination of bead shape, penetration and
resistance to undercut.
13.7
Potential defects
13.7.1 Porosity
Porosity is a fairly common defect which can be influenced by many factors.
Sometimes clearly visible as pinholes or larger voids at the weld surface, other
times it is below the surface and revealed only by X-ray examination or
ultrasonic testing. Unless it is gross or preferentially aligned, porosity is unlikely
to be harmful.
Contamination of joint surfaces with oil, paint, grease, hydrated oxides, etc
which decompose in the arc giving gaseous products which can cause
elongated wormhole porosity often located along the centreline of the weld.
Damp flux: flux should be kept dry. It is good practice to dry all fluxes
before use and store them in a heated hopper. The manufacturer's
recommendations regarding drying temperatures should be observed. If a
flux recovery unit driven by compressed air is used the compressed air
should be dried thoroughly.
Insufficient flux burden can expose the arc and molten weld pool to
atmospheric contamination.
When welding stainless or duplex steels by SAW, the voltage needs very
careful setting up, as incorrect voltage can cause porosity in these
materials.
13-8
W/d
13-9
Cracking can be a problem in root runs where dilution of parent plate into the
weld is high giving excessive carbon content. Long and deep weld pools, welds
made at high welding speeds or with high restraint and large gaps, accentuate
the problem. Conversely, a combination of high arc voltage and slow welding
speed can produce a mushroom-shaped weld bead with solidification cracks at
the weld bead sides.
Caused by high speed giving a long deep weld pool in first pass.
13-10
Mushroom shaped weld penetration resulting from high voltage combined with
low speed
Occasionally a groove may be found on the surface running along the centre of
the weld. This may be caused by shrinkage and although it is sometimes
mistaken for incipient solidification cracking it is actually only superficial.
13.8
Classification of consumables
As with MMA welding, Gene Mathers has written a series of articles on
submerged
arc
welding
(www.twi.co.uk/content/jk87.html;
www.twi.co.uk/content/jk88.html;
www.twi.co.uk/content/jk89.html). We recommend these articles for those
wishing to understand the classification schemes without the need for detailed
study of the specifications themselves.
13-11
Describe the basics of the SAW process, including the use of different polarity power.
Why is travel speed an important variable? What problems may occur if it is not
optimum?
13-12
Section 14
Electroslag Welding
14
Electroslag Welding
14.1
History
Electroslag welding (ESW) is a very efficient, single pass process carried out in
the vertical or near vertical position for joining steel plates/sections of 25mm
and above and was developed into a viable welding process by the Paton
Institute in the Ukraine in the early 1950s.
The process was used extensively in the US for welding thick structural steel
members in the 1960s and 70s but the Federal Highways Agency decided on
the basis of laboratory tests that the very high heat input of ESW gave
dangerously low toughness which led to a ban in US of the use of ESW for many
applications.
The Northridge earthquake in 1994 tested the welds in highway bridges and
structural steel work and revealed that repairs to self-shielded welds in
structural steel cost over 1bn, but that not one ESW weld had required a
repair so the FHA ban was rescinded in 2000.
14.2
Process characteristics
Unlike other high current fusion processes, ESW is not an arc process. Heat
required for melting both the welding wire and plate edges is generated through
the molten slag's resistance to the passage of an electric current.
In its original form plates are held vertically, approximately 30mm apart, with
the edges of the plate cut normal to the surface and a bridging run-on piece of
the same thickness is attached to the bottom of the plates. Water cooled copper
shoes are placed each side of the joint, forming a rectangular cavity open at the
top. Filler wire, which is also the current carrier, is fed into this cavity, initially
striking an arc through a small amount of flux. Additional flux is added which
melts forming a flux bath which rises and extinguishes the arc. The added wire
melts into this bath sinking to the bottom before solidifying to form the weld.
For thick sections, additional wires may be added and an even distribution of
weld metal is achieved by slowly oscillating the wires across the joint. As
welding progresses, both the wire feed mechanism and the copper shoes are
moved progressively upwards until the top of the weld is reached.
14-1
At TWI in the mid 1960s experiments with bare guide tubes were successful
provided the guide did not touch the wall during any part of its oscillation. One
simple and cheap guide tested consisted of four straight lengths of rod tacked
together in a square format with sufficient space in the centre for the wire to be
pass down it which worked well if the gap was sufficiently wide but was prone
to arcing on to the side. Consumable guide ESW is often carried out without
oscillation. The tubular guides can be further supplemented by additional
consumable plates attached to the tube. Generally, as the thickness of plate
increases, the number of wires/guides increases, approximately in the ratio of
one wire per 50-75mm of thickness.
Support for the molten bath is provided by two pairs of copper shoes which are
moved upwards, leapfrogging as welding progresses. An operator is required to
observe the flux bath and add more flux as the bath thins. The flux is very
similar to submerged arc flux and is usually agglomerated. Slight changes in
composition give the flux more fluidity so that it floods the initial start-up arc
and extinguishes it. After that heating and melting continue due to the resistive
heating of the current flow through the molten flux bath.
14-2
14.3
14.3.1 Aluminium
Uttrachi (www.netwelding.com/serv04.htm#Aluminum Electroslag) describes
work at Union Carbide, Linde Division and latterly at WA Technology that
demonstrated the possibility of ESW being used on aluminium alloys. His
narrative from the website is reproduced below.
The photo left shows the equipment system welding a >10 inch thick section.
The centre photo is the finished weld. Welding speeds were very high, much
higher than in steel welding. Weld surface is excellent. The photo right is a
cross section showing good fusion and defect free weld.
14.3.2 Titanium
A team working with Prof Eager of MIT demonstrated ESW thick Ti -6Al -4V
alloy using a consumable guide technique described in a research paper
published online at http://eagar.mit.edu/EagarPapers/Eagar089.pdf. In
this paper they refer to early work in USSR that developed the principle. Eagers
team showed that pure calcium fluoride was needed as flux and must be kept
free from moisture. They found AC power was necessary but reported the
successful completion of welds in both 25 and 50mm plate.
14-3
14.4
14.5
Current status
Electroslag welding is not one of the major welding processes because the high
heat input generates large, coarse grains in the weld metal and HAZ that lead
to poor fracture toughness properties in these areas. Toughness improvements
can only be achieved by post-weld normalising treatment. Additionally, the near
parallel-sided geometry of the weld, combined with the coarse grains, can make
it difficult to identify defects at the fusion boundary by standard ultrasonic NDT
techniques.
Considerable interest was shown in ESW during the 1970s when ideas for
increasing welding speed, such as narrow gap welding, were investigated. This
was seen as an important parameter for increasing productivity and to reducing
heat input to improve HAZ and weld metal impact properties.
However since then little development has taken place, limited to the tuning of
parameters and tailoring techniques for specific applications.
ESW has considerable potential for increasing productivity but its use has been
limited because of relatively poor understanding of the process and, for specific
applications, the significance of the fracture toughness values. As a result, use
has been restricted to a few niche applications.
In the fabrication industry, the process continues to be used for thick walled
pressure vessels which are post-weld normalised and for structures such as
blast furnace shells and steel ladles used at above ambient temperatures. The
process is also extensively used for the welding railway points.
It is most commonly used now with strip electrode as a surfacing technique and
is described in more detail in the section on surfacing.
14.6
Grain growth giving very large grains due to very high heat input and slow
cooling - poor toughness.
Limited to vertical or near vertical position.
Difficult to examine with NDT.
14-4
Section 15
Thermal Cutting IWS
15
15.1
Introduction
Thermal cutting normally refers to the severing of metal, creating two pieces or
a specific shaped single piece. Gouging is a particular form of cutting where the
aim is to remove metal in a controlled manner to leave a groove that will act as
the basis of weld preparation. In terms of the process and fundamental
principles, they are the same; only the details of the torch and the parameters
vary.
Thermal cutting and gouging are essential parts of welding fabrication. Used for
rapid removal of unwanted metal, the material is locally heated and molten
metal ejected, usually by blowing it away. Flame, laser or arc processes can be
used to produce rapid melting and metal removal.
Thermal processes, operations and metals which may be gouged or otherwise
shaped:
Thermal
process
Process operations
Metals
Primary
Secondary
Oxyfuel
gas
flame
Manual
metal
arc
Air
carbon
arc
Plasma
arc
Cutting
Gouging
Grooving
washing
chamfering
Grooving
chamfering
Gouging
Grooving
Chamfering
Cutting
Gouging
Laser
Cutting
Chamfering
grooving
washing
Chamfering
drilling
Gouging
15-1
15.2
General safety
Because cutting and gouging rely on molten metal being forcibly ejected, often
over large distances, the operator must take appropriate precautions to protect
himself, other workers and his equipment. Sensible precautions include
protective clothing for the operator, shielding inside a special enclosed booth or
screens, adequate fume extraction and removal of all combustible material from
the immediate area.
15.2.1 Gouging applications
Thermal gouging was developed primarily for removal of metal from the reverse
side of welded joints, tack and temporary welds and weld imperfections.
15-2
Applications include:
15.3
Oxy-fuel cutting
The oxyfuel process is the most widely applied industrial thermal cutting
process because it can cut 0.5-250mm thicknesses, the equipment is low cost
and can be used manually or mechanised. There are several fuel gas and nozzle
design options that can significantly enhance performance in terms of cut
quality and cutting speed.
15.3.1 Process fundamentals
Basically, a mixture of oxygen and the fuel gas preheats the metal to its ignition
temperature which, for steel, is 700-900C (bright red heat) but well below its
melting point. A jet of pure oxygen is directed into the preheated area
instigating a vigorous exothermic chemical reaction between the oxygen and
the metal to form iron oxide or slag. The oxygen jet blows the slag away
enabling the jet to pierce through the material and continue to cut through the
material.
15-3
Ignition temperature of the material must be lower than its melting point
otherwise the material will melt and flow away before cutting could happen.
Oxide melting point must be lower than of the surrounding material so it can
be mechanically blown away by the oxygen jet.
Oxidation reaction between the oxygen jet and metal must be sufficient to
maintain the ignition temperature.
Minimal gaseous reaction products should be produced to avoid diluting the
cutting oxygen.
As stainless steel, cast iron and non-ferrous metals form refractory oxides, ie
the oxide melting point is higher than the material and powder must be injected
into the flame to form a low melting point, fluid slag.
15.3.2 Preheating
The preheating flame has the following functions in the cutting operation:
15-4
Main characteristics
Applications
Acetylene
MAPP
Propylene
Highly
focused,
high temperature flame
Rapid preheating and piercing
Low oxygen requirement
Low
temperature
flame,
high heat content
Slow preheating and piercing
High oxygen requirement
Medium temperature flame
Medium temperature flame
Natural gas
Propane
Cutting underwater
Cutting of thicker sections
The face of a satisfactory cut has a sharp top edge, fine and even drag lines,
little oxide and a sharp bottom edge with an underside free of slag.
15-5
A satisfactory cut is shown in the centre. If the cut is too slow (left) the top
edge is melted and there are deep grooves in the lower portion of the face.
Scaling is heavy and the bottom edge may be rough, with adherent dross. If
the cut is too fast (right) the appearance is similar, with an irregular cut edge.
Plate thickness 12mm.
With a very fast travel speed the drag lines are coarse and at an angle to the
surface with an excessive amount of slag sticking to the bottom edge of the
plate, due to the oxygen jet trailing with insufficient oxygen reaching the
bottom of the cut.
15-6
A satisfactory cut is shown in the centre. If the preheating flame is too low (left)
the most noticeable effect on the cut edge is deep gouges in the lower part of
the cut face. If the flame is too high (right) the top edge is melted, cut irregular
and there is excess adherent dross. Plate thickness 12mm.
A satisfactory cut is shown in the centre. If the blowpipe nozzle is too high
above the work (left) excessive melting of the top edge occurs with a lot of
oxide. If the torch travel speed is irregular (right) uneven spacing of the drag
lines can be observed and an irregular bottom surface and adherent oxide. Plate
thickness 12mm.
15.3.5 Advantages of oxy-fuel cutting
15-7
15.4
Powder cutting
Powder cutting is oxygen cutting in which a suitable powder is injected into the
cutting oxygen stream to assist the cutting action (from BS 499: Part 1:1991
Section 7 No.72 008).
Mild steels readily ignite in a stream of oxygen when they are heated to 700900C, but for stainless steels, the ignition temperature is over 1500C.
Furthermore, the oxides formed when cutting mild steel have lower melting
points than the parent metal and this facilitates a clean cut. With stainless steel
the oxide has a higher melting point than the parent metal and hampers
cutting. This can be overcome by adding materials to the cutting gas stream
which either remove the oxide film or raise the reaction temperature:
Flux injection into the cutting gas stream which chemically removes the oxides
of chromium.
Finely divided iron-rich powder fed separately into the cutting zone in a gaseous
medium. Combustion of the iron powder increases the reaction temperature
and the fluidity of oxidation products.
The iron-rich powder injection technique has also been used for cutting copper,
nickel, aluminium and their alloys and cast irons.
The quality of the cut surface is, at best, equivalent to flame cut carbon steel;
but with many materials, the cut quality is very poor.
15.5
Oxy-fuel gouging
15-8
Gouge
dimensions,
mm
Widt Dept
h
h
Acetylen
e
Oxyge
n
Acetylen
e
6-8
3-9
0.48
4.2
8-10
6-12
0.48
6.5
1013
1013
0.55
Travel
speed,
mm/mi
n
15
O2
prehe
at
22
O2
goug
e
62
5.2
29
31
158
1000
5.5
36
43
276
1200
600
When the preheating flame and oxygen jet are correctly set, the gouge has a
uniform profile and its surfaces are smooth and a dull blue.
15.5.2 Operating techniques
The depth of the gouge is determined principally by the speed and angle of the
torch. To cut a deep groove the angle of the torch is stepped up (increases the
impingement angle of the oxygen jet) and gouging speed reduced. To produce
a shallow groove, the torch is less steeply angled and speed increased. Wide
grooves can be produced by weaving the torch. The contour of the groove is
dependent upon the size of the nozzle and the operating parameters. If the
cutting oxygen pressure is too low, gouging progresses with a washing action,
leaving smooth ripples in the bottom of the groove. If the cutting oxygen
pressure is too high, the cut advances ahead of the molten pool which will
disrupt the gouging operation especially when making shallow grooves.
15-9
15.6
MMA gouging
MMA gouging operates in the same way as the welding process an arc is
formed between the tip of the electrode and the workpiece. As only the arc
force ejects metal, it requires special electrodes with thick flux coatings to
generate sufficiently strong arc force and gas stream. Unlike MMA welding
where a stable weld pool must be maintained, this process forces the molten
metal away from the arc zone to leave a clean cut surface.
Cutting of thin material can be achieved with these electrodes but it is not very
satisfactory, leaving a very ragged edge.
The gouging process is characterised by the large amount of gas generated to
eject the molten metal. Because the arc/gas stream is not as powerful as a gas
or separate air jet, the surface of the gouge is not as smooth as an oxy-fuel or
air carbon arc gouge.
15-10
Grooving electrodes, though based on mild steel core wires, are not just
restricted to steels: the same electrode composition may be used for gouging
stainless steel and non-ferrous alloys, in which case the cut surface must be
ground after the gouging operation has been completed.
15.7
15-11
15.7.3 Disadvantages
The air jet causes the molten metal to be ejected over quite a large
distance.
Because of high currents (up to 2000A) and high air pressures (80-100psi),
it can be very noisy.
Other cutting processes usually produce a better cut.
Requires large volume of compressed air.
Increases the carbon content leading to an increase in hardness in the case
of cast iron and hardenable metals. In stainless steels can lead to carbide
precipitation and sensitisation so grinding of the carburised layer usually
follows gouging.
Introduces hazards such as fire (due to discharge of sparks and molten
metal), fumes, noise and intense light.
15-12
15.8
15-13
Transferred arc.
Non-transferred arc.
15-14
15-15
The obvious cost advantages of using air in preference to expensive gases (for
the plasma and oxy-fuel processes) may be offset when other operating costs
have been taken into account. For example, the air must be fed at a relatively
high pressure (typically 150 l/min at 5bar) and clean which will require a
sizeable compressor with suitable filters for dust particles and oil. The hafnium
or zirconium electrodes are expensive and their operating life can be severely
shortened if there are frequent stop and starts.
Low current air plasma torches, typically less than 40A, are particularly
attractive for cutting thin sheet material, in that compressed air is used for both
the plasma forming gas and cooling the torch. As N2 and O2 suppress the
formation of a series arc, compared with Ar, contact cutting can be practised
with the air plasma system. The process is becoming more widely used for
manual cutting of thin sheet components in both C-Mn and stainless steel,
where contact cutting greatly deskills the operation.
15.8.5 Advantages
Not limited to materials which are electrical conductors so is widely used for
cutting all types of stainless steels, non-ferrous materials and nonconductive materials.
Operates at a much higher energy level compared with oxy-fuel cutting
resulting in faster cutting speed.
Instant start-up is particularly advantageous for interrupted cutting and
allows cutting without preheat.
Can be used with a wide range of materials, including stainless steel and
aluminium.
High quality cut edges can be achieved, eg the HTPAC process.
Narrow HAZ formed.
Low gas consumable (air) costs.
Ideal for thin sheet material.
Low fume (underwater) process.
15.8.6 Disadvantages
15-16
15.9
Plasma arc gouging is a variant of the plasma arc cutting process. The
temperature and force of the constricted plasma arc is determined by the
current level and plasma gas flow rate so the plasma can be varied to produce a
hot gas stream or a high power, deeply penetrating jet. This ability to control
quite precisely the size and shape of a groove is very useful for removing
unwanted defects from a work piece surface.
15.10
Laser cutting
15-17
Almost all cutting operations with the above lasers use some sort of gas to
assist the process. The degree of assistance can be from simply providing
protection to the beam focusing lens or via production of an exothermic
reaction with a gas such as O2, to increase significantly achievable cutting
speeds. This has led to the term gas assisted laser cutting which is often used
synonymously in the industry with the term laser cutting.
15.10.2 Advantages
15.10.3 Disadvantages
15-18
Describe the four basic requirements for successful oxy-fuel gas cutting and what
happens if each is not met.
What are the functions of the preheating flame prior to injection of the cutting
oxygen stream?
15-19
Section 16
Surfacing and Spraying
16
16.1
Background
Surfacing may be required for a number of reasons including:
Repair build-up
Replacing worn or damaged surfaces by building up the surface with a weld
metal which approximately matches the composition and/or mechanical
properties of the parent metal.
Hardfacing
Giving a softer material a wear, abrasion or erosion resistant surface.
Cladding
Providing a corrosion or oxidation resistant surface on a less corrosion resistant
material, eg deposition of a stainless steel or nickel-based layer on a carbon
steel base. One advantage of this technique is cost-saving when surfacing a
relatively inexpensive metal, such as a carbon steel, with a more expensive but
corrosion resistant layer of stainless steel. Material and weight savings may be
gained when a clad, high strength, quenched and tempered steel is used in a
corrosive environment.
Buttering
Depositing a layer of weld metal on to the face of a weld preparation or surface
which will then form part of a welded joint, eg buttering an alloy steel weld
preparation with a nickel-based weld metal and post-weld heat treating this
part before making the joining weld between the buttering and a steel, which
would be degraded by heat treatment.
Surfaces of a different material may be achieved by a variety of methods:
Solid-state bonding
Joining the surface layer to the substrate by pressure or combination of
pressure and heat. Clad plate may be made by rolling a sheet of the surfacing
material and the substrate together or by explosively forcing the surface sheet,
set up as a flier plate into intimate contact with the parent plate. Friction may
be used to rub a new material on to the surface of the base plate. For small
components, diffusion bonding may be used where two sheets are held under
pressure and heated under vacuum to close to the melting point of the lower
melting material for an extended time.
Electrically melted
Arc welding is the obvious technique with virtually all processes applicable, but
other techniques such as electroslag strip cladding and electric discharge
surfacing also possible.
Spraying
Usually involving a heat source used in welding oxy-fuel, plasma, laser but
also possible as cold spraying by forcing the powder on to a surface with
sufficient force to cause it to adhere.
16-1
Surfacing techniques have been used in a variety of applications but only since
the 1940s has arc welding. Since then all arc welding processes have been
used. Every sector of industry - oil and gas, automotive, aerospace, power
generation, yellow goods, etc - uses arc surfacing techniques for repair,
recovery and to improve service performance.
16.2
Friction surfacing
A solid consumable bar rotated with one of its ends pressed hard against a
substrate material. Heat is generated at the consumable tip, producing a
plasticised layer. Lateral movement of the substrate, relative to the rotating
consumable, deposits this plasticised material on to the substrate (see figure).
There is no melting of the substrate material so no dilution of the substrate into
the deposit. The composition of the deposit is the same as that of the
consumable.
16.3
16-2
Excavator bucket fabricated from wear plate manufactured by open arc welding.
16.4
Thermal spraying
A generic category of coating processes that apply a powder or wire
consumable as a spray of finely divided molten or semi-molten droplets to
produce a coating. Heat may be generated by oxy-fuel combustion (flame and
HVOF) or electrically (arc and plasma). Thermal spraying processes have been
widely used for many years throughout all the major engineering industry
sectors for component protection and reclamation.
16-3
Flame
spray
>3000
Wire arc
Air plasma
HVOF
>3000
>5000
~3000
50-100
50-150
100-400
400-800
100-200
500-3000
100-200
400-1100
O2, C2H2
Air, N2, Ar
20
5-100
40-200
5-100
2-10
2.5
Wire size
1.24.8mm
diameter
3-18
3-6
1-4
Metals,
ceramics
85-90
Metals, cermets
(cored wire)
80-95
Ceramics, metals
90-95
Ceramics, metals,
cermets
> 95
10-15
10-20
50
5-10
10-20
50
5-10
1-3
> 80
1-2
1-2
> 80
0.2-10
0.2-10
0.2-2
0.2-2
16-4
Benefits:
16.4.3 Applications
16-5
What are the likely reasons for surfacing one material with another?
What are the key features of solid state surfacing? Give an example.
16-6
APPENDIX 1
Appendix 1
WPE 1 multiple choice questions day 1
Training only
1
a
b
c
d
a
b
c
d
a
b
c
d
a
b
c
d
A fillet weld with a 12mm leg length has an actual throat thickness of 10mm.
What is the amount of excess metal?
a
b
c
d
1.6mm.
8.4mm.
2.5mm.
3.5mm.
a
b
c
d
EN
EN
BS
BS
287.
15614.
5500.
4872.
A1-1
If the weld symbol to EN 22553 is on the indication line, where does the weld go?
a
b
c
d
8
Arrow side.
Opposite arrow side.
Other side.
Near side.
The letter a represents what to EN 22553?
a
b
c
d
Leg length.
Penetration depth.
Design throat.
Actual throat.
In general terms, when welding two different thicknesses in a fillet weld configuration,
the leg length is determined by?
a
b
c
d
Thickest material.
Smallest material.
Average of the two.
It does not matter.
On current voltage.
Over current voltage.
Open circuit voltage.
Often creates voltage.
A1-2
Acetylene.
MAPP.
Propane.
Natural gas.
Neutral.
Oxidizing.
Cabourizing.
High pressure.
16 When turning off gas welding equipment, which gas is turned off first?
a
b
c
d
Oxygen.
Acetylene.
All at the same time.
It does not matter.
200bar.
300bar.
400bar.
50bar.
18 The left ward welding technique used for gas welding, is typically used for what?
a
b
c
d
60-100v.
222-240v.
23-30v.
30-50v.
Above 95db.
Above 105db.
Between 80-85db.
Between 85-90db.
A1-3
a
b
c
d
Copper.
Aluminium.
Silver.
Tin.
a
b
c
d
a
b
c
d
a
b
c
d
a
b
c
d
a
b
c
d
A1-4
a
b
c
d
A=W x V.
W= I x V.
V= I x R.
R= W x I.
a
b
c
d
a
b
c
d
W= I x R.
V= I x R.
I=R x W.
R=W x I.
Too expensive.
They melt at high temperatures.
They have an unstable arc.
Difficult to prepare.
A1-5
Zirconiated.
Thoriated.
Chrominium.
Clad.
CO2.
Argon.
Argon plus CO2.
Nitrogen.
A1-6
24 What is the correct polarity for welding stainless steel with the TIG process?
a
b
c
d
AC.
DC-.
DC+.
Does not matter.
25 What would be the typical gas flow rate for welding aluminium with the TIG process?
a
b
c
d
26 What would happen if the current range was exceeded for a tungsten electrode?
a
b
c
d
Greater penetration.
Tungsten inclusions.
Porosity.
Poor weld profile.
27 Why are stainless steel root runs purged using the TIG process?
a
b
c
d
To
To
To
To
29 What is the typical amperage range for a 1.6mm thoriated tungsten electrode?
a
b
c
d
90-150amps.
30-100amps.
250-450amps.
200-300amps.
A1-7
In MIG/MAG welding, if stick out length was increased what would be the affect?
a
b
c
d
a
b
c
d
a
b
c
d
AC..
DC-.
DC+.
All of the above.
a
b
c
d
a
b
c
d
95% Ar 5% CO2.
100% Ar.
100% CO2.
80% Ar 20% CO2.
a
b
c
d
Increase penetration.
Decrease penetration.
Increase excess weld metal.
Increase welding speed.
A1-8
a
b
c
d
Voltage.
Wire feed speed.
Inductance.
All of the above.
In MIG/MAG welding which mode of metal transfer can be used for the widest range?
a
b
c
d
Spray.
Dip.
Globular.
Free flight transfer.
a
b
c
d
Use
Use
Use
Use
pure CO2
DC negative polarity.
the inductance.
pure argon.
Constant
Constant
Constant
Constant
current.
voltage.
amperage.
output.
11 In MIG/MAG welding, which mode of metal transfer can suffer from lack of fusion?
a
b
c
d
Pulse.
Dip.
Spray.
Free flight.
12 In MIG/MAG welding, the spray mode of metal transfer can be characterised by?
a
b
c
d
MMA.
MIG.
TIG.
SAW.
A1-9
a
b
c
d
16 In MIG/MAG welding, which mode of metal transfer uses inductance to control welding
conditions?
a
b
c
d
Spray.
Dip.
Globular.
Pulse.
21V
26V
24V
20V
200A.
230A.
190A.
150A.
18 In MMA welding, which electrode would give the highest level of penetration?
a
b
c
d
Rutile.
Basic.
Cellulostic.
Iron powder
Rutile.
Basic
Cellulostic.
Iron powder.
Which type of electrical output characteristic is associated with MMA?
a
b
c
d
Constant voltage.
Flat characteristic.
Constant current.
All of the above.
Extruded.
Electrode.
Covered electrode.
Extended.
22 With MMA electrode classifications, what does the first two numbers represent?
a
b
c
d
Charpy value.
Welding position.
Recovery rate.
Tensile strength.
Rutile.
Iron powder.
A1-10
c
d
Basic.
Cellulostic.
24 In MMA welding, which polarity would give the highest level of penetration?
a
b
c
d
AC.
DC-.
DC+.
About the same.
25 With MMA welding, if the arc length is increased, what is the most likely outcome?
a
b
c
d
Higher penetration.
Decrease in amperage.
Decrease in voltage.
All of the above.
How
How
How
How
Changes AC to DC.
Steps up amperage, steps down voltage.
Steps up voltage and steps down amperage.
All of the above.
28 ROL means?
a
b
c
d
29
a
b
c
d
Rutile.
Iron powder.
Cellulostic.
Basic.
E6011.
E 35 3 B.
E 45 35 B.
E 7013
A1-11
In the SAW process, which polarity is often used to prevent arc blow?
a
b
c
d
AC.
DC+.
DC-.
All of the above.
a
b
c
d
Fused.
Agglomerated.
Acidic.
Neutral.
In the SAW process, what is the main effect of increasing the voltage?
a
b
c
d
Wider weld.
Narrower weld.
Greater penetration.
All of the above.
a
b
c
d
Flat characteristic.
Drooping characteristic.
Constant current.
High output characteristic.
Twin wires are often used in the SAW process to improve deposition rates. To prevent
arc blow the polarity combination is?
a
b
c
d
In the Saw process welding above 1000 amps the static electrical characteristic is?
a
b
c
d
Constant current.
Constant voltage.
Flat characteristic.
DC+.
A-12
a
b
c
d
Fused.
Agglomerated.
Rutile.
All of the above.
In the Saw process, what is the typical depth of flux whilst welding?
a
b
c
d
10-15mm.
25-30mm.
40-50mm.
50-60mm.
a
b
c
d
100mm.
200mm.
300mm.
400mm.
Defect free.
All positional.
Good toughness values.
Very versatile.
11 What is the typical thickness range for the oxy fuel cutting process?
a
b
c
d
5-100mm.
5-150mm.
3-150mm.
0.5-250mm.
12 Using the oxy fuel cutting process on steel, what is the typical ignition temperature?
a
b
c
d
700-900C.
1200-1400C.
500-600C.
1500-1600C.
14 If using the oxy fuel process to cut steel, which one of these statements is true?
a
b
c
d
A-13
6000C.
10,000C.
15,000C.
20,000C.
16 A plasma cutting power source has what type of static output characteristic?
a
b
c
d
Constant voltage.
Constant current.
Flat characteristic.
Variable.
DC-.
DC+.
AC.
All of the above.
Oxy fuel.
MMA gouging.
Plasma.
Arc air.
Aluminium.
Stainless steel.
Carbon steel.
Copper.
20 Whats the main reason why oxy fuel gas cutting cannot cut stainless steel?
a
b
c
d
A-14
Welcome
Wire advances, i
increases until: Feed
speed = burn off
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0-1
0-2
Joining
Welding.
Brazing.
Soldering.
Adhesive bonding.
Diffusion bonding.
Riveting.
Clinching.
Sewing, stapling, etc.
Welding
Parts To Be Joined
Parent material, base material.
Metals.
Plastics.
Ceramics.
Composites.
Brazing
A process of joining in which, during or after
heating, molten filler metal is drawn into or
retained in the space between closely adjacent
surfaces of the parts to be joined by capillary
attraction.
Filler, consumable.
Weldable/Un-weldable
1-1
Soldering
A similar process to brazing, relying on
capillary attraction to draw molten filler into a
gap between parts that remain solid
throughout. Solders melt at low temperatures,
less than 450C.
Welding
Fusion.
Solid state.
Fusion Welding
Joint Terminology
Edge
Butt Preparations
Lap
Square edge
closed butt
Cruciform
Tee
Square edge
open butt
Butt
1-2
Single Bevel
Single Vee
Single-J
Single-U
Double -Bevel
Double - J
Double -Vee
Double - U
Included angle
Angle of bevel
Angle of
bevel
Root
Radius
Root
Radius
Root Face
Root Face
Root Gap
Root Gap
Single-V Butt
Single-U Butt
Root Face
Root Gap
Fillet weld
Single-J Butt
Penetration
Spot weld
Full penetration
Edge weld
Root Face
Land
Weld Terminology
Butt weld
Root Gap
Partial penetration
Plug weld
Compound weld
1-3
Sides
Single sided
Runs
Single run
Double sided
Multirun
Stringer or Weave
Welding Positions
Flat - PA
Stringer bead
Horizontal-Vertical PB
Horizontal - PC
Weave
Overhead - PD
Horizontal-overhead - PE
Vertical-up - PF
Vertical-down - PG
Weld slope
The angle between root line and the
positive X axis of the horizontal
reference plane, measured in
mathematically positive direction (ie
counter-clockwise).
Face
Weld
metal
Weld rotation
The angle between the centreline of
the weld and the positive Z axis or a
line parallel to the Y axis, measured in
the mathematically positive direction
(ie counter-clockwise) in the plane of
the transverse cross section of the
weld in question.
Heat
affected
zone
Weld
boundary
C
D
Root
A, B, C and D = Weld Toes
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1-4
Weld width
Excess root
penetration
Toe Blend
The higher the toe blend angle the greater
the amount of stress concentration.
Features to Consider
Fillet welds - toe blend
Vertical
Leg
Length
Mitre fillet
Convex fillet
Design
Throat
Horizontal leg
Length
Concave fillet
1-5
1-6
Types of Standard
Application and design.
Specification and approval of welding
procedures.
Fabrication Standards
Approval of welders.
Levels of Standards
Company or industry specific standards.
National BS (British Standard).
European BS EN (British Standard European
Standard).
US AWS (American Welding Society) and
ASME (American Society of Mechanical
Engineers).
International ISO (International Standards
Organisation).
Process Terminology
BS EN ISO 4063
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Arc welding.
Resistance welding.
Gas welding.
Welding with pressure.
Beam welding.
Not used.
Other welding processes.
Cutting and gouging.
Brazing, soldering and braze welding.
2-1
Process Terminology
BS EN ISO 4063
Actual processes depicted by three digits, eg:
111
114
121
125
131
135
136
141
2-2
To
To
To
To
Weld Symbols
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Supplementary Symbols
Complementary Symbols
3-1
3-2
Fusion welding:
Heat to melt parent plate and filler.
Protection of melt from atmosphere.
Heat:
Flame.
Electric arc.
Electrical resistance.
Power beam.
Protection:
Vacuum or controlled atmosphere.
Shielding gas and/or flux.
Protection
Gas Shielding
Inert gas.
Argon Ar.
Helium He.
Ar-He.
Nitrogen N2 (inert for copper, but not
others).
Active gas.
CO2.
Ar-CO2.
Ar-O2.
Ar-H2.
Flux Shielding
Leftward technique
Rightward technique
4-1
Flame.
Arc.
Resistance.
Power beam.
Flame
Burning fuel gas with oxygen creates flame
temperature around 3000C.
Cannot melt refractory metals Nb. Mo, W.
Heat transfer by conduction and small amount
radiation.
Parent material and filler, if used, melt and
mix in pool.
Arc
Electrical potential ionises gas to give
conductive path between electrode and work.
Arc generates plasma of ionised gas.
Temperature very high ca 10,000C.
Heat transfer by conduction and radiation.
Will melt all metals.
Resistance
Two sheets of metal pressed together by
electrodes of Cu-Cr alloy.
Current passed between electrodes has to
cross boundary between sheets.
High resistance at boundary generates heat
that melts the interface.
Pressure applied to compact the molten area
into a nugget.
4-2
Compliance
Government legislation The Health & Safety
at Work Act.
Health & Safety Executive COSHH
Regulations, Statutory instruments.
British Standards OHSAS 18001.
Company Health and Safety Management
Systems.
Work instructions permits to work, risk
assessment documents etc.
Local Authority requirements.
Must Consider
Electric Shock
Primary 240 or 460V mains.
Do not open welding equipment.
Only qualified electrician to wire or repair
machine.
Secondary 60-100V high current.
Dont touch metal parts of torch or
electrode holder certainly not when
touching an earth.
Dont work with worn cables.
Cables must have capacity for max
current.
Electric shock.
Heat and light.
Fumes and gases.
Noise.
Gas cylinder handling and storage.
Working at height or in restricted access.
Mechanical hazards: trips, falls, cuts, impact
from heavy objects.
Heat
5-1
Light
Different hazards according to type.
Type depends on wavelength.
Welding creates all three types.
Type
Wavelength, nm
Infra-red (heat)
>700
Visible light
400-700
Ultra-violet radiation
<400
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Visible
Intense visible light from arc can dazzle and
damage network of nerves on the retina.
Effects depend on the duration and intensity of
exposure.
Natural reflex to close eyes.
Normally this dazzling does not have longterm effect.
Infra-Red
Years of exposing eyes to IR causes gradual
but irreversible opacity of the lens.
IR emitted by welding arc causes damage only
short distance from the arc.
Burning sensation in the skin surrounding eyes
exposed to arc heat. Natural reaction to move
or cover up.
Rest of skin absorbs heat so cools the welder
Do not remove clothing to cool.
Fume
Fume is from vaporisation, condensation and
oxidation of substances by arc.
Particles very small remain in air for long time
so may be breathed.
Small particles are respirable penetrate the
innermost regions of the lung where they have
the most potential to do harm.
Welding fume may be hazardous to health
must be controlled to regulation limits.
5-2
Is Fume Hazardous?
Degree of risk depends on:
Composition.
Concentration.
Length of time of exposure.
Gases
Toxic gases can appear in welding and cutting:
Fuel gases when burnt form CO2 and CO.
Shielding gases Ar, He, CO2.
CO2 and CO from welding flux or slag.
NO, NO2, O3 from heat or UV on atmosphere
surrounding the welding arc.
Gases from the degradation of solvent
vapours or surface contaminants on the metal.
Is Fume Hazardous?
Fe3O4, CaCO3, TiO2 have WEL of 4 or 5mg/m3.
Similar to any dust no specific health issue
but needs control for proper lung function.
Mn, Cr3+, soluble Ba set at 0.5mg/m3.
Cu is 0.2mg/m3.
Cr6+, NiO potential carcinogens so:
5-3
Noise
Welding not excessively noisy but:
Air-arc gouging.
Grinding.
Metalworking.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ejEJGNLTo84
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CHDAbM09Y1o
Working at Height
All standard precautions:
Correctly erected scaffolding
Ladders tied in
Handrails, safety cages on any lifts
Running boards and kickboards fitted and tied
Risk assessment for welding:
Can you lift gas cylinders?
Is welder protected from fall if electric
shocked?
Are others protected from falling hot metal?
Mechanical Hazards
Mechanical Hazards
Vibration white finger
from:
Grinders.
Pneumatic burr
tools.
Chipping hammers.
Needle guns.
5-4
Acetylene
Highest temperature.
Highest heat energy in inner flame.
Lowest ratio of O2.
Ideal for welding higher MPt metals, eg steel.
Good for cutting.
Propane
Highest heat energy in outer flame.
Ideal for preheating.
Can preheat steel prior to oxygen injection so
can be used for cutting.
Flame Type
Neutral equal C2H2 and O2.
MAPP
Neutral Flame
Inner cone rounded and distinct white
C2H2 and O2 burn to CO and H2.
Surrounded by colourless tongue where CO
and H2 will reduce any metal oxides.
Outer zone slightly blue CO and H2 burn
with O2 from air to give CO2 and H2O.
Fizzling sound.
Used for welding ferritic steel, stainless steel,
copper alloys, brazing, braze welding.
6-1
Oxidising Flame
Reducing Flame
Long white inner cone.
Excess C2H2 burns at edge of outer zone with
O2 from air, ragged edge.
Luminous, slightly yellow.
No sound.
Carburising so used for hardfacing.
Used for Al alloys to avoid oxide build up.
Gas Welding
Mode of operation
Fuel gas and oxygen mixed in body of
blowpipe then fed through nozzle and burnt.
Welder manipulates blowpipe to melt edges of
workpiece and so form weld pool.
Filler metal (rod) is added as required.
Weld pool protected from atmospheric
contamination by the burnt gas products and
can be made mildly oxidising or reducing.
6-2
Nozzle size.
Gas pressure.
Gas flow rate.
Tip to work distance.
Travel speed.
Leftward or rightward technique.
6-3
Conductors.
Metals.
Graphite.
Salt solutions.
Plasma (ionised gas).
Non-conductors.
Most non-metallic materials, eg rubber, O2
gas.
Most organic material, eg wood, cotton.
Most minerals, eg limestone, clay, rocks.
Dynamo Principle
Move metal wire through magnetic field
and electrons move along it to try to stay
close to positive North pole.
Use many wires and keep moving, many
electrons flow along wires.
Collect electrons from wires flow of
electricity.
Can have annular magnets and spin wire
bundle in centre or make wire bundle
annular and spin magnet in centre
dynamo.
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Dynamos
Principle of bicycle
dynamo
7-1
Electrical Terms
Potential or voltage.
Creates drive - size of difference between +
and Termed V, measured in volts.
Electromotive force, EMF.
Drive created by electrical potential.
Termed , measured in volts.
Current.
Flow of electrons and ions.
Termed i, measured in amperes (Amps).
Power
Available power depends on both i and V:
240V indicator lamp on equipment dim.
12V battery lamp very bright.
Product of i and V is power consumption, W,
measured in watts:
W=ixV
Available power measured in same way, eg 240V
mains on 13A fused circuit has:
W = 13 x 240 = 3120 = 3.12kW.
Resistance
Heating Effect
Difficulty of flow in Ni-Cr wire gives energy
loss as heat.
Happens in all conductors, even Cu house
cables can heat up.
Heating effect proportional to resistance of
wire and square of current carried:
i2R Effect
Frequency
7-2
Transformation
To minimise loss, grids have very high voltage
400,000V.
Reduce for domestic and industrial use.
Link between electricity and magnetism used.
Current at high voltage passed through coil
with iron core gives magnetic flux in iron.
Core is loop and passes through second coil of
wire induces current in this coil.
Full-Wave Rectification
Use four diode bridge.
The Transformer
Voltage in 2nd coil
depends on turns.
V1/V2 = n1/n2
High V, more turns.
Low V , few turns.
Energy preserved
so:
High V, low i.
Low V, high i.
Rectification
Half-wave:
Pass AC through diode, only allows one way
flow:
7-3
Inductance
Current in wire generates magnetic field.
Magnetic flux proportional to current.
So, if current changes, magnetic field
intensity also varies.
Faraday Law: changing field of magnetic
flux induces an EMF in wire that acts to
oppose the increase in current.
Phenomenon is known as inductance.
Useful in welding. Rapid changes in
current can give instability. Inductance
slows change.
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Inductors
Purpose-built inductors wound as coils to
maximise magnetic effect.
An inductor may have ferromagnetic core to
amplify effect.
Some cores may move to vary inductance.
Symbols for inductors.
No inductance
With inductance
Current
Time
Inverters
Inverter electronically switches DC to give
negative cycle.
Speed of switching can be varied and can be
very high 100kHz.
HF transformer can be very much smaller.
Transformer in inverter power source is very
small yet handles high current without
overheating.
Size Comparison
Conventional MMA
Inverter MMA
7-4
Generators
Use dynamo principle rotating wires through
magnetic fields to produce DC electricity.
Petrol or diesel driven engines, generators
require no electricity so very portable.
Used for site work.
Not popular for shop work as noisy.
Power Sources
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Transformers
In simplest form, step-down transformer to
take 415V mains to 80-100V.
Output current adjusted by adding inductance
and capacitance (reactance).
This is called choking and the adjustment
control often called the choke.
Can tap at different points of output coil of
transformer or use moving iron core.
Rectifier
Transformers
Tapped transformer
Moving core
transformer
Inverters
HF AC transformation
gives very small size
Transformer coupled with rectifier gives DC
8-1
Current/Voltage Relationship
Drooping Characteristic
100
75A at 100V.
375 A at 20V.
80
70
Voltage
90
60
50
40
Normal Operating
Voltage Range
30
20
10
20
40
60
80
100
120
130
140
160
180
200
Amperage
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Drooping Characteristic
Known as constant current (CC).
No current open circuit voltage (OCV).
For MMA OCV helps strike arc.
Used on steep slope where large change to
voltage makes small change to current.
Manual welding difficult to hold electrode at
exactly same height, so voltage varies.
Very little effect on current so penetration
stays the same.
Ideal for MMA and TIG.
Flat Characteristic
Small change in voltage = large change in amperage
i
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Flat Characteristic
Self-Adjusting Arc
Wire advances, i
increases until: Feed
speed = burn off
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8-2
Self-Adjusting Arc
Wire retracts, i
decreases until: Feed
speed = burn off
MMA.
TIG.
MIG.
Pulsed MIG.
FCAW.
Carbon arc gouging.
Pulsed Power
Switching off or reversing polarity in
programmed manner.
Useful for heat input and weld pool control.
Makes positional welding easier, eg MIG with
spray transfer during peak current pulse.
Balancing melting and cleaning when AC TIG
welding aluminium alloys.
High current
Low current
One-Knob Control
8-3
Duty Cycle
8-4
TIG Basics
TIG Welding
TWI Training & Examination Services
Power return
cable
Torch
assemblies
Tungsten
electrodes
Transformer
/ Rectifier
Inverter
power
source
Power
control panel
Power cable
Flow-meter
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Polarity
DCEN:
Most used.
Tungsten cooled by electron emission.
Workpiece receives more heat.
DCEP:
Will clean oxide from Al and Mg.
Heat tends to melt tungsten.
Can be done with water cooled torch.
AC:
Usual way to weld Al and Mg to get cleaning.
Arc Starting
Scratch start:
Tungsten touched on workpiece.
Short-circuit starts current.
Arc established as torch lifted.
Can leave tungsten inclusions.
Lift arc:
Electronic control very low short-circuit
current.
Builds to operational current as torch lifted.
HF:
Superimposition of HF high voltage spark.
Copyright TWI Ltd 2015
Tungsten Types
Pure W green band:
Cheap, but short life. Poor arc start.
W +ThO2 yellow (1%), red (2%):
High current carrying but slightly radioactive.
W + CeO2 grey (Europe), orange (US):
Good for low current DC work.
W + La2O3 black:
Increasing use to replace thoriated.
W + ZrO2 white (Europe), brown (US):
Used for AC.
9-1
GTAW Torch
Torch types:
GTAW Torch
Tungsten
electrode
Torch
cap/tungsten
housing
Collet
holder
Electrode
collet
Torch
body
Ceramic
nozzle
On/off
switch
Better protection
against oxidation.
2-2.5 times
electrode diameter
Penetration
increase
Increase
Vertex
angle
Decrease
Bead width
increase
9-2
Grinding Tungstens
Potential Defects
Tungsten inclusions:
Thermal shock Tungsten splinters can.
Touch start fuses spots to workpiece.
Overheating can project tungsten fragments
into the weld pool.
Very visible on radiograph but not critical
defect.
Solidification cracking:
Some compositions inherently crack sensitive.
Impurities often make eutectics.
Fillers designed with elements to react with
impurities, eg Mn used to give high MPt MnS.
Potential Defects
Oxide inclusions:
Oxides contribute to lack of fusion.
No fluxing to absorb oxides.
Need to keep good gas cover to avoid
oxidation of reactive metals.
Diffraction mottling:
Not real defect.
Black and white parallel lines on radiograph.
Can obscure real lack of fusion defect.
Advantages of TIG
Disadvantages of TIG
9-3
MIG/MAG Welding
Also known as gas metal arc welding.
Uses continuous wire electrode.
Weld pool protected by shielding gas.
Classified as semi-automatic may be fully
automated.
Wire can be bare or coated solid wire, flux or
metal cored hollow wire.
Process Characteristics
DCEP from CV power source.
Wire 0.6-1.6mm diameter. Gas shielded.
Wire fed through conduit. Melt rate maintains
constant arc length/arc voltage.
WFS directly related to burn-off rate.
Burn-off rate directly related to current.
Semi-automatic set controls arc length.
Can be mechanised and automated.
MIG/MAG Equipment
External wire
feed unit
Internal wire
feed system
Power control
panel
15kg wire spool
Power return
cable
Wire Feeding
Transformer
/ Rectifier
Power cable
& hose
assembly
Separate feeder
Feeder in set
10-1
Two roll
Half grooved
bottom roller
Four roll
Wire guide
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Roll Grooves
Push-pull
Close wound
stainless
steel wire
Torch Components
Welding gun assembly
(less nozzle)
Swan neck
Teflon
liner
Spatter
protection
Push-pull
Hose
port
Spot welding
spacer
Nozzles or
shrouds
Gas diffuser
Contact tips
10-2
Contact
tip
Union nut
V
WFS remote
control
potentiometer
Trigger
Gas
nozzle
i
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Self-Adjusting Arc
Wire advances, i
increases until: Feed
speed = burn off
Self-Adjusting Arc
www.millerwelds.com/resources/articles/MIG-GMAW-weldingbasics.
Copyright TWI Ltd 2015
Welding Current, A
Welding Parameters
350
300
0.8
250
0.9
1.2
200
1.6
150
100
50
0
2.5
7.5
10
10-3
Process Variables
Process Variables
Electrode
orientation
Arc voltage
Increasing Voltage
Reduced penetration, increased width
Excessive voltage can cause porosity,
spatter and undercut
Electrode
extension
Penetration
Deep
Moderate
Max
Moderate
Undercut
Severe Moderate
Shallow
Min
Minimum
Travel speed
Increasing travel speed
Reduced penetration and width,
undercut
Increased extension
Shielding Gas
Argon:
OK for all metals weldable by MIG.
Supports spray transfer, not good for dip.
Low penetration.
Carbon dioxide:
Use on ferritic steel.
Supports dip and globular, not spray.
Ar based mixtures:
Add He, O2, CO2 to increase penetration.
>20Ar + He, >80Ar + O2, CO2 can spray and
dip.
Copyright TWI Ltd 2015
C-Steel
Shielding
Gas
Ar +
10%CO2
Ar +2%O2
Stainless
steel
Ar +2%O2
Wire Dia,
mm
0.8
0.9
1.2
1.6
0.9
1.2
1.6
0.8
0.9
1.2
1.6
Transition
Current, A
155-165
175-185
215-225
280-290
130-140
205-215
265-275
120-130
140-150
185-195
250-260
10-4
Dip Transfer
Globular Transfer
Advantages:
Transfer by gravity or
short circuit.
Requires CO2 shielding
Drops larger than
electrode hence severe
spatter.
Can use low voltage and
bury arc to reduce spatter.
High current and voltage,
so high distortion.
Disadvantages:
Spray Transfer
Pulsed Transfer
Simplest form uses mains frequency and chops to
control current.
10-5
Electronic Generation
With synthesised pulse height, duration and
frequency can be controled.
Droplets spray during peak current across the
arc.
No transfer during background current too
low for dip.
Can select conditions to give single drop
transfer each pulse synergic MIG.
Potential Defects
Most defects caused by lack of welder skill, or
incorrect settings of equipment.
Worn contact tip causes poor power pick up
and this causes wire to stub into work.
Silica inclusions can build up with poor interun
cleaning.
Lack of fusion (primarily with dip transfer).
Porosity (from loss of gas shield on site etc)
Cracking, centerline pipes, crater pipes on
deep narrow welds.
MIG/MAG Attributes
Advantages:
High productivity.
Easily automated.
All positional (dip
and pulse).
Material thickness
range.
Continuous
electrode.
Disadvantages:
Lack of fusion (dip).
Small range of
consumables.
Protection on site.
Complex equipment
Not so portable.
10-6
Benefit of Flux
Flux assists in producing gas cover, more
tolerant to draughts than solid wire.
Flux creates slag that protects hot metal.
Slag holds bead when positional welding.
Flux alloying can improve weld metal
properties.
Reduced cross-section carrying current gives
increased burn-off at any current.
Handle
24V insulated
switch lead
Conductor
tube
Trigger
Thread protector
Welding
gun cable
Hand shield
Contact tip
Courtesy of Lincoln
Electric
Copyright TWI Ltd 2015
Travel Angle
75
90
75
Disadvantages
Produces higher weld
profile.
Difficult to follow
weld joint.
Can lead to burnthrough on thin
sheet.
10-7
Disadvantages:
Produces low weld
profile, with coarser
ripples.
Fast travel gives low
penetration.
Amount of spatter
can increase.
FCAW Advantages
Less sensitive to lack of fusion.
Smaller included angle compared to MMA.
High productivity.
All positional.
Smooth bead surface, less danger of undercut.
Basic types produce excellent toughness.
Good control of weld pool in positional welding
especially with rutile wires.
Ease of varying alloying constituents gives
wide range of consumables.
Some can run without shielding gas.
FCAW Disadvantages
Limited to steels and Ni-base alloys.
Slag covering must be removed.
FCAW wire is more expensive per kg than solid
wires (except some high alloy steels) but note
may be more cost effective.
Gas shielded wires may be affected by winds
and draughts like MIG.
More fume than MIG/MAG.
10-8
Early History
Developments
In WW1 USA short of asbestos rods. Smith
tried making the first cellulosic rod.
Extruded electrodes appeared in the 1920s.
AO Smith selling heavy coated rods in 1926.
Rutile tried in 1930s, for flat and horizontal
welding.
Roberts made rutile Vodex (Vertical,
Overhead, Downhand for MurEX) in 1936.
MMA dominated welding 1940s to 1980s.
Also known as shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW).
Solidified
slag
Weldmetal
Directionofelectrode
travel
Gaseous
shield
Moltenweld
pool
Parent
metal
MMA Welding
Main features:
Shielding provided by decomposition of
flux.
Consumable electrode.
Manual process.
Welder controls:
Arc length.
Angle of electrode.
Speed of travel.
Current setting.
Arc
Consumable
electrode
Control panel
(amps, volts)
Electrode
oven
Electrodes
Power source
Holding oven
Inverter power
source
Return lead
Electrode holder
Welding visor
filter glass
Power cables
11-1
O.C.V. Striking
voltage (typical)
for arc initiation
90
80
Voltage
70
60
50
40
Normal Operating
Voltage Range
30
20
10
20
40
60
80
100
120
130
140
160
180
200
Amperage
Copyright TWI Ltd 2015
Process Characteristics
Straight lengths of coated electrode 250450mm long and 1.6-6.0mm diameter.
DCEP, DCEN and AC all possible.
Coatings grouped:
Cellulosic.
Iron oxide.
Rutile.
Basic.
With or without iron powder.
Cellulosic Electrodes
Use industrially extracted cellulose powder, or
wood flour in the formula.
Characteristic smell when welding.
Slag remains thin and friable, although the high
arc force can create undercut and/or excessive
ripple which may anchor the slag, thus requiring
grinder inter-run cleaning.
Strong arc action and deep penetration.
AWS E6010 types DC; E6011 run on AC.
Gas shield principally hydrogen.
Only used on C- and C-Mn steels.
High arc force allows V-D stovepiping.
Rutile Electrodes
11-2
Basic Electrodes
CaCO3 and CaF2 main ingredients.
AWS E7015 first modern basic rods. Ran DC.
Superseded by E7016 or E7018 AC and DC.
E7018 has Fe powder to help stabilise arc.
E7016 good rooting and all-positional.
Both can give good mechanical properties.
Often hybrid; small diameter no Fe powder,
larger dia. increasing amounts.
Used for ferritic, stainless steels, Ni and Cu.
Process Characteristics
Arc melts both electrode and parent plate.
Flux forms gas to protect and form a plasma
and slag to protect hot metal.
Short runs as finite length electrode.
Must de-slag before next run.
11-3
Rutile,
stainless
Basic, Cu
7Sn
EN
Specification
Dia.
mm
3.2
E38 0 C 11
4.0
5.0
2.0
2.5
3.2
E 35 2 R12
4.0
5.0
6.0
2.5
3.2
E42 0 RR73
4.0
5.0
6.0
2.0
2.5
E69 4
Mn2NiCrMo B42 3.2
H5
4.0
5.0
1.6
2.0
2.5
E19 9 LR12
3.2
4.0
5.0
2.5
3.2
4.0
Heat Input
Current Range, A
90 120
120 160
135 200
40 70
75 100
95 125
135 180
155 230
185 300
85 125
130 170
180 230
250 340
300 430
50 75
70 110
100 150
135 210
180 260
35 45
35 65
50 90
70 130
90 180
140 250
60 90
90 125
125 170
Where:
i = current in amps.
V = voltage in volts.
Stringer or Weave
Weave:
Lateral swings as well as moving along joint.
Useful to assist side wall fusion.
Run-out is shorter so heat input is higher.
Slows cooling rate, poorer toughness.
Stringer Bead:
Run weld bead in straight line along joint.
Lower heat input per unit length.
Can be too low martensite in steel so poor
toughness.
Copyright TWI Ltd 2015
11-4
Preheat
Ferritic steels must not have hydrogen
diffusing and inducing cracking.
Can apply preheat to slow rate of cooling
giving hydrogen time to be released as
process more susceptible to MICC.
Preheat may be with gas torch and large
nozzle or electrically heated blankets.
Preheat specified as a minimum. Parent plate
near weld must be heated. Check with probe
or temperature sensitive crayons.
Interpass Temperature
In multipass welding must avoid heat build up.
Can lower strength and toughness.
Maximum interpass may be specified.
Note preheat still applicable so may have
minimum interpass temperature (equivalent to
original preheat) and maximum.
Disadvantages:
High welder skill.
High levels of fume.
Hydrogen control
(flux).
Stop/start problems.
Low productivity.
11-5
Welding Consumables
Welding consumables are any products that are
used up in the production of a weld.
Welding consumables may be:
Covered electrodes, filler wires and electrode
wires.
Shielding or oxy-fuel gases.
Separately supplied fluxes.
Fusible inserts.
Welding Consumables
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Services
Welding Consumables
TIG/PAW rods
Welding
fluxes
(SAW)
Cored wire
SAW strips
SAW
solid wire
MIG/MAG
solid wire
Courtesy of ESAB AB
Covered
electrodes
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Welding Consumables
Each consumable is critical in respect to:
Size.
Classification/supplier.
Condition.
Treatments eg baking/drying.
Handling and storage is critical for consumable
control.
Handling and storage of gases is critical for
safety.
Welding gases:
12-1
Welding consumables:
Filler material must be stored in an area with
controlled temperature and humidity.
Poor handling and incorrect stacking may
damage coatings, rendering the electrodes
unusable.
There should be an issue and return policy for
welding consumables (system procedure).
Control systems for electrode treatment must
be checked and calibrated; those operations
must be recorded.
Filler material suppliers must be approved
before purchasing any material.
Welding Consumables
Rutile electrodes.
General purpose basic electrodes.
Quality Assurance
Tin can
Cellulosic electrodes.
12-2
Disadvantages:
High in hydrogen.
High crack tendency.
Rough weld
appearance.
High spatter
contents.
Low deposition rates.
Rutile electrodes
Disadvantages:
They cannot be made with a low hydrogen
content.
Cannot be used on high strength steels or
thick joints - cracking risk too high.
They do not give good toughness at low
temperatures.
These limitations mean that they are only
suitable for general engineering - low
strength, thin steel.
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Advantages:
Easy to use.
Low cost/control.
Smooth weld
profiles.
Slag easily
detachable.
High deposition
possible with the
addition of iron
powder.
Disadvantages:
High in hydrogen.
High crack tendency.
Low strength.
Low toughness
values.
12-3
Characteristics:
Disadvantages:
Basic covering:
Basic electrodes
Disadvantages:
Careful control of baking and/or issuing of electrodes is
essential to maintain low hydrogen status and avoid risk
of cracking.
Typical baking temperature 350C for 1-2hours.
Holding temperature 120-150C.
Issue in heated quivers typically 70C.
Welders need to take more care/require greater skill.
Weld profile usually more convex.
De-slagging requires more effort than for other types.
Basic electrodes
Advantages
High toughness
values.
Low hydrogen
contents.
Low crack tendency.
Disadvantages
High cost.
High control.
High welder skill
required.
Convex weld
profiles.
Poor stop/start
properties.
Compulsory
Optional
12-4
Symbol
Weld metal
recovery (%)
105
AC/DC
105
DC
>105 125
AC/DC
>105 125
DC
>125 160
AC/DC
>125 160
DC
>160
AC/DC
>160
DC
Symbol
1
N/mm2
N/mm2
N/mm2
Welding position
designation
Type of
current
N/mm2
N/mm2
Welding position
All positions
Flat butt/fillet,
horizontal fillet
Flat butt/fillet
Flat butt/fillet,
horizontal fillet,
vertical down
Covered electrode
Tensile strength (p.s.i)
Welding position
Flux covering
Covered electrode
Tensile strength (p.s.i)
E XX X C
EXX10
EXX11
Rutile
E XX X R
Flux covering
E XX X RR EXX24
Moisture control
Basic
E XX X B
Welding position
Alloy content
EXX12
EXX13
EXX15
EXX16
EXX18
12-5
Moisture Pick-Up
Temperature.
Humidity.
Electrode Efficiency
up to 180% for iron powder electrodes
Requires calibration.
Heated quivers:
Only for maintaining
moisture out of
electrodes after
baking.
Rutile
electrodes
Vacuum
packed basic
electrodes
Baking in oven 2
hours at 350C!
If necessary, dry up
to 120C- No
baking!
Limited number of
rebakes!
Weld
12-6
3 Electrode designation
EN 499-E 51 3 B
Questions
Welding consumables:
QU 1. Why are basic electrodes used mainly
on high strength materials and what c
ontrols are required when using basic
electrodes?
QU 2. Name ten functions of an MMA flux?
QU 3. Why are cellulose electrodes commonly
used for the welding of pressure pipe
lines?
QU 4. What type of issues need to be
considered when using cellulostic
electrodes?
Copyright TWI Ltd 2015
12-7
Process Characteristics
Arc between bare wire and parent plate.
Arc, electrode end and the molten pool
submerged in powdered flux.
Flux produces gas and slag in lower layers
under heat of arc giving protection.
Wire fed by voltage-controlled motor driven
rollers to ensure constant arc length.
Process Characteristics
Flux fed from hopper in continuous mound
along line of intended weld.
Mound is deep to submerge arc. No spatter,
weld shielded from atmosphere, no UV on
welder.
Unmelted flux reclaimed for use.
Only for flat and horizontal-vertical positions.
Power return
cable
Power
control panel
Transformer
/ Rectifier
Welding carriage
control unit
Welding carriage
Granulated
flux
Electrode wire
reel
Granulated
flux
13-1
Types of Equipment
SAW Equipment
Wire reel
Slides
Hand-held gun
Flux
hopper
Tractor
Wire feed
motor
Feed roll
assembly
Torch
assembly
Column and boom
Tracking
system
Gantry
Courtesy of ESAB AB
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Tractor Units
For straight or gently curved joints.
Ride tracks alongside joint or directly on
workpiece.
Can have guide wheels to track.
Good portability, used where piece cannot be
moved.
Gantry
2D linear movement only.
For large production.
May have more than
one head.
Contact tip
Power Sources
Power sources can be:
Transformers for AC.
Transformer-rectifiers for DC.
Static characteristic can be:
Constant voltage (flat) most popular.
Constant current (drooping) used for high
current.
13-2
Wire
Fused Fluxes
Original Unionmelt design manganese,
aluminium and calcium silicates.
Non-hygroscopic, no need to bake.
Good for recycling, composition doesnt vary
Some can accept up to 2000A.
Very limited alloying and property control.
Cannot make basic fused flux.
Welding Current
Controls penetration and dilution
Welding current.
Current type and polarity.
Welding voltage.
Travel speed.
Electrode size.
Electrode extension.
Width and depth of the layer of flux.
Setting Current
Too high excess weld metal, increased
shrinkage, more distortion.
Excessively high digging W<D
arc, undercut,
burn through, narrow bead cracking.
Too low lack of fusion, poor penetration.
Excessively low unstable arc.
13-3
Welding Voltage
DCEP - deep
penetration; better
for porosity.
DCEN - higher
deposition rate;
reduce penetration;
surfacing use.
AC used to avoid arc
blow; can give
unstable arc.
Setting Voltage
Low voltage - stiffer
arc penetration in
deep groove and
resists arc blow.
Excessive low
voltage - high
narrow bead
difficult slag
removal.
Setting Voltage
Excessively high
voltage:
Produces hat-shaped
bead tendency to
crack.
Increases undercut,
slag removal
difficult.
Produce concave
fillet weld subject to
cracking.
W<D
13-4
Electrode Size
At same current, small
electrodes have higher
current density so
higher deposition
rates.
Electrode Extension
Increased extension:
Adds resistance
Increases deposition
Decreases penetration and bead width
Helps prevent burn-through
Increase voltage to control weld shape
Excessive extension:
difficult to position tip
Depth of Flux
Influences appearance of weld.
Usually, depth of flux is 25-30mm.
If too deep:
If too shallow:
Weld Backing
Backing strip
Backing weld
Copper backing
13-5
Potential Defects
Porosity:
Oil, paint, grease, etc decompose in the arc to
give elongated wormhole porosity.
Flux must be dry. Manufacturer's give drying
temperatures.
Compressed air flux recovery units need dry
air.
Insufficient flux burden can expose arc and
pool to atmospheric contamination.
Solidification Cracking
Control composition, susceptibility predictor
230C + 190S + 75P + 45Nb - 12.3Si - 5.4Mn
1.
Add Mn and Si to counter C, S and P, either in
wire or through flux.
Depth to width ratio important:
Solidification Cracking
a In the root beads of a
multi-run weld.
b Caused by high speed
giving a long deep weld
pool in first pass.
Solidification cracking
13-6
History
Many cite Hopkins (USA) as inventor in 1939.
Paton Institute developed process in 1950s.
Shrubsall (USA) consumable guide in 1957.
Much used in the US buildings in 1960s,
1970s.
Apparently very poor toughness led to ban is
the US.
Earthquake 1994 showed no problem to ESW.
Ban lifted in 2000.
Electroslag Welding
TWI Training & Examination
Services
Principle
Thick vertical plates, square edge, large gap.
Copper shoes on either side make a well to
hold molten metal in place.
Wire fed to bottom, usually through tube that
also melts (consumable guide).
Flux covers wire end.
Initial arc melts wire and flux.
Molten flux conductive, floods arc so wire
melts through resistive heating of flux.
Weld completed in single pass.
Process Characteristics
After initiation arc extinguishes, wire melted
rapidly by resistive heating.
Welds up to 300mm made in single pass.
Copper guide tube used in standard process.
Oscillated, slowly lifted as weld progresses.
Tubular consumable guide not lifted so melts
into pool. Not usually oscillated either.
Very slow cooling, near equilibrium structure
PWHT to gain properties.
Variants of ESW
Materials Welded
Mostly used on C and C-Mn steel.
Has been used on stainless and Ni alloys by
Paton Institute.
Also claimed to weld Ti successfully.
Al is possible but not welded commercially.
Process developed for rail track joining but
although better quality than thermite did not
gain favour.
14-1
Disadvantages:
Grain growth gives very
large grains and poor
toughness.
Limited to vertical or
near vertical position.
Except cladding
modification flat.
Difficult to examine with
NDT.
14-2
Description of Processes
Summary of Processes
Process operations
Thermal
process
Primary
Secondary
Oxyfuel gas
flame
Cutting
Gouging
Grooving
Chamfering
Manual metal
arc
Gouging
Grooving
Chamfering
Ferritic, stainless,
cast iron, Ni alloys
Gouging
Grooving
Chamfering
Plasma arc
Cutting
Gouging
Chamfering
Grooving
Ferritic, stainless,
Al
Laser
Cutting
Chamfering
Drilling
Ferritic, stainless
Metals
Gouging
General Safety
Cutting and gouging forcibly eject molten
metal, often over large distance.
Must take appropriate precautions to protect
operator, other workers and equipment.
Protective clothing, enclosed booth or screens,
fume extraction, removal of all combustible
material.
15-1
Propane
Highest heat energy in outer flame.
Flame unfocussed, (speed 3.3m/s).
Slower preheating than acetylene but
effective.
Once at ignition temperature, O2 reaction is
same so cutting speed same.
Process Fundamentals
Mixture of O2 and fuel gas used to preheat
metal to its ignition temperature .
O2 jet then directed into preheated area.
Exothermic reaction between O2 and metal to
form iron oxide or slag.
Jet blows away slag so it can pierce through
the material and continue to cut.
Acetylene
Highest temperature so fastest preheat.
Highest heat energy in inner flame reduces
HAZ width and distortion.
High flame speed (7.4m/s), good piercing.
Lowest ratio of O2.
MAPP
Methylacetylene and propadiene.
High flame temperature (second to acetylene),
good flame energy levels.
Can be readily compressed.
Choice for underwater cutting.
15-2
Cutting Quality
Oxyfuel typically:
Large kerf (<2mm).
Low roughness
values (Ra<50m).
Poor edge
squareness
(>0.7mm).
Wide HAZ (>1mm).
Cutting Speed
Left too slow, top
face melting,
irregular cut.
Centre optimum.
Right too fast,
metal and oxide not
fully expelled.
Preheating
Left - too little, deep
gouges low on face.
Centre - optimum.
Right - too much,
top face melts.
Powder Cutting
Can inject flux into flame to remove oxide
from stainless making cut possible.
Can inject Fe powder giving exothermic
reaction makes cuts in stainless, Cu, Ni
possible.
Cut quality usually poor.
Disadvantages:
Not precision cut.
C and low alloy steel.
Fire and burn hazards.
Need fume control and
ventilation.
Can give distortion and
residual stress.
Flame Gouging
Cutting principle
adapted to gouging.
Curved nozzle.
Quick, efficient
removal on steel.
Low noise, ease of
use, all positional.
Nozzle size changes
gouge dimensions.
15-3
MMA Gouging
MMA Gouging
Process Characteristics
DCEP for steel and stainless steel. AC for cast
iron, Cu and Ni alloys.
Graphite electrode with Cu coating to reduce
electrode erosion.
Diameter selected for depth and width.
Molten metal/dross kept to minimum.
Standard MMA CC power source. Electrode
different for AC vs DC.
Air from compressor or bottle used.
Disadvantages:
15-4
Plasma Gouging
Laser Cutting
Disadvantages:
Laser Cutting
First done in 1967 at
TWI.
O2 jet with laser in
centre.
CO2 laser then only
high power, now Yb
fibre or Nd-YAG
possible.
Nd-YAG good for Al,
Cu.
Cuts non-conductors.
Faster than oxyfuel.
Instant start-up.
HTPAC has high
quality cut edges.
Narrow HAZ.
Air plasma no gas
cost.
Ideal for thin sheet.
Water bath reduces
fumes.
15-5
Disadvantages:
High cost of
equipment.
Need to isolate
personnel from laser.
15-6
Why Surface?
Number of reasons including:
Repair build-up.
Hard-facing.
Cladding.
Give corrosion or oxidation resistant surface.
Buttering.
Surfacing Methods
Solid-state bonding:
Join two layers by pressure or pressure and
heat.
Rolled clad plate.
Explosive bonding .
Friction can bond new material onto surface.
Diffusion bonding.
Electrically melted:
Arc welding and electroslag strip cladding.
Spraying:
Oxy-fuel, plasma, laser also cold spraying.
Friction Surfacing
Rotate solid bar with
one end pressed
hard material.
Lateral movement of
substrate deposits
plasticised material.
No melting so no
dilution, same
composition as
consumable.
Limited practical use.
Surfacing by Welding
Most processes possible, deposition rates vary.
Can be manual or mechanised.
Surfacing by Welding
Process
Deposition rate,
kg.hr -1
Manual or
mechanised
MMA
1-3
Manual
MIG
2-6
Both
1-2
Both
2-10
Mechanised
10-40
Mechanised
Plasma transferred
arc
SA or ES strip
cladding
16-1
Practical Examples
Repair:
Cast iron tooling (nickel alloys).
Injection molds (martensitic steels).
Hot work tool steels (high speed steels).
Engine exhaust valves (Co alloys):
Wear plate for earth moving, mineral moving.
Concast rolls (FeCr + carbide).
Gate valves (Co alloys).
Thermal Spraying
Apply powder or wire as spray of fine molten
or semi-molten droplets to give coating.
Heat from oxy-fuel or arc.
Low energy, MIG or flame:
Processes Comparison
Attribute
Flame temp. C
Flame Spray
>3000
Wire Arc
>3000
Air Plasma
>5000
HVOF
~3000
50-100
50-150
100-400
400-800
100-200
500-3000
100-200
Gas types
O 2 , C 2 H2
Air, N2, Ar
Power, kW
Particle size, m
Feed rate, kg/hr
20
5-100
2-10
2.5
Wire only
3-18
40-200
5-100
3-6
Typical materials
Metals,
ceramics
Metals, cermets
(cored wire)
Ceramics,
metals
Coating density, %
Porosity, %
Oxides, %
85-90
10-15
10-20
80-95
5-10
10-20
90-95
5-10
1-3
400-1100
CH4, C2H2, H2,
C 3 H6 , O 2
150-300
5-45
1-4
Ceramics,
metals,
cermets
> 95
1-2
1-2
50
50
> 80
> 80
Thickness, mm
0.2-10
0.2-10
0.2-2
0.2-2
Metallisation.
Reclamation, corrosion resistant surfaces.
High density coating.
Thick coatings possible.
High mechanical properties.
16-2