H

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E
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o
A
A
D
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j

E
A
M
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,
J

1903 -19 3 4

THI S

l ia m s

B OO"

bel onge d

N NEERl NG LIB RARY

G l

to

Joh n Al ex an d er Ja m e son Ir
,

Ma s sa c h u setts

t te

AB

Wil

Tec h n ol ogy, 1 9 2 8 ;
M S , C a l iforn ia , 1 93 3 He wa s a m e m be r of P h i B e ta " appa , Tau
B eta P i, th e Am er i can S oc ie ty of C i v il E ng in eer s , a n d th e S ig m a
.

925 ;

B S
.

I n s itu

of

ter n ity H i untim l y d a th c ut h o t a prom i in g caree r

He wa en gag d a s Re ea rc h As i ta n t in Mec h n i ca l En g in eer ing
upon th e d es i gn a n d c on tr u c t ion of th e U S Ti d a l Mod el La bor a
tory of th e Un iver i ty of California
H is g n i a l n a ture an d u n o ten ta ti ou s eff ec t i v en es s w er e fou n d ed
r ec og n ized by
on i n tegri ty l oya l ty a n d d e v ot ion Th se qu li t ie
everyon e m ake hi s life a c ont in u in g be n c n c e Mem ory of him
w ill n ot fa il a m on g th o e w h o kn w hi m
P h i Fr a

s s

s,

G IL BE RT

Hy dr a u lic

an

P n e u m a tic

E n gin e e r in g
BY

CA R L E TON
P

D
E
H
N
L
Y
N
O
J

R OF E S S O R OF

M A C D O NA L D CO L L E G E

U nde r

Ph D
.

P H Y S I CS

" UE

the

D i r ecti o n

CA NA DA

of

AL F R E D C G I L B E R T
.

I llu s t r ated

ale U ive ity

n

by The

rs

1 9 09

C G il b e r t A r t S ta

P ubli s he d

by
T H E A C G I L B E R T COM P A NY
Ne w H av en Conn U S A
Ch i c a g o
L o d on
S n F an c i c o
.

Ne w Y or k

or on o

L 7
9.

I NTR ODUCTI ON
OWA DAYS

there a r e s o many very inte r es t ing things going on

all ab out u s tha t very ofte n we are l ikely t o ove r loo k thi n g s
which have a n important bea r ing o n o ur everyday life S mall
thing s which we a r e s o u s ed to havin g around tha t we never s top to
thi nk wha t they r eally mea n t o u s
.

For i n s tan ce wate r I t s n ice t o dri nk an d b athe in but v e r y few

o f u s eve r s top to co n s ider the innumerable u s e s wate r i s put to a nd
what a g r eat in uen ce it ha s o n many things we do Mo s t of u s a r e
If
s at i s ed t o tu r n o n the faucet a n d get o u r water in that way
s omething i s wrong an d the water do es n t come f r om th e fauce t we
call up the plumbe r but we do no t r ealize what has go n e w r ong s imply
be cau s e we do n o t unde r s tan d how a h ou s e i s p iped f or wate r nor do
we u nde r s tan d why water gets in to the p ipe s etc

The n a ir
an othe r thing which we couldn t l ive without an d y et few
appreciate i t s valu e A ir a n d wate r give u s t r emendou s r e s ult s a s
pneumati c a n d hyd r aulic p r e s sure A knowledge of the s e g r eat fo r ce s
which mo s t b oy s a r e s o famili a r with a n d s til l d o not unde r s tan d th o
roughly will pu t you up f a r ah e a d of y p i1 r: $63 Ifr ie n d s M o s t boys take
is ; th e c l e v e r b oy vvh o dig s into things
thing s t oo much for gra nt e d ;
an d fin d out the rea s o n s

"

'

'

'

I.

the ea r nes t hop e o f the authors o f thi s boo k that the b oy s who
how they
r ead i t will have a b ette r un ders tand ing o f water an d a ir
are u s ed an d wha t they mean to u s
I t is

S in c e rely

COP Y R I G H

TE D,

1 920, B Y

Ne w H AVE N

CON N

you r s

G I LB ERT

E NG INE E R ING Li B RARY

HYD RAUL I C A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI N G

INDE"

TO I LLU TRATIONS

H Y D RA U L I C A P P L I A NC E S

W ater S upply
P riva te W a ter S upply
City

Tan k S y s tem
W ater S upply F r om
P neumati c Ta n k
S ipho n Over H ill
L ift P ump
Force P ump
H ydraul ic P res s
H ydraulic E levator
H yd r aulic L i ft L o ck

F igs 1 2
Fig s 3 4
Figs 7 8
Figs 1 1 12
Figs 22 23
,

A ttic

S pring

Fig s

3 1, 33, 35

P age s 5, 6
P ages 7, 8
P age 10
P age 12
P age 16
P age s 21, 22

Fig s 62 63
Fig 6 5
.

Fig s
Figs

P ag e 43
P age 45

P ages 48 ,
68 A, 73
P age s 48 ,
68 B , 75
6 8 C, 79, 8 1, 8 2
P age s 48 , 55,
P age
Fig 90

52
53
58
66
P age 67
Fig s 91, 92
P age 68
Fig 93
Fig 98
P age 72
105, 106 108
P age s 79 8 0 8 1
Fig s 109 1 10
P age s 82 83
.

Fig s

Torp edo

B attleship
R a i s ing S unken S hip s
Floatin g Dry Dock s
A ir L ock i n P ip e s

Fig s

Fig s

P age s 90, 91

120, 121

P NE U MA T I C A P P L I A NC E S

M agdebu r g H emi s phe r es

B a r ometer
A ir Z one s
Altitude G auge
Air L ift P ump
B alloon s
H el ium B alloon s
A i r B rake s
Flame Th r ower
Fi r e E xti ngu i s he r
B icycle P ump s
A i r Compre s s or
S an d B la s t
P neumat ic P a i nt B ru s h
D iving B ell
P neumat ic Ca i s s o n
To r pedo D is cha r ge Tub e
A ir From S e a W at er

Fig
Fig s

122
129, 130

Fig
Fig

13 1

Fig s
Fig s

Fig

P age 101

P age 1 12
P age s 121, 122

146

Fig
Fig
Fig
Fig
Fig
Fig

Figs

P age 100

P age s 1 10, 1 1 1

156, 1 57

132

P age 99

P age s 105, 106

139, 140
144, 145

Fig s

P age 93

158

P age 123

160

P age 124

1 65

P age 128

167
1 68

P age 130

170

P age 132

P age 130

P age s 133, 134

172, 173
Figs 176, 177
P age 137
Fig 178
P age 138

Fig 18 0
.

8 8 97 7

P age 140

C H A R T OF H Y DR AULI C AND P NE UMAT I C S E P A RA TE P A R T S

D E S CR I P T I O N

NA ME

3 3 00
3 3 01
3 3 02
3 3 03
3 3 04
3 3 05
3 3 06
3 307
3 3 08
3 3 09
3 3 10
3 3 11
3 3 12
3 3 13
3 3 14
3 315
3 3 16
3 3 17
3 3 18
3 3 19
3 3 20
3 3 21
3 3 22
3 3 23
3 3 24
3 3 25
3 3 26
1 5 54

1
2
7
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
H igh B a e 2
7
B O TT L E
5
G LA SS T U B E L
g
2
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G L A SS T U B E
2
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t
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G L A SS T U B E
1
R U B B E R C O U P L I NG
16
RUB B E R H O SE
d ia m ete
R U B B E R S T O P P E R L a b at y S ty le N 2 t w h le
R U B B E R S T O P P E R L a b at y S t y le N 1 S l id
d ia ete
h le
R U B B E R S T O P P E R L a b at y S ty le N 1
m
R U B B E R S T O P P E R L a b at y S ty le N 0 t w h le
h le
R U B B E R S T O P P E R L a b at y S ty le N 0
C L I P S M etal wi t h fa te e
8 05 d i a m ete
7
LA R G E G LA SS T U B E
tap e e d
7
WO O D H A N D L E S
R U B B E R VA L V E S
l
G L A SS V A L V E S N I P P L E
B A LL OO N D i i gi b l e T y p e
B A LL O O N O b e vat i T y pe
2
R U B B E R CO U P L I N G L a g e
3
RU B B E R B A N D S
RU B B E R B A N D S
1
2
S H E E T R U B B E R P I E CE ( W h i te )
m
d
1
S U B MA R I N E
i
ab t
l g t p
4
G L A SS FU NN E L
A
S
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N
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THE A
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i s C
In C
d : Th
A C G il b e t M
x

on

or

on

i a rn e e r

or

or

or

on e

or

or
or

or

or

or

on e

or

on

'

I,

on

an a

enz e

o r on o,

V2

r o

"

ia

Hy d r a ul i c
Hy d r a u l i c
o th e r

d Pn e u m a ti c E n gin e e r in g

E n g in e e r in g is
l iq u i d s

th e

gin ee

in g w h ic h d e a ls

w i th w a te r

a n

a n

E n g in e e r in g

P n e u m a t ic
o th e r

an

ga

s es

th e

is

de a ls

E n g i n e e r i n g w h ic h

w i th

ir

WATE R

S UP P L
)

d o yo u k n ow
B oy s hav e y o u r u n n i n g w a t e r ti ri geta horne s
h ow i t get s the r e ? Y ou will Sh ow; h w w i th t hi s E ng i nee r ing s e t
o
o n e o f th r e e
I f y o u l ive in a city you r it" up ing W ate r fi
w a y s : r s t i t i s pu m p e d i n t o a s taif p ipe Or r s e r v o i r ; s ec o n d it i s
b r o ught f r om a di s ta nt lake o r s t r eam a t a h ighe r level ; o r thi r d it i s
pumped di r ec t ly i nto the city main s
The s tandp ip e meth o d i s illu s t r ate d in Fig 1 T h e wa t er i s p um ped
b y m ea n s o f a fo r ce pump B f r o m a r ive r o r lake A i n to a s ta ndp ipe C
f r o m which i t r un s by g r av i ty th r ough the u n de r g r o un d p ipe s or ma i n s
to the h o u s e s D f o unta i n s E a n d hyd r a nt s F T h i s s y s tem i s u s ed i n
t ow n s an d s m all citie s s i tua ted in a a t r egi o n becau s e i t i s the cheap
e s t mea n s
o i gett in g the wate r a b ov e the level o f the highes t hou s e
fauce t i n the t own
I f the t own i s s ituate d near a hill the u s ual p r a ct ice i s to bu ild a
la r ge cement li n e d re s ervoir o n the hill a nd t o p ump the water i nto thi s
i n s tea d o f i n t o a s ta n dp ipe I n e ithe r ca s e t h e wate r r u n s by g r av ity
th r o ugh th e ma in s a n d s ub m a i n s t o the h o u s e s hyd r ant s etc
I f th e c ity i s v e r y la r ge the u s ual p r act ice i s t o b r ing the wate r f r om
a lake o r s tream a t a highe r level New Yo r k i s s upplied with wate r
i n thi s way
,

'

'

'

F ig

L (A )

S ou c e
S u ppl ie d

F r om th e

page
in t h i s

S ee
m ents

Wate S up
( B ) P um p i g S t t ion ( C) S ta d P ipe ( D ) H ou e
w i t h Wate
g F ta i ( F ) H y d a t f F i e H e

of

ou n

On ta r i o H ig h S c h ool P h y s i cs

145 f o r
b ook
.

By P

or

er m i s s i on

of

os

th e P u bl is h er s

d iagram o f appara tu s n eeded to p e r form

ex p e r i

HY D RA U L I C A N D P NE U MATI C EN G I NEERI N G

the city i s v e r y la r ge an d i f a n elevate d lake o r s t r eam ca nno t b e

foun d wi thi n a rea s onable d is tance the u s ual p r actice i s to pump th e
wate r d irectly i nto the city main s f r om the n ea r es t r ive r or lake
I n all ca s e s the g r eate s t care i s taken to s e e that the water i s pu r e
The lan d bo r de r ing the elevated lake or s tream i s kep t f r e e f r om all
s ou r ce s o f con taminat io n a nd i n a ddi tio n the water i s lte r ed
I f the
wate r i s p ump ed f r om a lake the i ntake p ip e i s run o u t into the lake
r is
for a long d i s ta nce to g e t
ter
a
n
d
i
n
a
dd
it
ion
the
wate
a
w
filte r ed I f the waft er j s p u pegi sf itomza r iver n ear th e city i t i s ta ken
in ab ove the c ity an d ig lte r e d
E RRE R I MENE NO 1
T o make a nd ope r ate a city water s upply sy s tem i n
which the water come s f r om a s tandp ip e re s ervo ir o r
lake
A r r ange the appa r atu s a s sh own i n Fig 2 an d bury
the ma in s a n inch or two i n s an d o r ea r th i f conven ient
Allow the wa ter to run fr om the hous e faucet that i s
A ttach a n elbow hos e an d n ozzl e to th e
the n ozzle
hy d r an t tha t i s th e coupl ing an d allow the water to r un
Yo u hav e he r e s hown how the wa te r run s f r om a
th r ough the ma i n s
r e s erv o i r
s ta ndp ip e
o r elevate d lake
to the hyd r an t s i n the s t r eet s o f a c ity an d to the faucet s
in the hou s e s
If

'

0 0

'

. C

Fi g

NO T E

2 I
.

ll u t at i
s r

ng

t Wate S ppl y S y t

Ci y

em

When y ou wi s h to i n s e r t a gla s s tub e i nto a r ubb e r s toppe r

o r coupling alway s place the s toppe r o r coupli n g i n a gla s s O f wate r
t o wet the r ub be r o n the in s ide then i n s e r t the gla s s tube s with a
twi s ti ng mot ion A lway s h ol d the gla s s tube near the en d y ou a r e
i n s e r ti n g int o th e r ubbe r s topper o r coupl ing T h i s i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t
becau s e if y ou hold the tub e to o far back y ou may br eak it
1

H Y D RAUL I C A N D P NEU MAT IC ENGI NE ERI NG

W hen you a r e th r o ugh with a n expe r imen t alway s take the

appa r a tus apa r t B e s u r e pa r ticula r ly no t to leave a gla s s tub e in a

NO T E

ubber coupling o r s t o pper becau s e the tube will s t r etch the r u bb e r

pe r mane n tly a n d the gla s s a nd r ubber will s tick togethe r
Make the e x pe r iment s o u t o f d oo r s i n the ga r age i n th e
NOT E 3
" eep all unu s ed tube s i n t h e b o x w h e r e
b a s e m ent o r in the b ath r oom
y o u will not s tep o n t hem
NOT E 4 L et Da d en jo y thi s with y o u ; he w a s a b oy o n c e a n d w ill
e n joy the f u n a s m u c h a s y o u do
I f y ou live i n the c o u n t r y o r in a town w h e r e t he r e i s n o p u b l ic
wate r s upply s y s t em a nd i f y o u h av e r un ni n g w a te r i n y o u r h om e
y o u mu s t hav e a p r iva te wate r s upply sy s tem o f s o m e kind
r

F ig

3 A

St ag e T ank
or

e tea d S u ppl i e d
a T we

om

on

R I V A T E WA T E R

t Ru

wi h

r.

Cour tes y

of th e

er
ow

n n in g

S UP P LY

Wate

Manufac turing

by

M ea n s

Compa n y

of

a Wi

ndmi

ll

and

HY D RA UL I C A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI NG

the

In

pump ed

y s tem

b y m ea n s

i n t o a ta n k
by g r av i t y
s

table

on

to

h own i n Fig

of

w indmill

the water

the h o u s e the f o u n ta i n
,

is

fo r ce pu m p

and

a t ow e r a n d f r o m thi s it

The d r awi n g i n Fig

uns

a nd

th e

h ow

th e

h ow s

t ank i s
di s t r ibuted t o the lau n
d r y kitche n a n d bath
room oi t he hou s e
wate r f r o m

th e

F ig
" i

t he
c

4
,

and

S h owi g H ow Water
B ath R oom
n

is

D is t r i b u te d

i n th e

ou s

t o th e

B a em e t L a un d
n

ry

E X P E R I M E NT

No

To make a nd Ope r ate a p r iva t e wate r

w ate r i s s to r ed i n a tan k o n a tower

upply s y s tem

in

which the

the apparatu s a s in Fig 5

H old the nozzle s ho r izon tal
then togethe r I s the s t r ea m f r om the
a n d Open them o n e at a t ime
l owe r n ozzle longer than that f r om the uppe r ?
A r r ange

A rrange

the app aratu s a s shown i n Fig

h or iz on tal a n d a t th e s a m e l ev el A r e the

the n ozzle s when

s t r eams o f equal len g ths ?
6

Open

HY D RA UL I C A N D P NEU MAT IC ENGI NE ERI NG

have s hown here

h ow the wate r
run s
f r o m a ta n k o n a tow
er t h r ough the v e r t ical
p ip e a n d u n de r g r ou n d
p ip e t o the faucet s in
Yo u have
the hou s e
al s o that the
s hown
p r e s s u r e i s g r eate r a t
a lo w e r faucet than a t
a n uppe r faucet an d
that the p r e s s u r e s a r e
equal a t faucet s o n the
s a m e level
Yo u

B A TH R O O M F A U C E T

F ig
Pr

ro

an

Sh w i g H
E lev te d T a k

ow

th e

t o th e

Wate F l
F a et
r

uc

s.

ow s

e
Fl

s s ur

S a me

F ig

th at th Wate
th
E q u al at F a u et

S h owi

are

oor .

ng

on

10

HY D RAU L I C AND P N E UMATI C E N G I NEERI N G

Fi g 7l
.

W te S ppl i ed
a

Cou r tes y

tt T a k

t o a n A ic
of th e G oul d

by

Mea n s

of a

W in dmill

a nd

M a n uf a c tu r i ng Compa n y
Fig 7 the water i s p umped

P um

by a wind
mill an d fo r ce pu m p i n to a tan k i n t h e
a tti c o f t h e hou s e an d f r om the r e i t r u n s
by g r av ity t o the va r io us hous e xtu r e s a s
s hown in Fig 8
The fo r ce pump i s o f t e n
d r iv en by a g a s engin e in s tea d o f by a
win d m ill The han d pump (4) F ig 8 i s
u s ed o nly when the ga s engi n e o r wi n d m ill
i s o u t o f o r de r
In

Fi g

Wate
an

8
.

is

Sh

o w in g

D is t

tt i T a k
c

r ib u

H ow

te d f

ro

H Y D RAUL IC A N D P N EU MAT IC ENGI NEERI NG

E

X P E R I M E NT

No

11

To make a n d ope r ate a p r ivat e water s upply s y s tem i n which the

wate r i s s to r ed in a n a ttic ta nk
A r r ange the appara tu s a s i n Fig
A rrange the appa r a
10 H old the nozzle s horizon tal a nd
H old
t u s a s i n Fig 9
open them together A r e the s t r eam s
the nozzles horizontal
o f the s ame length ? That i s
are the
ab ov e the other
on e
p r e s s u r e s equal ?
an d open them t o
Yo u have s hown here
gethe r I s the longer
agai n that the greater
s t r eam f r om th e lower
nozzle ? That i s i s the
p r e s s ure i s a t the l ow
g r eater p r e s s ure a t the
er fau cet an d tha t the
p r e s s ure s are equal a t
lower faucet ?
fau cet s o n the s ame
level
.

F ig

S h owin g

H ow

Wat F l ow f om
Atti
T a nk to F u et
er

an

F ig
th e
at

10

Wa t

S h

owin g

er

P r es s u r

at

au c e s

th e

e
S

t h at
Eq l
L evel

A ga in

ar e

me

ua

H Y D RA UL I C A N D P NEU MAT IC E NGI NEERI NG

12

Fig 11 the water from a n ele

r un s
by g r av i t y into
v a te d
s pri n g
a s to r age tank an d t h en th r ough a n
u n de r g r ound p ipe t o t he h o u s e fix
tu r e s
In

X P E R I M E NT

No

how how wa t e r
b r ought f r om a n
is
eleva te d lake or s p r i ng
A r r ange th e apparatu s a s s hown
i n Fig 12 P lace the tan k o n a
m ou n d o f s an d or ea r th an d b u r y
the u n de r g r oun d p ipe t o a depth
Allow the
o f o n e o r two i nche s
wa ter to r un
To

F ig

f m
Ta k

11
an

ro

H m e S ppl i ed
levate d S p i g

A
E
-

r n

i t Wate
St age

W h
and

or

You have s hown here how the wate r i s b r ough t

to a city fr om a n eleva ted lake o r s t r eam o r how
it i s b r ought to a p r iv ate h o u s e f r om a n eleva
ted s pring
,

F ig

12 S h owing How
.

W a t er F l ows fr om

an

l v t ed S p
e a

r ing

to th e

F a u et
c

H Y D RA UL I C A N D P NEU MAT IC EN G I NEERI N G

14

E X P E R I M E NT

To

No

make an d ope r ate a p neumat ic t ank

A rrange the appa r atu s a s s hown in Fig 16

I t i s n ece s s a r y t o fa s te n th e s t o pp e r i n the b ottle v ery s ecu r ely
Do thi s a s follow s : I n s e r t two elbow s in to the two hole
.

ubb er s topp e r an d twi s t the s topper r mly i nto the neck

of the bottle Next loop th r ee s t r ong r ubber band s t o
gethe r a s sh own i n Fig 17 pa s s a s tout cord ove r
the s topper a n d win d the s t r e t c h e d rubber b and s a
r oun d the n eck an d co r d
Now s li p the la s t e n d o f
the band s under the la s t win ding to hold i t (1)
Fig 18 then t ie th e e nd s o f the co r d up over the
will
tha t the
s toppe r
(2) Fig 18 an d
s topp er is very s ecure
r

Ope ati
e m at i T a k

F ig 1 6
.

Pn

ng

F ig

17

The s tr e tc h e d rubber b a nd s make

a v e r y s ecu r e t ie b ecau s e each
S t r e tche d wi n d ing g r ip s the co r d
You will u s e thi s ti e o ften i n y our
ex pe r iment s

No te You can u s e th e tee an d

o ne hole s topp e r i n s tea d O f the

elbow s an d two hole s toppe r i f
y ou P re fer
-

S t ppe
L pe
o

oo

h ow in g
H ow
r
c ur
by M n s
nds
d Ru b b e r

F ig

18

Se
.

Ba

ea

to
of

M ake

C or d

and

H Y D RA U L I C A N D P NEU MAT I C EN G I NEERI N G

15

Now : open the clip o n the ho s e O p en the faucet

,

Fig 16 s lightly r u n water i nt o the bottle until it i s

half full clos e the faucet clos e the clip o n the ho s e
r emov e s topp e r f r om faucet
p o i nt the n ozzle upwa r d
a n d op en the clip o n the n ozzle
D o e s the co m p r e s s ed a ir fo r ce the w a
t er o ut with s u r p r i s ing f o r ce ?
I f you hav e n o water faucet han dy illu s
trate the pn eumat ic ta n k a s s hown in F ig
1 9 Fill the b ottle half full o f wate r t i e
the s t o pp er in place force a i r i n with you r
mouth o r with a b icycle pump a n d ob s e r v e
t he s t r eam a s be f ore
.

F ig
m ic

at

F ig

19

Ope at i

Ta k
.

t e

in An o h

F ig

20

ng

21

Pn

Wa y

Fin d a la r ger bo ttle which y ou r s t o pp e r s will t a n d r ep ea t t h e s e

expe r iment s
You hav e s h own he r e how the comp r e s s e d a ir i n a p n eu m at i c tan k
fo r ce s the wa ter o u t th r ough th e di s cha r ge p ip e R epeat an d make
expe r iment s o f your own
No te D o n o t attemp t to ll the b ottle mo r e than half full o f wate r
becau s e the a i r p r e s s u r e i n c r ea s e s r ap idly a s the a ir i s comp r e s s e d an d
i t blows out the n ozzle or s ep a r a te s the rubb er tube s f r om the elb ows
,

H Y D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI NG

16

R A P I D F I R E WA T E R

GA M E

No

A rrange

G UN

the b ottle a s s hown i n Fig 21 a n d ll i t half full o f wate r

R eplace the elbow by a n ozzle a s i n Fig 20 a n d your r ap id r e wate r
gun i s complete Op e n the clip for a n in s tan t only f or each s hot
A r r ange a b attle with on e o r mo r e o n a s ide each s oldie r a r m ed
with a r ap i d r e wate r gun A man i s w o u n ded when hit o n th e a r m
o r leg an d mu s t a fterwa r d s ght wit h ou t t h e a r m o r leg ; a ma n i s
killed when hi t o n the body or head The s ide lo s e s wh ich rs t h a s all
o f it s men killed
U s e fo r t s t r enche s tank s etc
.

X P E R I M E NT

No

To make a n d O p e r ate a p ne um atic tan k sys tem

Ar range

of

wate r

upply

the apparatu s a s i n Fig 22 ll the b o ttle half full o f wate r

a b o ve open the clip o n the d i s cha r ge tube a n d ob s erve the heig h t
to which the comp r es s ed a ir lift s the
water
R epea t with the app ara tu s a s i n
Fig 23 Do yo u ob s e r v e tha t the
s tream f r o m the lowe r n ozzle i s long
e r tha n that f r om the uppe r ; tha t i s
tha t in the p neumat ic sy s tem al s o
the p r e s s u r e i s alway s
g r eate r a t the lowe r fau
cet ?

as

'
i

p e e d Ai
i
a P eum at i T a k F e
Wate U p th D i h a g e P i pe
F i g 22 Th e Com
.

Wate
L w e F u c et
F ig

23
.

Pr

s sur

is

Gr

eat

er

at

th e

sc

ss

or c

A l

s
.

HYD RAUL I C A ND P NEU MAT IC EN G I NEERI NG

17

t with the appa r a t u s a s i n Fig 24 D O you o b s e r ve that the

r e o f the s ame length s
that i s t h a t the p r e s s u r e s a r e equal
o n the s ame level ?
.

hown he r e
r e s s e d a ir i n
tan k fo r ce s
up t o the faucet s
al s o that the
r p r e s s u r e i s a t t he
faucet a n d tha t the
a re
equal a t
faucet s o n the s a m e level
s

24

Th e

Wate

Pr

s s ur

are

E qu

al

HY D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEE R I N G

18

WA TER

A N D A IR

E " P E R I M E NT No 7
tha t water i s incomp r e s s ible
.

how
a
n
d
that
To
a ir is
comp r es s ible
A r r ange the appa r atu s a s i n Fig 25 ll the
tu b e wi t h wate r an d tr y t o c o mp r e s s i t Y o u
ca n n o t d o s o becau s e water i s nea r ly i n c o m
pres s ible
No te : W ater is slightly compre s s e d by v e r y
g r eat p r e s s ure s ; f or example if you r tu b e we r e
10 i n long a n d you could apply a p r e s s u r e o f
3000 l b s p e r s qua r e inch the wate r would b e
comp r e s s ed
i nch
Now empty out the water a n d t r y t o compre s s
the a ir i n the tube a s i n (2) Fig 25 You will
n d tha t y ou ca n do s o qui t e ea s ily b ecau s e a ir
i s quite comp r es s ible
You h ave demon s trated h ere that water i s
i nco m p r e s s ible (n ea r ly ) an d that a ir i s c o m p r e s s
i b le You kn ow f r om th i s that i n the pneumati c
t ank i t i s the a ir w h ich i s com
p r e s s ed a nd n ot the wate r <5
s

E " P E R I ME NT

No 8
To s how that compres s ed
.

air

F i g 25

U s e t h e appa r atu s s h own i n F i g

Wet the i n s ide o f the tu b e , wet
26
the plunge r an d r ub i t o n a cake 0
o

_ 5 h ow i9 g

ate i
m p e ib le
th t
.

co

111

ss

an

18

c om

oap t o make it s lipp ery s hove th e

plunger into the tub e (1 ) an d let i t go
s uddenly
Do yo u n d that the compre s s e d a
d r ive s th e plunge r ou t v i o lently
R ep eat with a l ittle wate r ab ov e the plu
t o s erv e a s a lub r icant
s top
i
When
you
sh
ov
e
th
e
handle
n
to
the
No te :
p er you expan d the s topp er s l ig h tly You s hould
o
t
o
s
expan d i t until i t fit s the tub e nugly bu t not
t ightly
Fig
H ol d th e apparatu s a s i n
a n d force the
han dle i n u ntil the comp r e s s ed a i r d r i ve s ou t th e en d
s t oppe r
s
r
s ed a ir exert s p e
hav
e
s
own
ere
that
compres
h
h
Y
o
u
F g z
rrI
o
c
s
r
u
e
will
unde
tan
d
f
om
thi
how
the
r
s
n
u
r
a
o
s
d
y
g gf;
d g
l

pneumat
i
c
tan
a
pe ue
p r e s s ed a ir driv e s th e wa ter out o f
s

'

ss

H Y D RA UL I C A N D P NEU MAT IC ENGI NEERI NG

al s o
to

19

will unde r s tan d why the tan k mu s t b e made o f s teel n amely

s tan d the pres s ure o f the compre s s ed a ir
y ou

TRENC H GUN

GA M E

F ig

27

No

Te
r

nch

G un

Yo u can imitat e th e S tok e s tre nch gun a s fol l ows P u t two l ong
s trip s o f pape r on the g r oun d three fee t apart to rep r e s e n t th e e n emy
tren ch Now go b ack 20 o r 30 feet or mo r e po in t the tube upwa r d an d
toward the enemy trench fo r ce the plunger in an d relea s e it s udd enly
The game i s to try to drop the b omb that i s the plunge r in t o th e
enemy t r ench The winner i s the o n e who doe s it mo s t o ften i n a give n
n umber o f t r ial s
No t e : " eep the in s ide o f the tube wet the plunger we t a n d slippe r y
with s oap a nd a lit t le wate r a b ov e the plunger
.

HE I G HT A N D D I STA N C E CONT E ST
GA M E No

the appara tu s a s abov e The gam e i s t o s e e who can s h o o t

the plunger t o the g r ea te s t he ight a nd t o th e greate s t d i s tance
Us e

P OP G UN
GA ME NO 5
.

F ig

28

P op G un

the appa r atu s a s a pop gun F ig 28 Th e game s are : r s t to

tr y to hit a bull s eye with the end s toppe r ; s e c on d n t o s ee wh i ch c a n
s h o o t it to the g r eate s t d is tance an d t h e g r eate s t h e i g h t
Us e

H Y D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI NG

20

THE

S IP H ON

The s iphon i s u s ed i n many w a

t er s u pply s y s tem s t o m ake wate r
ow o ve r t h e t o p of a s to r age
ta nk o r ove r a h ill f r om a s p r ing
on
on e
s ide
t o a hou s e o n the
o the r an d s o o n
Yo u will r s t s how how the s i
phon wo r k s then y ou will s how
h o w i t i s u s ed i n wate r s upply
s y s tem
an d late r you will s h ow
w h y i t wo r k s a s i t doe s
,

F ig

C ou r tes y

T o m ake

29 A

S i p h on

f Th e M a cMil l a n Co

E X P E R I M E NT

a nd Opera te a

ip h o n

No

A r r a n ge

the appa r atu s

as
in
Fig 30 P lace
o n e a r m o f the S iphon i n
the wate r an d wh ile hold
ing th e o ther a r m o ut s ide
the tank below the wate r
level s uck the a ir out o f
the s iph o n u ntil the water
r un s
D o e s t h e wate r r u n up
h ill t o th e top o f the s i
p h o n a n d the n d o w n hill
i n to the tu m ble r ?
S iphon wate r o u t o f a
full tumbl e r in t o a n empty
tumbler an d wh ile the w a
t e r i s r unn ing s ta n d them
s i d e by s i de o n the table
Fig 30
D o e s the wate r s to p
w h en th e level i s the s ame
i n b o th tumble r s ?
.

F ig

30
.

I ll u s t at in g
r

th e

S i p h on

H Y D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT I C EN G I N EERI NG

22

ome ca s e s i t happe n s that

the r e i s a good s pri ng o f water
o n o n e s ide o f a hill an d the h ome
i n which the wate r i s wan te d i s o n
highe s t p oi n t
th e o the r s ide
In

F ig

U ed
s

3 3 Th e A r r

to

a g em e t
Ove
n

of

p
H ll

P i in g
i
.

the s ipho n i s n o t mo r e than about

(34 feet i s the theo r et ical limit ) above the
water s urface in the s pring an d i f the hou s e
faucet s a r e below the level o f the water i n the
s p r ing
the wa te r can be s iphoned over the
hill a s s hown i n Fig 33
I llu s trate this a s s hown i n Fig 34 whe r e
the back o f the cha i r r ep r es en t s the hill
of

F ig

34

S h ow i n g

Wate i S ip h ed Ove
a H ill
s

F ig

3 S Th e A rr

Wa t
.

er

O ve r

e m en t

il l

of

r om

U ed t S iph
a t a g e Ta k

P i in g
or

on

on

H Y D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MATI C EN G I NEERI N G

W a te r can be

23

iphoned from a s torage ta nk o r

r e s e r vo ir over a hill a s well a s from a s p r ing a n d
the s iphon can s tart a t the b ottom of the re s e r vo i r
i f th i s i s m o r e co nveni ent s e e Fig 35
I llu s t r ate thi s a s s hown in Fig 36
Yo u have he r e illu s t r ate d three way s i n which the
s iphon i s us ed in wa ter s upply sy s tems
Yo u will
s h o w la t e r why a s ipho n cannot lift wa ter over a
r i s e o f mo r e than about 25 feet an d why the gr ea te s t
theo r etical lift i s 34 feet
s

HOW T O

STA RT A

L A RGE S IP H ON

E X P E R I M E NT

No 1 1
.

S iph on in g
TO illu s t r ate d iff eren t way s o f
Wate Ove a H ill f om
s iphon
a T ank
Yo u could n ot s ta r t a large s ipho n by s ucking
the a ir o u t o f i t with yo u r mouth H ow then a r e
y o u going to s tart i t ? You will i llu s tra te th r ee way s
The ob ject i n all c a s e s i s to get the a ir out o f the
i s u s ually do n e by lli n g i t wit h
s iphon an d thi s
wa ter
I n the ca s e illus t r a ted in Fig 37 the faucet s a re
all clo s ed an d the air i s d r iven ou t Of the s iphon by
pump ing water in to the tan k through the s ipho n
The check valve p r even t s
the wate r f r om run n ing
back i nto the p ump a n d
when the faucet s are
o p ene d th e water run s
F ig

36

H E C"

V A LV E

F ig

L a g e S i p h i S ta ted b y P m p ing
Wate in t o th e T k th ugh th e S iph n

37

Th e

on

an

ro

tart ing a la r ge

H Y D RA UL I C A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI N G

24

Thi s expe r imen t i s illu s t r a ted by mean s

o f the appa r a tu s
s hown
The
i n Fig 3 8
faucet he r e r ep r e s ent s the pump S ta r t
with th e tube empty excep t f o r the a ir i n
i t clo s e the clip u n de r the nozzle op en the
faucet un t il the tan k i s full o f wate r cl o s e
t h e faucet a n d Op en the clip
Doe s t he wate r r u n th r ough the s iph o n
t o the n o zzle ?
.

Whe n the wate r i s s iphoned ove r a hill

f r om a s p r ing the s iphon i s u s ually s tarted
by c o n n ect ing it to the s uct i o n s ide o f a
pump placed o n the othe r s ide o f the hill
i n o r n ea r the h ou s e a s s h own i n Fig 39
,

L a g e S iph
S ta te d by P m p i g Wate
f
S p i g t h ugh
t

F ig

is

Ou

3 9 Th e

S ip h on

r n

M eth od

S ip h on

38

I ll u s t r at in g On e

of

S ta r t in g a L a r g e

on

F ig

ro

ta r t
s iphon
hous e fau
c e t s are clos ed
the s top cock a t the
pump i s open ed an d the pump i s
ope r a ted until the wate r c om e s f r eely ; then
the s top cock i s clo s ed a n d the wate r r un s
wheneve r a faucet in th e hou s e i s opened
s

H Y D RAUL IC A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI N G

25

Thi s i s illu s trated by a r ra nging the appara tus a s

s hown i n Fig 40 ; the t ee b r a nch r ep r e s ent s the pump
connect io n an d the en d branch repre s en t s the hou s e
p ipe
Clos e the hou s e p ip e apply your lip s t o the tee
b r anch (to repre s en t the wo r king o f the pump ) a n d
then
s uck a ir out o f the s ipho n u nt il the wate r ow s
clo s e the tee bra nch an d open the hou s e p ipe D o e s
the wate r ow ?
.

F ig

40

S ta t i
r

ng

a L

a rg

e S i ph

on .

many ca s e s the water i s s iphoned ove r

the top of a hills ide well to a hous e at
a lower level an d the s iphon i s s tarte d by
mean s o f a pump near the h ous e a s illu s
G ene r ally
tr a te d in the la s t expe r imen t
however a s mall s torage tank o f water at
the top o f the s iphon i s u s ed to s ta r t it
Fig 41 The small s torage tank i s
s ee
lled by mea n s o f a p ump (n o t s hown ) or
by mean s o f a pa il u s e d t o d ip wate r f r om
the well
In

La e S p
Wate

i h on
rg
F ig 4 1 A
r
r t ed b y
A owi n g t h e
f r om t h e
m
ow
h r ou g h I

S ta
ll
Fl T
t
St ag e Ta k
.

or

S all

H Y D RAULI C A N D P N EU MAT I C ENGI NEERI NG

26

I llu s tra te

th i s method o f s tarting a large s iphon

wi th the apparatu s s hown i n Fig 42 The t ee a t the
top i s con nected with the metal ta nk wh ich here
r epre s en t s
the s mall s to r age tank the large pa il
the hill s ide well a n d the long arm of
r ep r e s en t s
the s iph on r epre s ent s the p ip e t o the hou s e
Open th e h o u s e faucet the n open the te e
co n n ectio n t o the s to r age tank D oe s the
wate r ow d own the long arm of the s i
phon ? Now clo s e the h ou s e faucet and
ob s erv e tha t the wa ter run s down the
Now clo s e the
s ho r t bra nch i nto the pa il
tee con nectio n an d open the hou s e faucet
D oes the s iph o n r u n ?
.

No t e : The

t o rage tan k needs to b e lled

only when the s iphon s top s which may be
only o nce o r twice a yea r
s

S
a
La e S p
S ta te
Mea
Wate f
a
l
S t or a g e T a n k

4 2 h owi n g H o w
rg
i h on is
d b
r
n s of
r
r om
S ma l

Fi g

OTHER US ES OF TH E S IP H ON
E " P E R I M E NT No 12
.

illu s trate o ther u s e s o f the s iphon

You ca n s iphon c ide r o r other liqu id s o u t o f a ba r r el b y mean s of
a rubber tub e (1) Fig 43
I llu s tra te thi s a s i n (2) Fig 43 whe r e the bottle r ep r e s ent s t he b arrel
an d th e n eck o f the bottle the bung hole
To

F ig

Ou t

of

43

S ip h on in g

a B a el
rr

C id

HY D RAU L I C A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI NG

F ig

44 i h on in g
.

Sp

Wat

Ou t

er

of

27

at

Bo

You ca n s ipho n water o ut o f you r bo at when

it i s out o f the wate r (1) Fig 44 bu t n o t when
i t i s a oat
U s e a tumbler t o repre s ent y our b oat an d
show that yo u ca n s ipho n water ou t o f it
when it i s out of the wa ter (2) Fig 44 ;
.

bu t tha t you s ipho n wa ter i n t o th e boat if

i t i s a oat (3) Fig 44 becau s e the wate r
out s ide the boat i s highe r tha n tha t i n s ide
,

You can s ipho n s a nd g r avel an d m u d w i t h

the wate r when n eces s ary I llu s tra te thi s by
s iphon ing s an d o r mu d with the water f r om
o n e tumble r to an othe r Fig 45
,

F ig

4S
.

S ip h o

n in g

an

H YD RA UL I C A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI NG

28

F L OW

V E L OC I TY OF
E X P E R I M E NT

To s how that the v elo

city o f the water i n a s i
phon i s g r eate r the g r eat
er the d i s tance b e t wee n
the wate r level s about t h e
two a r m s
A r r ange the s ipho n wi th
a s mall d iff erence in w a
ter level a s s hown in (1 )
Fig 46 an d allow the wa
ter t o r u n f or 15 s eco n d s ;
then a r r an g e it with a
g r eater d i ffe r ence a s in
(2) Fig 46 a n d a gain a l
low the wate r t o r u n f or
15 s econ d s
Doe s mo r e water ow in
that i s
(2) tha n in
i s the v elocity g r eate r the
g r eater th e d iff e r ence i n
water level ?
,

F ig

S iph

46
.

V el

oc i

ty

Wate

on .

OTH ER S I P H ON S
E " P E R I M E NT No 14
.

To make an d op erat e a double s iphon an d a three legged s iphon

S tart a double s iphon (1 ) Fig 47 R ai s e the tumblers o n e a t a
t ime then two a t a t ime
D oe s the water alway s ow from the upp e r tu m bler or tumble r s
t o the lowe r a n d doe s it alway s s top owing when the water level s
a r e the s ame ?
S ta r t a th r ee legged s iphon (2) Fig 47 an d r epea t the above e x p e r i
ment s A r e the re s ult s the s ame ?

F ig

4 7
.

D o u b le S i p h on

T h ee le g g ed S iph
r

on

and

H Y D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT I C EN G I N EERI NG

30

A N EN C L OS ED FOUNT A IN
E X P E R I M E NT No 1 6
Op e r at e an enclo s ed fountai n
.

make

A rrange

the apparatus a s s hown

in (1 ) Fig 49 ; this i s really a
at the top
s iphon wi th a b ottle
S ta r t with 2 inche s o f wate r in
the b ottle in s ert the s toppe r with
tub es invert the whole appa r atu s
.

l e d F u ta i
a n d pu t the s hort a r m in the ta n k
lled with water
Doe s the wa te r ru n and i s the r e
a founta i n i n the b ottle ?
A rrange the app a r a tus a s in (2)
Fig 49 l ift the tank u ntil the r e
i s about 2 inches o f water in the
bottle then a r r ange a s s hown
I s there a founta i n i n the bottle ?
R epeat b oth o f the s e exp eriment s
bu t u s e i n s tea d o f the b ottle a
wide gla s s tube clos ed at the top
with a s oli d rubbe r s toppe r (1 )
F ig

49

An

E nc

os

F ig

50

Make two founta in s a s s how n

i n (2) Fig 50 one enclo s ed an d
.

on e

in the open

Fig

50

HY D RAUL I C A ND P NEU MATI C ENGI NEERI NG

31

ATM OS P H ERI C P RE SS URE

You hav e mad e a n umb e r o f exp e r imen t s with s iphon s a n d you hav e
lea r ned how they a ct u nder d i e r e n t circum s tance s ; you will n ow make

s ome expe r iment s which will help you t o u n der s tan d why they act
a s they do
.

Water move s through a s iphon b ecau s e i t i s fo r ce d t o do s o by

atmo s phe r ic p r es s u r e You will rs t make a number o f experiment s
t o s how that the a tm o s phe r e exe r t s pre s s u r e a nd then you will s how
how and why th i s a tmo s phe r ic p r e s s ur e f orce s water through a s iphon
.

W E I G HT

A IR HA S

you were a s ked the ques tio n H ow

much doe s a ir
you would p r ob

ably a n s wer o ff hand Air ha s n o weigh t

a t all
A ir however ha s con s i derable
weight a n d i t would take a v ery s trong
man in dee d t o ca rry a weight equal t o
that o f the a ir i n a hou s e o f me dium s iz e
You cannot weigh a ir wi th the apparatu s
you hav e a t han d but thi s i s how i t i s
d one
The app aratu s u s e d i s illu s t r a ted
F i g 51 _W ei g h in g Air
i n pa r t i n F i g
51 The a i r 1 8 p umped ou t Cou r tes y of th e M a cMiIl on
o f the a s k by mea n s o f a n a ir p ump (n o t s hown )
The a s k i s the n
b alance d exactly o n the ne s cale s a n d a ir i s admi tte d t o the as k
a ga in
I t i s foun d that the a s k weighs more when i t i s lled wit h
a ir than when i t i s empty
a n d th i s prove s that a ir ha s weigh t
A cub i c foo t o f a ir at the s urface o f the e arth a n d a t ord i nary
tempera tu r e s i s foun d i n th i s way t o weigh about 1 % oz
Thi s i s
n o t a grea t we i ght
bu t when y ou come t o calculat e the we ight o f a ir
in a hou s e o f medium s ize you n d that i t amount s to a v e ry grea t
deal for example make the following calculat io n :
If

hou s e with a a t roo f i s 40 feet long by 30 feet wi de

by 24 feet high ; n d the weight o f a ir in it n eglect ing the
s pace occup ied by p art it ion s furn i ture etc
A

H Y DRA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI N G

32

The hou s e contain s 40 x 30 x 24

each cub ic fo ot o f a ir weigh s 1% 0 2 3
the hou s e conta in s
x 1%
a re

16
th e

025

i n 1 1b

cub ic fee t of

an d s i n ce

a ir ,

oz

o f a ir a n d

i ce t h e r e

s n

3 6 000

hou s e co ntain s

z:

16

2250 lb s

of

a ir

The hou s e con ta i n s 2250 lb s o f a ir o r ove r a ton o f a ir (1 t o n

Z OO
OIb s )
Thi s i s a v e r y a s ton i s hing fact e s pecially to tho s e of
wh o have n eve r thought o f a ir a s hav ing a n y weight at all
.

us

A I R E " ERTS P RES S URE

You hav e lea r n ed f r om you r le s s on s i n P hy s ical G eography a t s choo l
th e atmo s p h e r e
that we liv e a t the b ottom o f a n ocea n o f a ir
which
i s many m ile s deep ; an d when y ou r emembe r tha t a cub i c foot o f
a ir weig h s 1 % 0 2 5 y ou a r e i n a po s itio n to s e e that the atmo s phe r e
mu s t exe r t g r eat pre s s ure o n every th ing a t the earth s s u r face
I t ha s b een foun d by repeated expe r imen t s that the a tmo s pher e
exert s a p r e s s u r e of
lb s ( n ea r ly 15 lb s ) o n each s qua r e inch o f
ev e r ything a t th e earth s s u r face Th i s mean s for example that o n
every s qua r e i n ch o f ou r b odie s the atmo s phe r e exe r t s a p r e s sure o f
W e m igh t thin k tha t thi s would c r u s h o ur bod ies u ntil we
lb s
r emembe r that eve r yth ing in s id e our bodi e s exe r t s th e s ame pre s s u r e
outward o u r blood th e air i n our lung s etc
A pres s u r e o f
Ib s p er s quare i nch i s equal t o th e pre s sure a t
a
dep th o f 34 feet un d e r wate r that i s if the a ir could b e r emove d
f r om the ea r th a nd b e r eplaced by wate r i t would requi r e a depth o f
34 feet o f wate r all over th e earth t o produce a p r e s s ure equal t o tha t
p r o duced by the a tmo s phe r e namely
tb s p e r s qua r e i n c h
Yo u will n ow make experimen t s t o show tha t th e atmo s phere exe r t s
pres sure
.

E X P E R I M E NT

No

17

To show that the a tm os phe r e exe r t s p r es s ure

Ma ke a U tube Fig 52 r u n water th r ough th e tub e until all the
air bu b ble s are g on e then empty out part o f the water until the U
.

HYD RA UL I C A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI NG

a little more tha n half full
the s ame level
is

33

The water in the two arms i s then a t

Now apply y our lip s to the coupling

o ne a r m
Do y o u ob s e r v e
s uck o u t the a i r a nd clo s e the clip
that w h e n y o u s uck out the a ir the water i n the
open arm de s cend s while tha t in the o ther a r m
r is e s ?
on

The explan at io n i s a s follows E ve r y thing o n

the ea r th i s a t the bo ttom o f a n o cean o f a ir ma ny
mi l e s deep an d s ince thi s a ir h a s weight i t exe r t s
p r e s su r e o n ev e r ything on the ea r th Now when
both a r m s o f the U tube a r e open the wate r level
i s the s am e i n both and the p r e s s u r e o f the a ir o n
the wate r s u r face i n each i s the s ame n amely the
p r e s s u r e o f the atmo s phe r e When yo u r emov e the
a ir from the clo s ed s ide h ow e v e r y ou remov e the
p r e s s ure o f the atmo s phe r e f r om thi s s i de a n d the
p r e s s ure o f the a tmo s phe r e i n the op en s ide fo r ce s
the water down on the open s ide a n d up the clo s ed
s ide Thi s experimen t show s you tha t the atmo s
p h e r e exerts pre s s u r e
.

'

R epeat a n d make expe r i m en t s

of

you r

ow n

5 2 S h owi n
m A m os h r e

F ig

p e

Th at
xe

r e s s ur e.

E XP E

R I M E NT No

18

To s how that the atmo s phe r e will s upp o r t a c o lumn

Ar r ange

of

water

the appa r atu s a s in (1 ) Fig 53 ll the tube with wate r

clo s e o n e en d with a clip a n d hold b oth end s in the p o s itio n illu s t r ated
D oes the water r ema in i n th e tube ? I t r ema in s b ecau s e the p r e s s u r e
o f the atmo s phe r e downwa r d o n the wa te r in the ope n tube s upp o r t s
the column o f water i n the lo n g tube
.

Tu r n the Open en d s idewi s e an d the n d ow n w a r d Doe s the wate r

r ema i n i n the tube ?
I t r e m ain s becau s e the at m o s phere exe r t s p r e s
s u r e s idewi s e an d upwa r d a nd s uppo r t s the wate r
A 3
.

34

H YD RA UL I C A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI NG

AT M

1
F ig

53
.

S h owin g T h at

th e

p e e W ill S pp t Wate

A m os h

or

r.

P lace the lowe r e nd

Ar ra n ge the appa r atu s a s s hown i n (2) Fig 53
o f the tu b e i n a t umble r o f wate r , s tan d o n a c h ai r , a n d s uck t h e a i r
o u t o f the tube , then clo s e t h e upp e r e n d
.

D oe s

the wate r r ema in ? I t rema i n s b ecau s e t h e p r e s s u r e o f th e

a t m o s phe r e downwa r d o n the wate r i n the tu m b le r s uppo r t s th e wa te r
i n the tube
.

H Y D RA U L I C A N D P NEU MAT IC EN G I NEERI NG

L ift the tube

35

the tumble r (3 ) Fig 53 an d the water will

r ema in i n the tube becau s e i t i s s upp orted by the upwa r d p re s s ure o f
t h e a tmo sphe r e
Thi s i s p o s s ible O n ly with very na r row tub e s Th e
t ube yo u hav e u s ed i n the s e expe r iment s i s about 6 fee t long a n d
you have s hown that the a tmo s phe r e will s uppo r t a colum n o f water
6 feet high
I f you had a tub e o f s uf cien t length yo u could s how that
t h e atmo s phe r e will s upp o r t a column o f wate r 34 fee t h ig h b ut no mo r e
ou t

of

L i p:

"

01

F ig

S4

P r ov i n g

T h at

p e e Wh i

it is th e A m os h

ch

L i ft

th e

Wate

r.

H Y D R AU L I C A ND

36

TO

p r ove that i t

is

E NG I NE E R I NG

P NE U MAT I C

E X P E R I M E NT

No

the p r e s s u r e

th e

of

19

a tmo s phe r e whi c h lift s

th e

wa t e r
M ake a U tube (1 ) Fig 54 with fou r tube s o n one s ide an d two o n
the othe r ll i t half full o f wate r s o that the two tube s o n the s ho r t s ide
then clo s e the top o f thi s s ide with a coupling and clip
a r e quite full
Now s uck the a ir out o f the long s ide Do yo u ob s e r v e tha t the wate r
d o e s n o t m ove ?
I t d o e s no t move becau s e although you have dec r ea s ed the a ir
p r e s s u r e i n the long s ide the a t m o s phe r e cann o t get a t the wate r in
t h e s h o r t s i d e to f o r ce it d ow n
D oe s the wa te r move ?
Open the t o p an d r epea t the expe r i m e n t
T o s how thi s i n an othe r way
Fill a bottle (2) with wate r place a
gla s s tube i n i t a n d s uck the a ir o u t o f the tub e You O b s erv e that whe n
y o u remov e the a ir p r es s u r e from the water i n the tube the a tmo s phe r i c
p r e s s u r e o n the water i n the bo t t le fo r ce s the w
ate r up into you r m o uth
Now ll the b o ttle qu ite full to exclude the a ir an d clo s e i t with a
o n e hole r u bb e r s t o ppe r which h a s o n e gla s s tube s tuck i n the unde r
s ide a n d an o the r i n th e uppe r s ide
S uck the a ir ou t o f the uppe r
tube DO you nd tha t the wate r does n o t r is e ?
I t doe s n o t r i s e becau s e alth o ugh y ou hav e decrea s ed the a ir p r e s
the a tmo s phe r e cannot get a t the wate r i n the
s u r e i n the upp e r tube
b o t t le t o f o r ce i t in to you r mouth
You hav e p r oved he r e that i t i s the p r e s s ure o f the atmo s p h e r e
w h ich l ift s t h e water
.

X P E R I M E NT

No

20

othe r way s that th e atm o s phe r e exe r t s p r e s s u r e dow n

wa r d a n d upwa r d
Fill t he b o ttle with wate r clo s e the top with the hand inve r t th e bottl e
i n a p ail o f wa te r an d r emove the hand u nder wa te r (1) Fig 55
The d ownwa r d p r e s s u r e o f the atmo s phe r e o n the wate r s u r face
i n the pail s upp o r t s the wate r i n the bo ttle
R ep eat with the tum b ler a nd tub e a s s hown in (2) a n d
Fill the b ottle w ith w ate r c ove r wi th a p iece o f p ap e r hol d th e
pape r o n with the hand inve r t the bo ttle an d remove the hand
The p ap er i s hel d o n by the upwa r d p r e s s u r e of the atm o s ph e r e
R epea t thi s exp e r iment with a tumbler a n d tube (5) a nd
To

s h ow

in

38

HY D RA UL I C AND P N EU MAT I C EN G I NEERI N G

P OU L T R Y D R I N" I N

F O U NTA I NS

Fill a tumble r with wate r place tw o

p iece s o f lead p encil ac r o s s t h e top cove r
with a s auce r a n d i n v e r t t u m b le r a n d
s aucer
(1) F ig 57
R epea t with the gla s s bo ttle
D o e s the wate r run o u t o nly u ntil the
edge o f the tumbler o r b ottle is cove r e d ?
,

imitate
p oul t r y
d r i nking the wate r s uck
w ater out o f the s auce r
by mean s o f a gla s s tube
u nt il the water i s below
the edge o f the tumble r
,

D oe s

a ir e n ter a n d water run o u t o n ly u n t il t h e

edge i s aga in cove r ed ?
The at m o s phe r e s upp o r t s the wa te r
No te : The atm o s phe r e c o uld s upp o r t t h e wa t e r
i n a fou n ta in 34 feet high but n o highe r
.

Fig

56
.

D r in k in g

HY D RAU L IC A N D P N EU MAT I C EN G I NEERI N G

F ig 5 7 P ou
.

lt y F ou ta in
r

T H E S I P H ON

W HY

THE

39

(Co n ti n u e d )
O F TH E I P H O N

The rea s on why wa te r ow s

th r ough a s iphon i s a s follows :
S uppo s e f or example y ou have a
s iphon
Fig 58 clo s ed a t the to p
with a clip The atmo s phe r i c p r e s
s u r e o u the water i n the righ t ha nd
tumbler s uppo r t s o nly 1 foo t o f
wa t er wh ile in th e left han d tumbler
it s upp ort s two feet o f water

Now the a tmos pheric pre s sure o n

each i s e qual to the p r es s ure of a

column O f wate r 34 feet high the r e
fore a t the top o f the s iphon the
p re s s u r e :
a t the r ight o f the clip i s
34 1
3 3 feet o f wate r ;
a t the left o f the clip i s
34
fee t o f wate r
The p r es s u r e a t the right i s great er
than tha t a t the le f t an d if the cli p
i s opene d the water ows from right
to left tha t i s from th e upper tumb
l e r t o the lowe r tu m bler
,

This i s the why

of

the s iphon

58 h owin g Wh y
Dri es
h r ou gh
er

F ig
ph e r e

S
v Wat
.

t
a S i ph

A m os
on

H Y D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT IC E NGI NEERI NG

40

P UM P S
E X P E R I M E NT No

22

To illus trate the a ction o f a s y r i nge

The s imples t kind o f pump i s the s y r inge (A ) Fig 59 W hen y ou
l i ft the plu n ge r there i s a vacan t s pace or pa r t ial vacuum left below
t h e plunge r a n d the atmospheri c pres sur e on th e wa ter i n the tu m bler
lif t s wate r into the syringe
.

Cou r t es y
Th e

M a c M ill a n Co

l l u s t r a t e t h i s by
m ea n s o f the s yringe
( B ) Fig 59 S oap th e
plunger t o make i t
ll the s y r
s lippe r y
i n ge lift the n ozzle e n d
the wat er
s qu i r t
a nd
I

o u t.

i
F
C
)
(
g

F is

H Y D RAULIC A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI NG

41

WATER GUN S HOOT I N G

GA M E N 6
o.

The sy r inge make s a n e wate r gun U s e i t a s follow s :

r d b oa r d a s a ta r get a n d t r y t o hi t i t from
up
a
ent
p
iece
ca
f
o
b
t
P
u
1
( )
variou s di s tance s (A ) F ig 60
can
s
en
d
the
s t r eam to the g r eate s t height
h
o
2
e
e
w
S
( )
r eam to the g r eate s t di s ta nce
can
en
d
the
s
t
h
s
o
e
w
S
e
3
( )
.

F ig

60 A
.

Wate

B IG

G un

S h oot i

ng

an d

B ig G u n

B attle

GUN

B AT TL E
A M E No 7

E ach

player here p ut s up the s ame numbe r o f lea d or p aper s old ie r s

a n d a t a give n s ignal each s tart s to kn ock d o w n the enemy s oldie r s
with h i s wate r gun which he r e rep r e s ent s a la r ge cali b e r g u n r i n g
s hell s
(B ) Fig 60
The winne r i s the on e who rs t kn ocks down all the enemy s oldi e r s
,

60

W t
a

er

Sh t i
oo

an

d B ig G un

B a ttl e

H YD RA U L I C AND P NE U MAT I C ENGI NEERI NG

42

MAC H I NE GUN B AT TL E

GA M E

No 8
.

E ach player
Fig 6 1 and i s
.

g un

No 2
.

i s behind a barricade which rep r e s ent s a trench (A )

a rme d with a syringe which he r e repre s ent s a mach i n e
T h e r ule s about wounded a nd kille d a r e the s ame a s in G a m e
The winn ing s ide i s the o n e which rs t kill s all the e nemy

F ig

TH E D I A B L O

GA ME

61 A

Ma c h in e G un B attl e

W HI STL E

No

The app a r a tu s Fig 6 1 B ma ke s a mo s t

u n canny wh i s tle when you blow i nt o it a s
illu s t r a ted an d move the plunger up and
down
The game i s : (l ) to make the mos t
d iab olical s ound you can ; (2) t o play the
eigh t n ote s o f a n o ctav e a s well a s y ou
c a n ; (3 ) to play a tune i f you can
,

F ig

61 B

Th e

D ia b l o Wh is tle

HY D RA U L I C A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI N G

TH E L I FT

P UMP

Com m on

p ump s a r e o f two kind s : lift p ump s

Fig s 62 63 wh ich l ift wate r o nly to the s pout ; an d
fo r ce pump s Fig 65 which fo r ce the wa te r to a ny
heigh t ab ove the s p out B oth type s of p u m p s hav e
tw o valve s which open upwa r d
The L ift P ump Fig 62 ha s on e valve S a t the
b ottom o f the ba r r el C and an othe r V in the
plunge r P The atmo s phe r ic p r e s s u r e lift s water
fr om the well i n to the pu m p th r ough the s uct io n
p ipe T
The way the lift pump lif t s wate r i s illu s t r a t e d
i n d r awi ng s 1 t o 6 Fig 6 3
.

43

F ig

62

L i ft

P um

Th e

F ig

63

S h ow in g H ow
Cou r tesy

Th e

P um

p R a i e Wat

Ma cM zll a n

er .

Co

B e f o r e the p um p i s s ta r ted the co nd i t ion i s that s hown in

b o th
v al v e s a r e cl o s ed an d the wate r level i n the s uct io n p ip e i s the s a m e
a s tha t in the well
When the plu n ger i s r ai s ed a s in
the a ir i n the b a r r el be n eath
the plunge r 1 3 given mo r e r o om i t expan d s a n d i t s p r e s s u r e on the v alve
S i s dec r ea s ed ; the a ir i n the s uctio n p ip e the n li ft s the v alve S a n d p a r t
.

HY D RA U L I C A N D P NEU MAT I C EN G I NE ERI N G

44

it expa nds into the ba r r el ; thi s dec r ea s e s the a ir p r e s s u r e o n the

wate r i n th e s uction p ipe and th e a t m o s phe r ic p r e s s u r e o n the wate r
i n the well fo r ce s s o m e wate r in t o the s uc t io n p ipe
When the plunger i s s hove d d own a s i n
valve 5 clo s e s an d the
a i r in the ba r r el i s fo r ced up th r o ugh t he plunge r valve V
When the plunge r i s r a i s ed aga i n a s in
the Ope r ation s expla i n e d
i n (2) ta ke place aga i n a nd the a t m o s pheric p r e s s u r e o n the wa t e r i n
t h e well fo r ce s mo r e wate r i nto t h e s uction p ip e a n d al s o i nto the ba r r el
When th e plunge r i s s hoved dow n aga in a s i n
valve S clo s e s
i s fo r ced up
a ga i n a n d all the a ir in the ba r r el with pa r t o f the water
t h r ough the plunge r valve V
When the plunger i s r a i s ed aga in a s in
the wate r ab ov e the
re
r
s
s
r
s
lunge
r
lifted
to
the
p
out
an
d
the
atmo
phe
ic
p
e
u
on t he
i
s
s
p
w ate r i n the well fo r ce s mo r e wate r i nto the s uction p ipe a n d ba r r el
A fter thi s (5) an d (6 ) a r e r epeated a s long a s the plunge r i s ope r ate d
of

E XP E

R I M E NT No

23

make an d ope r ate a L if t P u m p

A r r a nge the app a r atu s a s s h ow n i n (1 ) Fig 64
S oap the plunge r place the lowe r e n d o f the
a n d move the
n a r r ow tu b e i n a gla s s o f wate r
plunge r up a n d d ow n s l owly
To

y ou n d that : o n the up s t r o ke o f th e
plunge r wate r m ove s up th r ough the n a r r o w
tube an d lowe r valve int o the p u m p ba r r el ; an d
o n the d ow n s t r oke
the wate r r e m a i n s at the
but
s ame height becau s e the l owe r v alve clo s e s
a s
the plu n ge r move s down the a ir a nd wate r
pa s s th r ough the plunge r valve ? DO you no
t ice that o n the s ucceeding up s t r o ke s wate r
r i s e s an d flow s ove r the top
a nd o n s ucceed i n g
down s troke s i t move s through the plunger
valv e ?
Do

H Y D RA UL I C A N D P NEU MAT IC E NG I NEERI NG

46

F ig

66

E XP E

Th e

or c

P um

R I M E NT No

To make an d o pe r ate a Fo r c e

P um p

24

Ar r a nge

the appa r atu s a s s h own in

Fig 66 S oap the plunge r
place the s uct io n p ip e i n a tumbler o f water p our a li ttle water ab ove
the plunger to make s ure i t i s a ir tight ; an d mov e the plunger up an d
d own
DO you ob s erv e tha t on the up s t r oke wate r e n te r s the ba r r el th r ough
the v a lvE a nd that o n the down s t r oke i t i s fo r ced i nto the s ide tub e
t h r ough it s v alve ? I f the v alve s a r e n ot qu ite a ir tight pou r wate r into
b o th tube s t o cover them
M ake a n a ir chambe r in the s ide tube by in s erting a s h o r t n a r r o w
Fig 66
g la s s tub e below the upper s toppe r
Ope r at e the fo r ce pump
Do y o u ob s erv e that the a ir i s slightly comp r e s s ed i n thi s cha m ber
o n the down s t r oke o f the plunger an d that thi s comp r e s s ed a ir keep s
the water owing f or a s h or t ti me a f ter th e s troke i s ni shed
.

H Y D RA ULI C A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI NG

47

R epea t the experimen t u s ing s ho r t qu ick s tro ke s o f the plu n ge r

you nd that you ca n keep a fa irly s teady s tream i s su ing f r om

t h e nozzle ?
W ate r can be forced to any height i n the d i s cha r ge p ipe O f a fo r ce
pump but the s uctio n lift s ho uld no t be m o r e tha n abou t 25 feet that
i s the pump plunger mus t b e within 25 feet ve r tically
the water
pumping
Do

X P E R I ME NT NO

25

To S how how wate r i s p umped i nto an

elevate d tan k
A lift pu m p can be u s ed to pump water
i nto an eleva ted tan k only if the top o f the
tan k i s n ot over 25 feet (34 feet th e o r e ti
cally ) above the wate r in the well I f the
tank i s higher than thi s a force pump mu s t
be u s ed
I llu s t r ate thi s u s e o f a fo r ce pu m p by
mea n s o f the appa r atu s s hown i n Fig 67
P ump water int o the tan k an d then d r aw
o ff s ome th r ough the faucet below
Thi s
equipment repre sent s a complete wate r
s upply s y s te m
.

F ORC E P U M P C ONT E ST

GA ME

No

10

The game he r e i s t o s ee who ca n fo r ce

the wate r t o the greate s t height an d t o the
g r eate s t d i s tance Ti e the s toppers i n with
co r d a nd s t r etched r ubbe r ban d s U s e the
appa r atu s s hown in (2) Fig 66
.

levate T a k
.

p Wate i t
t a F o e P um p

F ig 6 7 P u m
d
n
wi h
.

rc

n o

an
.

48

H YD RA ULI C A N D P NEU MAT IC ENGI NEERI NG

HY D RAULI C A P P L I A NC E S

The hyd r aulic p r e s s

(A ) hyd r aulic elevat o r
(B ) an d hyd r aul i c lift
lo ck (C) Fig 68 a r e
each operate d by mean s
o f p r e s sure exe r ted o n
wate r an d in o r der t o
u nde r s ta nd the m y ou
will r s t illus t r ate P a s
c al s law which tells how
pre s su r e is tran smitted
by water
,

F ig

A Cou r tes

68

H y d r au l ic P r es s E levat or
,

y G i a n (5 Co

C F r om On ta r i o H ig h S c h ool P hy s i cs "

and

L i ft L k
oc

B Cou r tesy of Th e M a c M z a n Co
by P er mi ss i on of th e P ubl i sh er s
'

HY D RA UL I C A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI NG

P A S CA L

F ig

Pa s ca l
a n

La w is

u n d im i n i s

he d in

69
.

e xer

l l d ir e c t i o n s

L AW

I ll u s t at in g

P re s s u r e
a

te d

49

a al

on

sc

La w

l iq u i d i s t r a n s m i t te d

equ a

ll y

u s ually illu s t r a t e d by mea n s o f the appa r atu s s hown in

(1) F ig 69 I t i s a sy r inge with a gla s s b ulb which ha s ve n ozzle s o f the
s ame s ize a n d i n the s ame plane W he n the s y r inge lled with wate r
i s held wi t h th e n ozzl e s h o r i z o n tal a n d t h e plu n ge r i s fo r ced in the
s t r eam s which i s s ue f r om the n o zz le s a r e O f exactly the s a m e le n g t h
Thi s s h ow s tha t p r es s u r e exe r ted o n wa ter i s t r a n s m itte d equally i n all
di r ection s Thi s i s v e r y s u r p r i s in g becau s e s ince the plunge r exe r t s
the p r e s s u r e i n the d i r ect io n o f the f r on t s t r eam we might expect thi s
to be th e longe s t : we n d howeve r tha t they all h ave the
s t r eam
s ame length
Thi s

la w is

X P E R I M E NT

No

26

how that pre s s u r e o n wate r i s t r a n s m i tted equally in all d i r ecti on s

U s e the apparatu s (2) Fig 69 Fill the tub e with water in s e r t th e
plunger h o ld the nozzle s ho r izontal a n d fo r ce the plunge r i n s tea dil y
A r e the s t r eam s o f equal length ?
A4
TO

HYD RA UL I C A N D P NEU MATI C ENGI NEERI N G

50

R epea t with the apparatu s ( 3) Fig 69

W ith (2) Fig 69 y ou show that the p r e s s u r e i s t r an s mitted equally
f o rward a n d s idewi s e an d with (3) Fig 69 that i t i s tran smitte d equally
.

in b oth s idewis e d irect ions

Thi s expe r iment s how s tha t water t r a n s m it s p r e s s u r e equally in all
direct ion s The exp eriment s de s c r ibe d below s how that i t t r an smit s i t
equally a n d u n d im i n i s h e d i n all d irect ion s
.

The two cylinders a n d co nnect

ing p ip e Fig 70 a re lle d with n o
1
80
s
i
n
water a n d each cylinder i s tte d q
wi th a water tight p i s to n ; th e a rea
o f c r o s s s ect ion o f the s mall p i s to n
i s 1 s q in a n d o f the large p i s ton
100 s q i n
I f n ow a pres sure o f
1 lb i s exerted 0 u the small P iS to n
F i g 70 A P r e u e of On e P o
f 0 u n d that thi s p 1 e 5 5 u r e i S o a S m all P i t on E e t a Li ft of O
H u d e d P ou n d o a L e P i ton
,

ss

Cou r tesy of Th e

und

r s

ar

Mac

zl l a n

ne

Co

t r a n s mi tted equally and und imin i s hed by the

w ate r an d tha t the r efo r e the upwa r d p r e s s ure
o n the la r ge p i s to n i s 1 ID o n each s q i n o r the
t o tal p r e s s u r e upwa r d i s 100 lb s Tha t i s 1 1b
o n the s mall p i s to n s uppo r t s 100 lb s o n the la r ge
p i s ton
This i s very s urp r i s ing an d i t look s a s i f we
we r e getting s omethin g f or n othing Thi s i s n ot
s o h owever becau s e i f the s mall p i s t o n i s move d
d own 1 inch the la r ge p i s ton mov e s u p only

o f a n inch
Tha t i s what i s gain ed in f o r ce i s

lo s t i n d i s tance moved
The hyd r o s tat ic bellow s Fig 71 i s an appa r
a tu s o f thi s kin d and i t illu s t r ate s P a s cal s law
I t con s i s t s o f two di s k s o f wood
beaut ifully
connected by a water pro o f canva s cyl inder to
m a ke a collap s ible d r um
A small p ipe pa s s e s
t h r ough the lower d i s k an d o pen s i nt o the d r um
I f now the d r um i s lled wi th water and a m a n
s t a n d s o n the upper d i s k
i t 1 3 found that a ve r y
s m all a m oun t o f water A B
in the p ipe will s u p
p o r t h i s weight
,

F ig

Th
H y d tati
71 _
e

r os

B ell ows Th e s ma ll Am oun t

o f W a t er
AB S upp o t s a
Ma n s W e igh t
.

'

H YD RA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI NG

51

Th i s i s v ery s triking an d it i s expla ined a s above I f f or example

the a r ea o f the p ip e i s 1 s q in a n d that of the di s k i s 500 s q i n then
1 lb o f wate r in A B will s upp o r t a weight of 500 lb s o n the di s k
S imila r ly
1b o f wate r i n A B will s upp ort
x 500
250 lb s on
lb s o f wa ter in AB wil l s upp ort
the di s k or
x 500
125 tb s on
t h e di s k an d s o on
,

X P E R I M E NT

No

27

ma ke a nd ope r a te a hyd r o s tatic bellows

A r r ange the app a r atu s a s s hown i n Fig 72 P lace th e b ook on the
e m pty ob s erva tio n balloon a nd ll the balloo n with water u ntil i t i s
abou t half full Do you obs erv e that a v ery littl e wa ter in the tub e
s upp orts th e weight o f on e end o f the b ook
P lace an empty tumbler on the b ook
a n d ll it with water Do yo u n d that
a s mall ext r a amo un t o f water i n the
tub e s up port s the gla s s o f wa ter ?
To

R emov e the tumble r a n d pre s s down

the boo k with your ha nd Do you

nd tha t t o l ift wate r i n th e tub e y ou
mus t exe r t a force much g reater than
the we ight o f thi s wa ter

on

Thes e experimen t s a re c er ta inly v ery

s triking a n d they illu s tra te P a s cal s law
a s follows : The we igh t o f the extra
water i n th e tub e exe r t s pre s s ure down
ward o n a n area equal to tha t o f th e
in s ide o f th e tub e ; thi s pre s s ure i s t r an s
m i tte d e q u a l l y an d u n d i m i n i s h e d in all
d irect ion s by the water a n d i s exerted
aga in s t ea ch equal area o f the in s ide
o f the balloo n

P ig

s ta t i

72 I

ll u t at i

e B ell ows
.

ng

th e

Hyd

ro

H Y D RAU L I C A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEER ING

52

TH E HY D RAU L I C P RE SS
The hydraulic pre s s i s a n applica tion
law an d o f the hyd r o s ta tic
o f P a s cal s
bellow s I t i s u s ed where g r eat p r e s s u r e
i s requi r ed f or example
to comp r e s s
me r chand i s e to be n d s hip plate s to lift
g r eat weight s a nd s o o n
The pre s s h a s a force pump with
handle P whi ch o perate s the s mall p is
t o n A i n the s mall cyli nder C an d pump s
wate r from the res erv oir L through the
valve d throu gh the co n necting p ipe
F i g 73 Th e H y d a u l ic P e s s
C
Cour tesy of Th e M a M II
a n d valve v a nd i nto the large cylinder
D The large p is to n B or ram a s i t i s called move s u p a n d d own i n D
B oth A an d B have collars which preve nt the e s cap e o f wate r
I f n ow the en d o f ram B ha s a n area 100 t ime s a s grea t a s the e n d
of A
then each 1 lb exe r te d o n A exerts a l ift o f 100 Tb s o n B and
E X P E R I M E NT No 28
To make an d ope r a te a hyd r auli c p res s
Ar r ange the app a r a tu s a s s hown i n Fig 74 where
the ti n ca n in the tan k rep r e s en t s the r a m a n d where
t he balloo n r ep r es en t s the collar o f the ram S oap
t h e plunge r t o make i t slippery
Ope n lower clip rai s e the plunger clos e lower cl ip
R ep eat u n til
o pen s ide clip an d lowe r the plunger
the b alloo n i s p a r tly lled with wate r
Now ll the t in can with wate r and r epeat t he
o pe r at ion s ab ove
Do you n d that a s m all force o n the plunge r will
lift the r elat i v ely la r ge w eight o f the t in can full o f
wate r ?
Y o u have s hown he r e tha t o n the hydrauli c pres s
a
mall
force
mov
ing
the
mall
p
i
s
ton
a
long
dis
s
s

F i g 74
I ll u t at i g
W o k in g
th c
tance lift s a g r eat weight on the large p i s ton a
Hy d ul i
P e
s mall d i s tance

z a n

ra

ss

H YD RA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT IC ENGI NEERI NG

54

When s peed i s des ired for e x ample i n carry ing

pa s s enger s the eleva to r i s arranged a s s hown in
Fig 77 The plunger o r ram P move s i n a c y li n
der C B oth ram a nd cylinder ca rry a numbe r
o f large s eparate pulleys
s ide by s ide around
which a s teel cable i s p a s s e d a number of time s
a n d then a ttache d to the counterpo i s e w e ight D
I f f or example the s teel cable
m ake s 10 loop s aroun d the p ulley s
the r e are 20 s t r a nd s b etween the
two s et s o f pulley s I f then the
r a m move s 1 foo t each s t r a nd i s
lengthen ed 1 fo o t a n d th e counte r
p o is e i s pulle d d own 20 feet S ince
t h e c able atta ched t o the p as s en
ger cage pa s s e s aroun d the pulley
o f the coun terp o i s e a s s hown eac h
foo t the counterpo i s e des cend s
ra is e s the cage 2 feet Thu s if the
move s 1 foot th e counter
ram
p oi s e move s 20 feet an d the cage
Th i s give s the pa s s enge r
40 feet
cage 3 s p eed f orty t ime s that
,

th e r a m

id
77 A R
y d r u ic
or f or P s s en g e rs

r om
Mil li ka n <5 G a l es
ir s t Cou r s e i n P h y s i c s
B y pe r mis s i on of
G i nn 6 CO , P u bl i s h er s

F ig
E

levat
F
F
.

ap
a

a l

'

The ra m i s moved b y wate r fr om t h e city

mai n s w hich i s controlled by a three way v a lve
a s de s c r ibed above
-

F ig

78 o r in g
th e
d r a ul i c E

I llus tra t in g

W k
f a
levat o
.

r.

Hy

H Y D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI NG

E

X P E R I M E NT

No

29

To make an d ope r ate a hyd r aulic elev at o r

A rrange

55

the appa r atu s a s s h ow n i n Fig 78 S o ap th e plu n ger well

to make i t sl ippery
Open s ide clip I s the cage r a i s ed ? C lo s e s ide clip Do e s it s top ?
Open lower clip a n d p r e s s d own gently o n t h e cage D o e s i t d e s ce n d ?
C lo s e lower clip Doe s i t s top ?
Now Open a n d clo s e s ide clip t o ra i s e the cage a s ho r t d i s ta n ce a t a
time Do y o u n d tha t you co nt r ol the elevator p e r fectly a s i t ri s e s ?
Now ope n a nd cl o s e lower clip while y o u fo r ce the cage down a sho r t
di s tance a t a time Do y ou n d tha t y ou ca n con t r ol the eleva tor
pe r fectly a s i t de s ce n d s a n d tha t y ou cann o t m o v e it d ow n when the
clip i s clo s ed ?
You hav e s how n he r e how the r a m a n d cage o f a n elev a to r a r e
r a i s ed by wate r p r e s s u r e an d h ow they de s cend by their own we ight
You have s hown al s o t h a t you c a n s t o p them a n ywhe r e w h ile r i s ing o r
de s ce n di n g by cl o s ing the p r o pe r v alve
.

HY D RAU L I C L I FT L O C"
CA N A L L OC" S

F ig
Cou r te s y

79 A

S i g le L oc k
n

Th e S c ie n tic Ame r i ca n

HYD RA ULI C A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI N G

56

o r din a r y canal lock Fig 79 is u s ed to ra i s e or lower s teame r s

a few feet to e nable them to p a s s up o r down s t r eam a r ound a rapid
I t i s s imply a s ho r t canal with a pa ir of gate s at
d a m or wate r fall
each e nd
I f the s teamer i s goin g up s tream it s ail s through the l ower gate s
o f the l o c k ; t h e l owe r gate s a r e clo s ed behind it ; water i s ad m itted t o
t he lock until it s level i s equal t o tha t o f the wate r ab ove the lock ; the
upper gate s are the n opened a n d the s teamer s ails out o f the lock
a t the upper level I f th e s teame r is goi n g down s t r eam the r eve r s e
o pe r ati on take s place
I f the d iff eren ce i n level i s con s iderable bu t over s ome di s tance a
n umbe r o f t h e s e lock s a r e u s ed
f o r example if the d iffe r ence i n level
we r e 80 feet i n a di s tan ce o f two m ile s the r e migh t be in the tw o mile s
4 l o ck s with a d i ff e r ence o f level o f 20 f eet each o r 8 l o ck s with a d iff e r
e n ce O f 10 feet each an d s o on
When the d i ff e r ence i n level i s g rea t in a s ho r t di s tance h oweve r
a l ift lock mu s t b e u s ed
An

LI FT L OC" S
L ift lock s

called becau s e the whole l o ck with the wa ter in

i t an d the s hip i s lifted v e r t ically f r o m t h e low level to the high or
i s lo w e r e d ve r tically f r om the high level t o the low
They a r e alway s
i n p airs an d the weight o f one balance s the weight o f the o ther
The l i ft lock s hown i n Fig 80 i s o n e that it i s p r opo s ed t o buil d
I t will take s hip s
o n a canal b etwee n L ake E r ie a n d L ake On ta r io
650 fee t lon g a n d o f 3 0 fo o t d r a ft an d will l i ft o r lowe r them th r ough a
v e r tical height o f 208 feet The i n n e r s ide o f o n e will b e c o n nected
with the i n n e r s ide O f the o the r by 56 s teel ca b le s w h ic h p a s s ove r 56
s heave s o f 20 foot d iameter
The o ute r s ide o f each will b e conn ected
with la r ge co n c r ete cou n te r weight s by mea n s o f s teel cable s p a s s ing ove r
56 s heave s o n each s ide
The lock s will b e r ai s ed a nd lowe r ed by mean s
o f elect r ical p owe r applied to the r im s o f each s heave
The gate s a t
the ends o f each l o ck an d a t the end s o f the uppe r an d lowe r ca n al will
be Opened an d cl o s e d by b eing m oved down an d up ve r t ically The
d iagr am s how s h ow the l ock s will look when on e ship i s b ei ng ra i s ed
a nd a nothe r lowe r ed The bu ild ing a t the r ight i s a plant i n which
elect r i cal power will b e developed f r om the exce s s water f r om the u ppe r
canal A s mall pa r t only o f thi s p ower will b e u s ed to O perat e the lock s
a re

so

HY D RAU L I C A N D P NE U MAT I C EN G I NEERI N G

F ig

80

P r opos ed

L ift L oc k
-

Cour tes y

of

57

Th e S ci entic Amer i ca n

H YD RA U L I C

58

A ND

P N EU MATI C E N G I NEERI NG

HY D RAU L I C L I FT L OC" S
Hy draulic lift lo c k s

are so called be c aus e

t h ey are operate d by
mean s o f water E a c h
l ock i s a large s teel
t ank s ecurel y a ttached
t o the top of a very
l arge ram wh ich moves
u p a nd down i n a deep
c y linder The two cy l in
d ers are con nected by
a p ip e through which
the water ows from
the
o n e t o the o ther
ow b e i ng controlled
or s topped ent irel y b y
means o f a valve
.

H
y d r a u l ic L i f t L oc k

On ta r i o H ig h S c h ool

T h e

P h y s i cs

th e

e r m ws zon

p
u bis h e r s

The opera tio n o f the locks will b e n u

d e r s t o o d from Fig 8 2 I f the s teamer
i s going up s tream : i t s ails into the lock
B which i s down an d the lock gate is
clo s ed ; a l i ttle water i s a dm itted to the
l ock A which i s up to make it weigh
m ore tha n the lower lock B an d the
s teamer ; the v alve R is opene d ; the
t
P
upper lock des cends and its ram
force s water from it s cy linder i nt o tha t
o f the lower lock ; the pres s ure o f this
water r a l s e s th 6 ram P th e 1ower IOCk
L i ft L k s
an d the s teamer to the upper level ; the
l P h9 cs
gate s are open ed an d the s teamer s a i ls
o u t a t the u p per level
.

F ig

8 2 S h ow in
.

H ow

Op er a t e

oc

F r om th e 0 n ta r zo H zg /z S c lzoo
By p er m m zb n of "
'

'

s z

HYD RA U L IC

A ND

P NEU MATI C ENGI NEERI NG

59

the s teamer i s g oin g d own s tr e am ; i t s a i l s i n t o th e upp er lock

and the gate s are clo s e d ; water i s a dm itte d to the u p p er lock t o make
i t we igh more tha n the lower lo c k ; the v alve R i s op ened ; water i s
force d from the cy linder o f the upper lo c k to tha t o f the lower a s the
u pper lock des cend s a n d the lower lock ris e s ; t h e g ate s a r e o p ened ;
a n d the s teamer s ails ou t a t the lower level
No te Yo u migh t th in k that the p re s ence o f t h e s teamer i n o n e lock
w ould ma ke i t we igh more than the o ther lock but y ou will learn in
E xperimen t 36 tha t a s hip d is place s i t s own weight o f water a n d tha t
therefore the on e lock plu s water plu s s teamer weighs the s ame a s
the o ther lock p lu s water
If

E XP E R I ME N T

No

30

T o m ake a n d op erate a h y drauli c l ift l o c k

the a p para tu s s h own in Fig 8 3 The wide t ube s a n d p l ungers

r epres en t the c y linders a n d ram s o f a real li ft lock a n d the c lip r e r e
p
s ent s the c ontrol valve The i nv erted tumblers rep re s en t the locks
the y should o f c o u rs e b e righ t s id e up b ut y ou hav e
n o w a y of fa s ten ing them
P lace a butto n or p ebble on t h e l ower l o c k t o
repres en t a sh ip o pe n the c lip a n d p re s s d own o n
the upper lo c k
I s the s hip ra i s e d ?
L ower a s teamer i n the s ame w a y
N ow place a s teamer i n the lower l oc k an d p re s s
down on the upper lo ck while y ou ope n a n d clos e
the clip from t im e t o t ime Do y ou n d that the
plungers s top a s s o o n a s y ou clo s e the cli p ?
Us e

b e s topped an y where b y clo s ing the valve R Fig 82

Water i s i ncompre s s ible a s y ou k n ow from E x p er
i m c nt N o 7 a n d when v a l ve R i s c l o s e d the r a m s
c anno t m ove
b ecau s e the water i n the c y li n d er s
c annot be c ompres s e d an d can not move
R epea t th i s but c lo s e th e c lip o n l
t
a
r
ly
y p
Do y ou n d t h at the p l u nger s c a n m ov e s lowl
y
an d that y ou c a n regulat e th e s p ee d by Ope n i ng
the cl i p m or e or l e s s ?
,

u s tra t
83
in g t h e \V or k in g of
th e H y d r a uli c L i f t
Loc k

F ig

H Y D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT IC ENGI NEERI NG

60

Thi s shows how the ram s in a real lift l o c k ca n b e a l l owe d to move

r ap i dl y o r slowl y b y open i ng the v alve R more or les s
th is ex p erim en t y ou have illu s trated the working o f a h y draulic
l ift lock : y ou have s hown that the downward movemen t o f o ne ram
dr ives wa ter int o the s econ d c y l i nder an d tha t the pres sure o f thi s water
ra ise s the ram i n the s eco n d c y linder ; y ou have shown als o tha t the rams
c a n b e s t o p pe d an y where by clos i ng the v alve R or that the y c a n be
made t o mov e v er y slowl y b y clos ing the valve p artly
In

TH E

F i g 8 4 Th e
T a n k a n d P ip e
.

P RE SS URE E" ERT ED B Y WATER

H eigh t

of

th e S r ea m is

I n d e p en d en t

of

th e S ize or

S ha pe

of

th e

H Y D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT IC ENGI NEERI NG

62

Y ou have s hown here that the pre s sure exerted

water i s inde
pen den t o f the v o l u m e o f the water but tha t i t depend s upo n the h e i g h t
of
the wat e r above the n ozzl e Thi s i s known a s the Hy d ro s tat ic
P aradox wh i ch y ou w ill n ow illus trate
by

THE H Y D RO STAT IC
by

PARAD O"

The Hy dro s tati c P ara dox i s s tated a s follows : The pres s ure exerted
a l iqu id o n a ny ba s e i s i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e v o l u m e o f t h e l iq u i d but
,

dep e nds

o n ly

d e n s i ty

of

th e

th e a r e a

on

l iq u i d

of

th e

b a s e , th e d e p t h

th e

l iq u i d ,

a n

th e

t e The d e n s i ty o f a liqu i d i s
cub i c inch o r p er cub i c cent imeter
o

of

i ts

weight

p er

cub ic fo ot or per
,

The h y dro s tat i c p aradox i s illu s tra

ted b y mean s o i the a pparatus shown
i n F ig 86 The three top s are o f diff
e r e n t s ize s a n d shape s
but the y t a
c ommo n b as e
The b o tt om o f thi s
ba s e i s covered by a s hee t o f rubber
o r b y a shee t o f corrugate d metal
The ba s e s in ks a s the pre s s ure i n
crea se s a nd m ove s the p oi nter wh ich
i n d i cates the pres s ure
I f the to p s are s crewe d to the b a s e
on e a fter the o ther a n d then lled
w i th wa ter to the s ame h e i g h t the
i
n
o
in
ter
i
n
dicate
s
the
s
a
m
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
e
p
p
a ll ca s e s
.

F ig 8 6
a r a d ox
.

I ll u s t r a tin

Cou r tes y

th e

H y d r o s ta t i c

f Th e M a cM il l a n C o

The volum e o f water i n th e t op s i s d iff eren t i n e ach ca s e but the

pres sure i s the s ame i n all Thi s s hows tha t the p res s ure exerted by
a l iqu i d i s i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e v o l u m e o f the l iqu id provi de d th e a r e a o f
t h e b a s e th e d e p t h a n d the d e n s i t y o f t h e l i q u i d are the s ame i n all ca s es
A n other form o f t h i s app ara tu s i s s h own i n F ig 87; t h e t h ree t 0 p s
t the s am e b a s e b ut the bottom i s a bra s s plate AB wh ich i s held o n
b y a cord atta c he d t o o n e a rm o f a ba l an c e (n ot sh own ) T h e p late AB
falls i n ea ch ca s e when the water reaches the s ame height
The hy dro s ta t i c para dox i s al s o illu s trated in 4 ; the thre e tube s are
o f very d i ff eren t v ol ume s b u t th e wate r s tan d s at the s ame height in all
,

HYD RA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT IC ENGI NEERI N G

F ig

8 7 A S e c on d
.

M e t h od

Cou r tes y

of

I ll u s tr a tin

th

Hy d

r os

t a ti c

Pa

63

r a d ox

f Th e Ma cM il l a n Co

The s e exper im en ts s how tha t the pre s s ure a l i qu i d e x ert s o n a given

b a s e i s in dep en d ent o f the v olume o f the l iqu id p rov ide d the area o f
the ba s e depth o f the liqu id and den s i ty o f the liqu i d are con s tant
,

E " P E RI ME N

No

32

illus trate the h y dros tat ic p ara dox

88

I ll us tr a ti n g

th e

Hy d

r os

ta t i c

a ra

d ox

64

HY D RA UL I C A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI NG

M ake the experiment s A B a n d C F ig 88 on e a fter the other
,

Is

the water i n the small tub e alwa y s a t the s ame height a s tha t i n the
tu n n el o r large tube ?
A rrange the appara tu s a s i n D F ig 88 I s the water at the s ame
level in all ca s e s ?
The f un nel an d w i de tube ea ch contai n more water tha n the small
tube ; n evert h ele s s the d ownward p res s ure o f the wa ter in each i s b a l
a n c e d b y t h e d own w ar d p re s s ure of the water i n the small tube
You h ave s hown here that the p res s ure exerted b y a liqu i d i s in de
pendent o f the v olum e of the liqu i d that i s y ou have illu s tra te d the
h y dro s tat i c para dox
.

E " P LA N ATI ON OF THE HY D RO STATI C P A RADO"

The h y d ro s tati c para d ox s eems impo s s ible an d tha t i s wh y i t is

calle d a p ara dox I t would s eem t o b e s elf eviden t that the greater
the v olume o f wa ter abov e a b a s e the greater woul d b e the p re s sure ;
,

F ig

8 9 E x p l a n a ti on
.

o f th e

H y d r os ta t ic Pa r a d ox

HY D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT IC ENGI NEERI NG

6S

an d the les s the volume the les s the p res s ure Y o u have s hown ab ove
however tha t the pre s s ure o n a g iven b a s e i s in dep en den t o f the v olume
o f water an d that i t depend s onl y o n the depth
The paradox i s e x pla i ned a s follows :
I n 1 F ig 8 9 the ba s e A B i s s ubj ect to the p res sure o f the water in
the cy lin der ab ove i t a n d i n thi s ca s e the pre s s ure i s e qual t o the
we ight o f the water
I n 2 F ig 8 9 the s ame bas e A B ha s a much larger v olume o f water
a b ove i t but the pre s s ure i s the s am e a s i n 1 Y o u w ill un ders tan d
Th i s water
w h y i f y ou cons i der the water outs i de the dotted l i nes
e x ert s a force p erp en d i cular to the s i de s o f the cone a n d a no ther force
horizon tall y aga i ns t the water b etwee n the do tted l ine s s ee the arrows
Neither o f thes e force s ha s a n y e ff ect d ownward o n the ba s e an d there
fore the ba s e i s s ubj ect o nl y t o the we ight o f the water b etween the
dotted l i ne s Th i s weight i s the s ame a s i n 1 a n d therefore the pre s sure
o n A B i s the s ame a s in 1
I n 3 F ig 8 9 the bas e A B ha s a much smaller volume ab ove i t than
i n e ither 1 o r 2 but s t ill the pres s ure i s the s ame a s i n l a nd 2 Y o u
w ill unders tan d w h y from y o ur knowledge o f P a s cal s law The water
abov e A B i s exert ing pre s s ure downward a n d a ccord ing t o P a s c al s
law thi s p res s ure i s tra n smitte d equ all y a n d u n d imin i she d i n all d i
rectio n s The pres s ure p e r s quare inch downward o n the whole o f A B
therefore i s equal to what i t would b e if the whole s pace b etween the
outer dotted line s were lled with water Thi s p re s s ure i s equal t o tha t
i n (1 ) a nd thi s i s w h y the pre s s ure in (3 ) i s equal t o that i n
,

'

HOW T O CA LCUL AT E THE P RE SS URE

E " ERTE D B Y

WATER

The den s it y (we ight ) o f fre sh water i s 62% lb s p er cub ic fo ot an d

if i n (1 ) F i g 89 the b as e A B i s 1 s quare foo t a n d the he ight o f the
water i s 10 feet there are 10 cub i c feet o f water i n the tan k an d the
total pres s ure o n the b ottom i s 10 x
625 l b s
S ince th e pres s ure e x erte d b y water i s i n d epen d en t o f th e volume o f
the wa ter an d depend s onl y o n the area o f the b as e the he ight a n d the
den s i t y o f the wa ter the pre s sure o n A B i n (2) a n d (3 ) i s 625 lb s the
s ame a s i n
The rule for c alcula ting the pre s su re i n a n y cas e i s : P re s s ure o n
a n y ba s e
area o f b a s e i n s quare feet x he i ght o f water i n feet x
den s i t y o f water (we ight o f 1 cu b i c foot ) or P re s s ure
area x he i ght
x den s i t y
A 5
.

H YD R A U L I C AND P N E U MATI C EN G I N E E RI N G

'

66

I n the example given :

P re s sure

x 10 x
625 lb s p e r s quare foot
T o nd the pres s ure p er s quare i nch rs t n d the pre s s ure p er s quare
foot an d then d ivide the re s ult b y 144 the number of s quar e i n c hes i n
For example the p res sure on 1 s quare i nch o f A B in
1 s quare foo t
144
lb s
a n y o f the tanks i llus trated i s 625
l

: 2

U RE U ND ER WATE R
TO RP E DO
B O MB
S U B MARI NE

P RE SS
THE D E PTH

D E PTH B O M B

Th e
0
i
F g 9
.

D e p th

B omb

Cour te s y

Th e S c ie n tific Ame n c a n

HYD RA UL IC A N D P NE U MATI C ENGI NEERI NG

67

The depth b omb i s us ed b y s ubmar i n e chas ers to des tro y s ubmar i nes
I t i s a s teel c y lin der lled with h igh explo s ive s a n d equ i pp e d with a
trigger which s ets o ff the explo s ive a t a n y des ired dep th u nder water
The tr i gger i s relea s e d b y mean s of a small p lunger which i s expo s e d
to the p res s ure o f the s e a water on the outs ide an d i s s upp orte d b y a
s pring o n the i ns ide T he p res sure o f the water in crea s e s a s the b omb
s inks a n d force s the p lunger i n farther aga in s t the s pring but the
s pring ca n b e s o a dj us ted tha t a t a n y de s i re d d ep th the plunger relea s e s
the tr igger a n d the bomb explodes
When the cha s er s ight s a s ubmar i ne it s teams for it a n d if i t i s
s till above water attack s i t with gun s ; b ut i f it ha s s ubmerged the
chas er s teams i n circle s aro un d the s p ot where i t di s a p p eare d a n d drop s
o r res b omb s a dj u s te d t o ex p lod e a t d iff eren t dep ths

THE TO RP ED O

F i g 9 I Th e P r in c ip l e P a r t s of th e Tor p e d o

R epr od u ce d by P er mis s i on f r om th e
B oy s B ook of S u bmar i ne s
by F r e d e r i c k Col l i ns
Copyr ig h t by F r ed er i c k A S tokes Co
.

The torp e d o i s a c iga r s h a p e d t ub e

loade d in th e he a d with h igh exp l o
mu t
m
or : 0 m e
s iv e s whi c h are s et o ff b
y a c on t a c t
I t i s d riven by mean s of a c om
p in
pres s e d a ir motor an d is s te e re d b y
horiz on tal a n d v ertical ru dd er s
We are i nteres te d in t h e h or izon tal
ru dd er p articularl y at thi s p oin t I t
s teer s th e to rp e d o to a d e p t h of 20
feet u n d e r water a n d kee p s i t a t
I t d o es thi s by mean s
thi s depth
of the pre s s u r e o f th e s ea water The
9 2 _Th e T orp d o
" ep t a t
horizon tal r u dd er 18 c o11 tr one d by a D ep t of 20 f et b y W t er P es u e
R p od u c e d by P r mi s i on f om th
p is ton Fig 92 w h ich i s exp os ed to
B oy
B ook of S bm a i ne
the pres s ure of th e s e a wa ter o n the
co
ua l

" l u c r a ti ve

HYD RAU L IC

68

AND

P NE U M AT IC ENGI NEERI NG

outs i de a n d i s s u p porte d by a s p ring on the in s ide This p i s ton and

i t s spring are s o adj us ted that a t 20 feet un der water the ru dder is
exactl y hor izo ntal b u t a t a greater o r les s depth th e ru dde r i s s o turned
a s to bri ng the torped o back t o a depth o f 20 feet
.

S UB MA RI NE

R epr od u c e d by

P er mis s i on

F ig

f r om

Th e S u b ma r in e

B oy s B ook of S u bma r i n es

93

th e

Copy r ig h t by F r ed er ic k A

by

r e d e r ic k

Col l ins

S tokes Co

The s ubmarine mu s t b e able to s tan d en o rmous pres s ures when under

water a n d for th i s rea s o n i t i s made i n the s hap e o f a c y linder with
pointed ends becau s e thi s curve d shap e enables i t to s tan d greater
pres sure tha n i t could i f it s s i de s were a t ; als o i t i s made o f s teel
becaus e thi s i s the s tronge s t material ava ilable
You can no t e x perimen t with the de p th bomb tor p e d o an d s ubmari ne
o f cours e but y o u can m ake experiment s to illus trate the water pre s s ure
un d e r wh ich the y opera te You can show tha t the pres s ure u nder water
increa s e s with the depth tha t i t is equal i n all d ire c t ion s a t a n y depth
etc an d th i s y ou w ill n ow do
,

H Y D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT IC ENGI NE ERI NG

70

Th i s fact i s illus trated i n another w a y b y m ean s o f the apparatus

B an d C F ig 94 A th i s tle tub e covered b y a sheet o f rub b er i s placed
under water an d the water i n the U tube ind icates a greater pre s s ure the
greater the dep th I f the th i s tle tub e i s turned i n all d irect i on s a t a n y
g iven dep th the water i n the U tube s hows tha t the pres s ure i s equal
i n all d irect i on s a t th i s depth
I llus trate thes e facts b y m ean s o f the app aratus F ig 95
S hove the fun nel s tra ight down
D oe s the pre s s ure i ncrea s e w ith
the dep th ?
Turn the fun nel s i dew i s e (2) and upward at a n y depth I s the
pre s s ure equal in all d irect i on s a t a n y g iven dep th ?
,

E XP E R I ME N T

No

34

s how that water exert s pre s s ure upward on a n y

th i ng under i ts s urface a nd that the upward pre s s ure
i s equal t o the d ownward pre s s ure at a n y g ive n depth
Thi s i s u s uall y shown w i th the apparatu s Fig 96 I f
a glas s la m p chimn ey A i s tted with a thin ground
gla s s b ottom 0 wh i ch i s held over o n e end b y a thread
C whil e thi s en d i s place d in water i t i s found that
To

F ig 9 6 Th e U p
w a r d P r e s s u r e a t a ny
P om t U n d e r Wa t e r 1 3
E qu a l t o t h e D own
wa r d P r e s s u r e a t h s
.

P oi n t

Th e

t i

Ma cM i l l cm

Co

the bo ttom rema i n s o n when

the threa d i s releas ed Thi s
shows that wa ter exert s pre s
sure u p w a r d o u an y th ing u n
der its s urface
I f n ow water i s p oured in
t o the chimn e y the b ottom
.

Cou r tes y

9 7 S h ow in
Th a t
th e
r e s s u r e U p wa r d a n d
D own wa r d a r e E q ua l a t
a n y D e p th

F ig

HYD RA UL I C

A ND

PNE

U M ATIC

ENGI NEERI NG

71

rema in s o n un til the level ins ide the chimne y i s the s ame a s the level
outs i de an d th i s i s true a t a n y depth Th i s shows tha t the pre s s ure
upward at a n y depth un der water i s equal to the pres s ure downward
of the column of water in s ide the chimne y I n o ther word s i t s hows
that the pres s ure upward a t a n y dep th un der water i s equal t o the
p res s ure downwar d a t th i s dep th
I llus tra te th i s w i th the a p paratu s (1) Fig 97 P ut the s toppere d en d
i n water
I s a foun ta in p roduced a n d doe s the ow s top when the
level in s i de i s equal t o tha t outs i de the tub e ?
U s e the apparatu s (2) Fig 97 hold the rubb er s heet o n un t il i t i s
u nder water
D oe s it rema i n ?
P our water i nto the tube
D oe s the s heet fall o ff when the level
i n s i de i s equal t o that ou ts i de ?
Yo u have shown here that water exert s pres s ure upward aga i n s t
a n y th ing under its s urface a n d that the upward pre s s ure i s equal to
the downward p re s sure a t a n y g iven dep th
.

HOW TO CAL CUL ATE THE P R E S S U R E O N D E P H B O M B ,

TOR P E DO AND S UB MA R I N E

S ea water i s heav ier than fre s h wa ter ; i t weigh s 64 lb s

foot wh i le fres h water we ig hs only 6 2% lb s p er cub i c foo t

p er cu b i c

DE P TH B OM B

A depth bomb i s s et t o e plo de a t a dep th o f

feet I f s ea water
the pres s ure p er s q i n aga i n s t the

250

we i ghs 64 lb s p er cu b i c foo t wha t i s

plunger a t thi s depth ?
No t e : C alculate the pres sure p er s quare fo o t a n d d iv ide th i s
144 the num b er o f s quare i nche s i n o n e s quare foot
A
rea x dep th x den s it y
P res sure
.

by

144

250

64
TO R P E D O

A torpe d o i s s e t t o travel a t
IS

d epth o f 15 feet u nder water What

the pres s ure per s q i n o n the s teer i ng plunger a t th i s depth ?
A re a x dep th x d en s it y
.

P res s ure

15

144

64

lb s

per s q i n
.

S U B MA R I N E

Wh at is th e pres s ure p er s quare foot o n the o uts ide

a t an average depth o f 150 feet in water ?
P re s sure
A rea x d epth x den s it y
1 x 150 x 64
P res s ure
9600 lb s p er s q ft
.

of

a su b mar i ne

HYD RA UL IC A N D P NEU M ATI C ENGI NEERI NG

72

WHY

UO YA NCY

DOE S A S TEE L S HI P F L OAT ?

F ig 9 8
.

Wh y D oes

Cour tes y

M odern s hip s are made

Th is S t eel S hip

Fl

Th e S c i en tic Am e r i c a n

oa

t?

s teel e x ample the s u p e r d r e a d n a ug h t

shown i n Fig 98 an d although s teel i s over s even t im es a s heavy a s
water bulk for bulk s teel ship s oat Wh y i s th i s ?
You know that if a s h ip
Yo u know the a n swer at leas t partl y
were a s ol i d lump o f s teel it would s i nk Y o u know als o that a sh ip
i s hollow except for i ts equ i pment an d that th i s hollo wn es s i n s ome
w a y enables i t to oat
The true rea s o n i s that the sh i p a s a whole is lighter than an equal
v olume o f wa ter
You w ill show i n the following e x periment s that water exert s a
b uo y an t force on an y th i ng placed in i t an d that a s a result : th i ngs
which are lighter than a n equal v olu m e o f water oat o n water ; wh ile
things wh ich are heav i er than a n equal volume o f water s in k but a r e
lighter under water than above water
.

of

F ig

99

I ll u s t r a tin g

th e

B u oy an t E ff e c t

E XP E R I ME N T

No

of

Wa ter

35

the buo y an t e ff ec t o f water

F ind abou t y our home an emp t y ti n ca n with a tight lid S u b m erge
i t p artl y a s i n (l ) and relea s e it
D oe s it shoo t upward ? Thi s b uo y an t
e ff ect o f the water i s due t o the upward pres s ure o f the water
S ubmerge it en tirel y a s i n (2) an d (3 ) an d releas e it D oe s i t s hoot
upward ? Thi s buo y ant eff ect shows tha t the upward pres sure o f the
water o n the under s ide o f the ca n i s greater than it s downward pre s s ure
o n the top s i de
Fill the ca n w i th water s ubmerge a n d relea s e it D oes i t s i nk ?
L i ft the full can u nder water an d o u t o f water I s i t much lighter
whe n under water ? I t i s l ighter b ecaus e the water buo y s up part o f
i t s we ight
To i llus trate

TH E L AW OF

A RC H I M E D E S

The exact law wh ich applie s to the buo y a ncy o f liqu id s wa s d is

covered by a G reek p h il o s o p h e r A r c h im e d e s 200 y ears before the C hr i s t
I t i s calle d the l a w o f Ar c h i m e d e s a n d i t i s a s follows :
i a n era began
t h e b u o y a n t f o r c e e x e r t e d b y a l iq u i d o n a b o d y i m m e r s e d i n i t
is
.

e xa c

tl y

It

equ a

l t o th e w e i g h t

of

th e

l iq u i d d i s p l a c e d b y t h e b o d y

als o s tated more con c i s el y a s follows : a bod y when placed

i n a l iqu i d app ears to lo s e we i ght equal to the weight of l iqu i d i t
d i splace s
is

H Y D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MATIC ENGI NEERI NG

74

1 00

Th e C u p

and

Cy l in d e r

Cou r te s y

M e th o d of I l l u s tr a tin g
of Th e M ac Mil l a n C0

On e

th e L a w of

Ar c h im e d es

The law o f A rch imede s i s illus trate d by mean s o f the a p paratu s

shown i n F ig 100 The s ol id c y linder A i s s o made that i t j u s t ts
the cup B tha t i s th e cy linder ha s exactl y the s am e v olume a s the cup
The e x per imen t i s a s follows : The cy lin der A i s attached to the
b ottom o f the cup B an d bo th are s u spended from o n e pan o f a balance
W e ight s are a dded t o the other pan unt i l the cup and c y l i nder are
j us t balanced
I f then a v e s s el o f liqu i d i s ra ise d up under the cy lin d er A u ntil
i t i s completel y s ubmerge d the c up an d c y lin d er a pp ear t o l o s e weight
becau s e the l iqui d buo y s up the cy linder I f n ow the cup B i s lled
w i th the liqu id the b alance i s exactly res tore d
Now the we ig ht o f the liqu i d which lls the cup i s equal to tha t
o f the liqu i d d i s pla ce d b y the c y linder an d therefore this exp erimen t
prove s the law o f A rch imede s namel y th e buo y a n t force exerted b y
a liqui d on a b od y immers e d in it i s equal to the we ight o f the l iqu i d
d i s place d b y the body
The law o f A rch imede s i s als o illus trated by mean s o f the apparatu s
shown i n F ig 101 an d b y mean s o f a s prin g balan c e no t sh own
The b od y i s rs t weighe d on the s pring b alance i n a ir then in the
l i qu id an d th e a pp a r a n t lo s s i n weight i n the l i qu id i s d eterm ined
The ves s el with the s pout i s then lled with th e l iqui d until it over
ows the bod y i s p la c e d in th e l iqu i d a n d the l iq ui d d i s placed i s weighed
.

HY D RA UL IC A ND P NEU MAT IC ENGI NEERI NG

75

The apparent lo s s in we ight of

the b od y i s then compared w i th the
we ight o f l iqu i d d i s placed b y the b od y
and i t i s found that in every cas e
the y are equal
Yo u will now ma ke exp er i ments
to illus trate the law o f A rch im edes
for bod ie s wh i ch oat o n water a nd
for bo d ie s wh ich s in k i n water als o
y o u w i ll illus trate s om e o f the a p p l i
cat i on s o i thi s law
,

l Ol A n oth e r
t r a t i n g th e L a w
Cou r tes y of The

F ig

M e th o d

I ll u s
o f A r c h im e d e s
M ac Mi ll a n Co
of

F ig

F ig

1 02

1
( ) A S h i p U n l oa d e d

1 02 (2) Th e S a m e S h ip
.

Wh

en

L oa d e d

HYD RAU L I C

76

A sh i p

AND

PNE

U M ATI C

ENGI NEERING

a oat i ng b od y and i t d i splaces i t s ow n we ight o f water

I f f or e x a m ple a s h i p we i ghs
ton s i t d i s place s
ton s o f water
I f 5000 ton s o f cargo are a dded i t oat s deeper i n the water an d d i splace s
ton s o f water a n d s o o n
Yo u w ill n ow s how tha t a oa ting b od y d i s pla c e s I t s own we i ght of
water
is

E XP E R I M E N T No 3 6
To illus trate the law of A rch imede s for b od ie s wh i ch oat
.

Us e

empt y g las s
bottle a s the oat ing
bod y
C lo s e the lower
h ole i n the me t al t an k
with a No 1 s topper put
the large coupl i ng in the
ll the t an k
u pper hole
W i th water u n t il w a te r
th e

c ou p li n g a n

1 03

th r

ou t

r un s

ou gh

to p s

the

(1 )F ig

Now place the bo ttle

slowl y i n the water and

catch the w ater i t d i s
place s (2) F ig 103
,

l oa t in
1 03
A
i s p l a c e s I ts O w n
We i h t of Wa te r

F ig
B od y

H YD RAUL IC A N D P NEU M AT IC ENGI NEERI NG

78

have here illus tra ted the law o f A r c h imede s for

water

Yo u

s in k

in

b od ie s

wh i ch

Fig

F ig 1 04 - 3
.

A B od y

Wh i c h

S in k s

L os e s W i gh t E q u
e

al

t o th e

W e i gh t

of

104

Wa te r

It

D i s p la c es

RA I S I NG S UN " EN S H I PS

E XP E R I ME N T

No

38

To show how s unken sh ip s are ra i s ed b y mean s o f a ir

S unken s h i p s are ra i s ed by compres s ed a ir a s illus trated i n F igs 105
an d 106 A ir i s pumpe d in to the shi p until the s hip a nd the a ir d i splace
a we ight o f water sl ightl y more than th e we ight o f the sh ip ; the buo y an t
force o f the water then l i fts the sh i p to the s urface
.

H Y D RAUL IC A N D P N EU MAT IC ENGI NEERI NG

F ig

1 05 Pump in
.

A i r i n to

S un k en S h i p t o

Fo

rce

I llus trate th i s wi th the appara tu s shown i n

th e

a te r

Ou t

79

F ill the
bottle w i th wa ter to repre s en t the s unken s h ip s ub m erge i t in a p ail
D oes the s h ip oa t t o the
o f water a n d blow a ir in through the hos e
surface ?
S unken s h ip s a re als o ra i s e d b y mean s o f large s teel po ntoon s lled
w i th a ir a s s hown i n F ig 108
I llu s trate thi s a s s hown in
F ig 107 U s e the b ottle a s the
sun ken s hi p a n d two emp t y t in can s o f the s a m e s ize a s the po nto ons
P unch na il holes i n the opp o s i te s i de s o f the t o p edge o f each tin
can connect them a s s hown force a ir into them a l i ttle a t a t ime
i n e q u a l amounts I s the s hi p ra is e d n early t o th e s urfa c e ?
F ig

107
.

80

HYD RAU L I C

F ig

1 06 S h owin
.

A ND

H ow

U M ATI C

Wa s h in gton ia n

th e

Cour tes y

PNE

E NG I N E E RI N G

w a s R a i s e d b y Compres s ed Air

Th e S c ie n tic Amer i c a n

HYD RA U L I C

F ig

Fig

A ND

1 07 S h ow in
.

1 03 r S h owin

P NE

U MATI C

H ow S h ip s

H ow S hi ps

ar e

E NG I NE E RI NG

R a i s e d b y Com p r es s e d A i r

R a is ed by

Mean s

of

La r g e

Cour tes y of
The S ci entic Ameri can

81

S te el P on toons

82

HY D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MATI C ENGI NEERI N G

The s h ip wo uld be oated i nto s hallow s heltered water i n

th i s wa y then rep a ire d b y d ivers an d oate d by compre s s ed ai r a s
des cribed ; or a co ff er dam would be b u ilt around i t an d the water
pum p e d ou t ; then the r epa ired sh ip would oat when the water was
adm i tted to the dam
No t e :

F L O ATI NG DR Y D O C" S

The oa ting d ry dock Fig 109 i s a huge s teel o r con crete tro ugh
shaped s tructure with hollow s ides a n d with large tanks along the
bottom I t i s op e n a t bo th en ds a nd when the tanks
F ig 1 10 are
lled with water i t s inks t o the water l i n e L L The boa t then s ail s
i nto the doc k a n d i s s ecurel y bra ced the water i s pu m ped o u t o f the
tanks
the dock ri s es unt il the wa ter l i ne i s a t W W an d l ift s
the ship ab ov e water
.

,,

The d r y d o c k lift s its own weigh t a n d the weight o f the s h ipjb e

cau s e i t d i splace s a weight o f water equal t o th e c omb ine d we ights
.

Fig

1 09

Courtes y

Fl

oa tin

Dr y

D oc k

Th e S cie n tic Amer ic an

H Y D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MATI C ENGI NEERI NG

83

Whe n the s h i p ha s been repa i red

o r when the barn acles have b een
s crap ed from it s b o ttom a nd i t i s
read y for s ea water i s again a d
m i t t e d t o the tan ks the dock s i nk s
to the wa ter lin e LL a n d the s h ip
s a ils out
Yo u w ill now ma ke a n e x p e r i
men t to illu s tra t e the working o f
a oat i ng d r y do ck
,

F ig

l l O Cr os s

l oa tin
S e c ti on of
Doc k a n d S h ip
Cour tes y of Th e M a c M i l l a n Co
.

D ry

E XP E R I ME N T
To make an d operate a oat ing

d ry

No

39

dock

U s e a a t cake pa n t o repre s ent

the d ry dock and the b ottle t o

repre s en t the s h ip
Floa t th e d ock o n water i n a
s i n k o r wa s h ba s i n a n d p our water
i nto i t u nt il i t oats w i th the top
about 1 i n abov e water Th i s r e
pres ent s the real oa ting d ry dock
w ith i t s ta nk s full read y t o rece ive
the ship
Float the b ottle o n the water in
the dock Th i s repre s en t s the s hip
i n the do ck a n d read y t o b e ra is ed
,

1 1 1 I l l u s t r a t in
th e Wor kin
l oa tin
D r y D oc k
.

the d ry d ock an d over the e d ge o f

the s in k o r was h b a s i n Th i s repres ent s the water b e i ng pumped out
o f the tan k s o f a real d r y dock
D o y ou obs erve tha t b oth the d ock
an d the s hip are ra i s e d a s the water i s s iphoned out ? Thi s s hows
how the d ock a n d s hip are ra is ed when the water i s pumpe d out o f the
tanks o f a real d ry dock
N ow s ipho n water from the s in k i nt o the oa t ing d ry d ock D o
y o u ob s erv e tha t the dock an d the ship s in k a s water en ters the do ck ?
Th i s repre s en t s how the real d ock s i nks when water i s admitte d aga i n
to the balla s t tanks
Now s ipho n the water

out

of

84

H Y D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT IC ENGI NEERI NG

THE C L AS S

S U B MA RI NE

E X P E R I M E N T No
T o m a ke

40

the gla s s s ubmarine s ubmerge an d ris e

F ig

1 1 2 Th e G l a s s
.

S u b m a r in e

in

water

F ig 1 12 i s hollow and
will ob s erve that the gla s s s ubmar i n e
that i t ha s a hole a t the s tern
P lace i t i n a tumbler o f water D oe s i t oat ?
P lace it s tern down i n the b ottle full to overowing with water
clo s e the b ottle turn i t o n it s s i de an d s hove th e s topper i n hard
D oes the s ubmari n e s ubmerge ? W ithdraw the s topp er sl ightl y D oes
the s ubmarine ri s e a n d als o m ov e forward s u ddenl y ?
R e p eat th i s with the b o ttle between y our e y es an d a light an d ob s erv e
the a ir i n the s ubmari ne I s the a ir compre s s ed when y ou shov e the
s topper i n an d doe s it expan d when y ou withdraw the s topper ?
The s ubmarin e oats i n the tumbler becaus e i t i s l ighter tha n an
equal v olume o f water I t s inks i n the bo ttle when y ou force the
s topper i n b ecaus e s u f c i en t water i s forced i n to make i t heav ier than
a n equal volume o f water I t r i s e s when y ou relea s e the s topp er b ecaus e
the a ir expa nds a nd force s s u f c i ent water out to make i t aga i n lighter
than its ow n volume o f water
Wa ter i s nearl y incompres s ible but a ir i s v ery compre s s ible and
wh en y o u s hove the s topper i n y ou compre s s the a ir but n ot the water

Yo u

H Y D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT IC ENGI N EERI NG

86

I t doe s n ot d o s o becau s e the frict i o n i n the tub es

an d n ozzle de c rea s e its v elo c i t y
F i g 1 14
U s e the appara tu s
I s the lower s tream
longer tha n the upper but do y o u nd that it does
no t rea c h a s h igh a s the upp er s tream ? I t d oes not
becaus e the veloc i t y o f the water i n the lower tub e a nd
nozzle i s greater an d therefore the fr i ct i o n i s greater
U s e the apparatu s F ig 115 A llow the water t o run in to
the tu m b ler f o r exactl y 15 s econd s an d o b s erv e the
amount the n c lo s e the c oup l ing ab ov e the t ee emp t y the
water back int o the tan k tran s fer th e elb ow t o the end
cou p ling a n d allo w the water to run i nto the tumbler from
the e nd for exactl y 1 5 s eco nds I s the ow o f water les s
from the end ? I t i s les s becaus e the frict io n i n the
e x tra p ipe s decrea s e s it s v elocit y
I t i s a matter o f the greates t imp ortance tha t fri c tio n
b e taken in to con s i d era t ion i n plan n ing th e p ip ing for
a ny
s y s tem o f water s uppl y or water p ower The facts
regard in g i t m a y b e s tate d br i e y a s follow s :
.

F ig

115

S h ow i n

The fr i ct i on
(1)

(2)

of

Th a t

water

r i c ti on

in

D ec r ea s e s

t h e V e l oc i ty

of

Wa t er

in

P ip e s

p ipe s :

I s greater i n l ong p i pe s than in s hort p ipe s o f the s ame s ize

I s grea ter in rough pipe s tha n in smo oth p ipe s o f the s ame s ize
.

(3 ) I s greater when the water i s moving rap idly

than whe n i t is

mov i ng slowl y
(4)

I s greater in small p ipe s than

in

large p ipe s

of

th e s ame len g th

HY D RAU L I C

A ND

P NEU MATI C ENGI NEERI NG

87

NOZ Z LE S

F ig

1 16

B oy

P u ts M o

re

Wa t e r

on

th e R oa d

Th a n

W ith

in

On e

G i v e n T im e

Wi th ou t

Nozz l e

When y ou have been watering the roa d or garden y o u hav e probably

n ot iced that the s tream i s longer when y ou us e a n ozzle tha n whe n y ou
s im pl y let the water ow from the en d o f the ho s e H av e y o u n ot iced
however tha t y ou put les s water o n the roa d or garden in a g iven
t im e wi th a n ozzle than without ?
.

E XP E R I ME N T

No

42

To

s how wh y the s tream i s longer wi th a n ozzle tha n without

F ig 1 17 I s the s tream short an d i s the
U s e the appara tu s
pres sure low ? P l a c e a nozzle i n the coupl in g
F ig 1 17 I s th e s tream
long an d i s the p res s ure hi gh ?
.

88

H Y D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MATI C ENGI NEERI NG

2
F ig
F ig

Th e

1 17 1

1 17 2 Th e

P r es s u r e
P r es s ur e

is L ow B eh in d
is

H i gh

B eh in d

a L g
ar

S ma l l

Nozz l e
Nozz l e

have shown here that the s tream from a n ozzle

from the ho s e be c au s e the p re s s ure b ehi n d it i s greater

Y ou

is

longer than

T h e p re s s ure at a n y p oint i n a p ipe carry ing ru n n ing water i s

proport i onal to : rs t the he ight ab ove the p oin t o f the water i n the
tank ; an d s econd to the fract i on o f the to tal res i s tan ce the runn ing
water encoun ters b e y on d the p o int The pres s ure b eh i nd the n ozzle
i n (2) i s g reat be c au s e the res i s tance the water e n c oun t e rs i n the nozzle
is great
,

E XP ER I ME N T

No

43

To s how that y ou p u t les s water on a roa d in a giv en t ime with a

n ozzle than without
U s e the app aratus F ig 1 18 allow the water to ru n from the end
o f the hos e into the tumbler for exactl y
15 s econd s an d ob s erv e the
amount then i n s ert the nozzle an d repeat I s the ow l es s w i th the
n ozzle tha n without ?
.

H Y D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT IC ENGI NEERI NG

V EL OC I TY OF P L OW

Le
zz

F ig 1 1 8
ss
Wa t e r
l o w s i n t h e G iv e n T i m e
Wi th
No l e Th a n
With out
.

89

H YD RA

90

U L IC A N D

PNE

U M ATI C

Y ou m ight th i n k that the veloc i t y

ENG I NE E R I NG

water from a nozzle would be

doubled when y ou double the height o f the water i n the tan k a b ove
the n ozzle You will s how however that y o u mus t make the he ight four
t imes a s great to doub le the veloc i t y
.

of

E XP E RI MEN

No

44

T o s how that th e velo c it y o f water i s doubled when the head i s

m ad e four time s a s great
U s e the apparatu s F ig 1 19 A llow the water to ow into the tumbler
f or 15 s econd s with the hea d exactl y on e foot ob s erve the am ount c are
f ully the n repea t with the head exactl y four feet I s the amo u n t d o ubled ?
The hea d i s the v ert i cal d i s tan c e the wa ter s u rfa c e in the tan k i s
a b ov e the n ozzle o p en ing
The velocit y o f water i n a p i p e v a r i es a s t h e s qua r e r oot of th e h ead
That is i f y ou s tart with a hea d o f 1 f oot an d in c r e a s e t h e h ea d t o 4
fee t th e v el oc it y i s d o uble d {4 z : 2; if y ou in c rea s e the hea d to 9 feet
th e v el oc it y i s tr ebbl e d J9
3 an d s o o n
.

A I R L OC "

F ig

1 20 S h owin

L oc k

Oc curs

H ow
S u p pl y

an

Air

P ip e

to

I f the pip e fr om

y our

wa ter tan k
a n d do wn hill

our h ou s e run s up
i t m a y become s topped b y an a ir
lock a s s hown i n F ig 120 I n (1)
tan k i s empt y b u t water rema i n s i n
the U part to the level o f the b ath
room fau c et ; above thi s i s a ir I n (2)
the tan k i s agai n lle d an d the bath
room fau c et i s open but the water
does n ot run I t doe s no t becau s e
the a ir in th e p i p e permit s the 15
y

H Y D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI NG

F ig

Lo

Ai
g H w
a S p p l y Pip

1 20 S h o w i n
.

ck

Oc c ur s

an

91

fo o t hea d a t the ta n k t o b e balanced

b y the 15 fo ot hea d below the bath
room faucet Th i s i s calle d a n a ir
lock
The a ir lock can b e de s tro y e d b y
open ing a n y fau ce t near the b o ttom
o f the U becaus e
thes e let o u t the
water an d then the a ir I t ca n b e
des tro y ed here b y op e n i ng the ba s e
ment faucet
.

E X P E R I ME N

TN

o.

45

To illus tra te a n a ir lock

U s e the apparatu s F ig 121 I n (1 )
the tan k i s empty a n d the U i s half
full o f wa ter I n (2) the ta n k i s lled
but the water doe s n o t run I t is
air lo cked b ecau s e the a ir p erm it s the
8 inch head i n the U t o b alance the
8 inch hea d a t the t ank
O pen the tee I s the a ir let out ?
C los e the tee D oe s the water ow
that i s i s the a ir lock de s tro y e d ?
.

F ig

1 21

I l l u s tr a t in g
in

P i p es

an

HYD RA UL I C

92

AND

P NEU M AT IC ENGI NEERI NG

P NE U MAT I C E NG I NE E R I NG
P n e u m a t ic
a nd

a ir

ot

h on

a nd

a ppl ia n c e s

g in e e r i n g

h e r ga s e s
in t h e

a ppl i a n c e s
s ip

en

is th e

ha v e

Y ou

s e c t io n

en

h y d r a ul ic

on

are

ha v e

m a de

Y ou

als o

en

th i s

l in e

e n g i n e e r in

t w o pn e u m a t i c

g in e e r in g

n
u
m
i
e
a
t
c
p
s om e

a nd

n a m el y ,

a ls o

e x pe r im e n t s

t h a t t h e a t m o s p h e r e e x e r t s p r e s s u r e ; y ou

i n pn e um a t i c

w h i c h d e a l s wi t h

u s ed

a l r e a dy

t h e pu m p ; t h e s e

g in e e r i n g

th e

h y d r a u l ic
to

h ow

w il l b e gin y ou r w or k

b y m a k in g f u r t h e r

e x p e r im e n t s a l on

ATM OSP H ERIC P RE SS URE

E XP E R I ME N T

No

46

To s how that the at m o s phere e x ert s pre s s ure

The M agdeburg hem i spheres (1) F ig 122 are made o f metal are
hollow an d are groun d smooth aroun d the edge s o that the y t t o
gether a ir tight When the a ir i s p umped o u t through the h an d le on
on e s i d e
the y a re hard to pull apart The original hemis p h ere s (2)
Fig 122 were 14 i nches i n d iameter a n d requ ired eight hor s e s o n each
s i d e to p ull them apart When the a ir i s p umpe d o u t there i s n othing
i ns i d e the hem is phere s to exert pres s ure ou twar d a n d the pre s s ure
o f the a tmo s phere h old s them together
,

P ull the han dle u p an d there i s v ery

in s ide to exert pres s ure outward P ull o u t th e e n d s topper

S how this with

F ig

123

l i t tle a ir
D oe s the atmosphere make thi s rather d if cult ?
.

H Y D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT IC ENGI NEERI NG

94

1 23 E x c r i
m e n ts S imil a r t o h a t
W i th th e M a d eb u r
em is p h er e s

F ig

2
F ig

1 23
.

th e

S im i l a r t o T h a t

p e r im e n t s

M a gd e b u r g

H em is p h e

r es

W ith

Whe n the plunger i s ra is e d i n the

tube
Fig 124 the atmo s pheri c
pres s ure o n the outs i de force s the
sheet o f ru bber i n
I llus trate thi s als o by mean s o f
S uck air o u t o f the tube
F ig 124
an d clo s e the ho s e with a cl ip D oes
the a tmo sphere force the rubber in ?
Turn the rubber i n all d irection s I s
the pre s s ure of the a tmos phere e qu a l
i n all d i rection s
,

HY D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI NG

95

A mos t s triking me
tho d o f s howing that
the atmo s phere exerts
pre s s ure i s shown i n
Fig 125 A l ittle water
i s placed i n a n empt y
s y rup ca n and bo iled
until the s team come s
o u t for on e o r two m i n
uts The can is then
clos e d a ir t ight an d in
verted i n a d ish o f cold
water I n a short t ime
the can s uddenl y col
lap s es
.

F ig

F ig

The rea s o n for th i s

the

a ir

there

is

1 24

Th e A tm os p h e r e

1 25 Th e A tm o s ri h e r e
.

is

or c e s

Cru s h e s

th e

th e

R ubb er

S y ru p

S h e et I n

Ca n

a s follows : whe n the s team ha s dr iven

n oth i ng left

in

the ca n

but

ou t

water a nd s tea m a n d when

,

H Y D RA

96

U L IC

A N D P NE U M ATI C ENGI NEERI NG

the s t e am con d e n s es i n th e c l os e d c a n t h er e is no thing i n the space

above the water t o exert pres s ure outwar d an d the can mus t s tand the
whole pres s ure o f the a tmosphere I f it i s not s trong en ough to do
this i t colla p s es
B eg or buy a gallo n s y ru p c a n and t r y thi s ex p erim e n t it will cer
B e sure the open ing i s covered with water when
t a in ly s ur p ri s e y ou
y ou i nvert the can i n cold water b ecaus e the wa ter w ill help t o make
the o p en ing a ir t ight
You c a n n ot make thi s experimen t with a gla s s bottle becau s e the
gla s s is s tr ong e n ough to s u pport the atm os phere
,

HOW ATM O SP H ERIC P RE SS URE

WAS

F I RS T

M E AS URED

The pres sure o f the atmo sphere was rs t

m eas ure d b y an I tal ia n n amed Torr i cell i i n
1643 with ap p ara tu s s imilar t o that shown i n
H i s experiment wa s e s s en tiall y a s
F ig 126
follows : A gla s s tube 3 feet long a nd closed
at one e nd wa s com p letel y lled with mercur y
(qu i cks ilver ) to expel the a ir ; the o p en end
clos ed with the nger wa s then i nverted over
a d i sh o f mer c ury an d the nger was r e
move d under mercury
,

F ig

1 26

C ou r t es y

T or r i c e l l i

p e r im en t
of

Th e

Ex

Mac Mil l a n Co

foun d t h at s ome o f the mercur y came ou t o f the tube but that

a c olum n rema i ne d t o a height o f ab out 30 in che s ab ove the s urface
o f th e mer c ur y i n the dish
S in c e n o a ir e nters the tube the s pace ab ove the mercur y i n the
tube ha s noth ing i n it that is i t i s a v acuum There is there fore no
pres s ure downward on the s urface o f the mercury in the tub e and
th e p re s s u re of the atmo s phere downward on the s urface o f the mer
cury i n the di sh s upp ort s the column o f mercury in the tube
He

H Y D RA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT I C EN G I NEERI N G

98

Now t o meas ure the pres s ure o f the

at m o s phere a ttach the plunger handle

t o a s pring balance hold the tube
rmly aga in s t the table a n d a s k y our
p artner t o pull upward o n the s pr ing
b alan ce wh ile y ou ob s erv e the pull
r ecorde d o n the balance
A s k h im t o l i ft the balan ce slowly
until th e p lunger i s about two inches
above the water then a s k him to
allo w the b alance to go b ack s lowly
until the plunger i s o nl y ab out 1 i nch
above the wa ter While he i s d o ing
thi s y o u mus t read the average pull
o n the balance
D o y ou n d th i s average pull t o b e
72 0 2 5 o r 4% lb s ?
No te : While y our p artner i s ra i s i ng
the plunger th e fr i ct io n o f the plunger
aga i ns t the s i de s o f the tub e i s work
ing aga i n s t the balance a nd the pull
will be over 4% lb s ; but W hile he i s
lowerin g the plunger the friction will
be work in g w i th the balance an d the
pull will b e les s t h an 4% lb s The
a verage will b e about 4% lb s
Yo u have shown here that th e pres
sure o i the a tmo s phere i s 4% lb s o n
1 5 lb s o n
s q in or 4% x
1 s quare inch
,

t p e
e e
ae
I e

F i g 1 28 T h c A m o s h r e
E x r s th e P r s s u r
of
1 5 tb s
in c h ,
p er 5 u r
B u t No
or
.

et

2 :

THE B AR OME I

R
E

The barometer F ig 129 i s the ch ief

i ns tru m en t u s e d b y the W eather E u
reau in foreca s t ing the weather I t
i s a n appara tu s s im ilar to that u s ed
The
b y Torr i celli i n hi s exp er imen t
pres s ure o f the atmo sphere o n the
m ercur y i n the open tub e o r cup s up
ports a column of mercury a b out
,

H YD RA U L I C A ND P NEU MAT I C ENG I NEER I NG

99

in h igh i n the long clo s ed tu b e

The pres s ure o f the a t m os phere v ar i es
from hour to hour a n d the he ight of
the mercury column varie s w i th it
W eather foreca s t s are ba s e d o n th i s
var i at io n

30

I t ha s b een foun d that when the

mercu ry falls much below 30 i n b e
cau s e the a tmos pher i c pre s s ure i s l ow
ba d weather m a y b e expe cted ; and
when the mercury ris e s much ab ove
30 inches
b ecaus e the a tmo s pheric
pres s ure i s h igh goo d weather m a y
b e exp ected
The extreme v aria tion s are fro m
about 29 i n to 3 1 in
The barometer (2) i s the t y p e u s ed o n s h ip s

i
a nd when a s a lor s a y s the gl ass i s fall i n g
he mean s tha t the mercury i n the gla s s tube
i s s in k ing below 3 0 i n a nd that ba d weather

i s to be e x pected ; when he s a y s the gla s s i s

r i s ing he m ean s tha t the mercury i s ri s i ng
above 30 i n a n d that ne we at h er i s to b e
expected
A no ther t y p e of barometer i s s hown i n F ig
13 0 I t i s calle d a n a nero i d barometer b e c au se
i t con ta i n s n o l iqui d I t ha s a at roun d a ir
.

1
F ig
I

1 29 B a r om et er s
.

Cou r t es y of th e
l a n Co
JVI a c l

F r om

1125

tight me tal b ox from

wh ich the a ir i s ex
exhau s ted T he atmo s
p h e r i c pre s s ure would
force together the top
an d bottom o f thi s
box i f the y were n ot
kept apart by the
s trong
spri ng show n
.

F ig 130
1 3 0 An er oi d B a r om e ter
.

F ig
Cou r t es y
.

of

Th e

Ma cMiIl an

Co

100

H YD RA U L I C

A N D P NEU MAT I C E N GI NEERI N G

a b ove the b ox I f the atmo spheri c pres s ure increa ses the spr i ng is
force d down ; if the pre s s ure decrea s e s the s pr i ng r i s es The move
m ents are v ery small but the y are magn i ed b y levers a n d are c om
m u n i c a t e d to the p o i nter b y mea ns of a rack and p i n i on
HOW A I R M E N " N OW TH EI R A LTI TUD E
TH E A LT I TU D E G AU GE
,

The a ir zo nes o f a
m odern b attle are illus
13 1 an d
t r a t e d in F ig
the alt itude guage by
m ean s of wh i ch the air
m e n know their he igh t
i s shown i n F ig 132
This altitu d e gauge i s
a record i ng aneroid
b aro m eter called a bar
og r a ph
I t records th e
he ight o f the a irplan e
i n feet an d i s s uspend
e d free o f the a irplan e
b y four ela s t i c s trap s
wh ich protect it to
s ome extent from the
v ibra t i o n o f the ma
chine
The con s truction o f
the barograph i s a s fol
lows I t ha s ve or s ix
at metal b oxe s ex
h a u s te d o f a ir s imilar
t o the b ox in the or
Thes e
d in a r y anero id
b oxes are expan ded by
B
f M d
l ( 8)
A Z
a s trong s pr ing a s the
height i ncrea s es and
F ig 1 3 1
A i Z on

this move m en t i s com

Co te y of
Th e Wo l d s Wo k
G d
Ci ty N Y
m u n i c a te d to the long
po in ter O n th e en d o f the po i nter there i s a p e n with a suppl y o f ink
which b ears aga i n s t a sheet o f p aper o n a drum revolve d b y clockwork
The p en makes a con t inu ou s record o n the paper o f the he ight i n feet
.

o ern

ones o

19 1

a tt e

ur

ar

es

en

HYD RA UL IC A N D

102

P NEU MATI C ENG I NEER I NG

E X P E R I MEN

No

48

To s how that the v ert ical he ight to wh ich the atmo s phere w ill lif t
water i n a tub e i s i ndepen den t o f the length o r slant o f the tube
M ake th e experimen t s
(2) a n d
F ig 134 S uck a ir out through the upper
coupli ng o n th e tee a n d clo s e the clip
I s th e vert ical he ight o f the water i n
o n e tube a b ov e the water in th e t u m
b ler alwa y s the s ame a s tha t i n the
other ?
M ake e x per imen ts o f y our a
;
.

F ig

1 3 4 T h e H e i h t i s i n d e p en d en
e n th
and
l a n t o f th e T u b e

L g
.

E X P E R I MEN T

No

o f th e

49

T o s how tha t the he ight to wh i ch the

a tmo sphere w ill lift water in a tube i s in d e
p endent o i the s ize or shape o f the tube
an d o f the water s ur
face o ut s ide the tub e
.

M ake the exp eriment s

(3 ) a n d (4) F ig
135

I s the heigh t o f the

water alwa y s the s a m e

i n the two tub es ?
M ake exp erimen t s o f
y our

own

F ig

1 35

HYD RA UL I C A ND P NEU MAT I C ENG I NEER I NG

F ig
is

I 3S

Th e

H e igh t

i n d ep e n d en t of
si e
or
s h a pe
of
T u b e a n d of th e

S ur

a c e ou ts

th e

E " P E R I MEN

th e
a ter

id e th e Tu b e

No

103

50

T o s how tha t the a tmo s phere

l i fts heav y s alt water to a
les s height a nd l ight ga s ol i ne
to a grea ter he ight than i t
l i fts fres h water
M ake the experim ent s i llus
t r a t e d i n Fig 136
,

E"

P E R I ME NT

No

51

To show that the a t m o s phere

w ill l ift we ights
M a ke the exper imen ts illus
tr a tc d i n Fig 137
.

F ig
l 3 6 S a lt
h e i h t th a n
r es h
r ea t e r h e i g h t

Wa t e r

a te

is

ra s ed

a nd

to a l e s s
G a s o i n e to a

t h a t th e
1 3 1 S h owi n
m os oh er e w il l l i t w e i h t

F ig

104

H YD RA UL IC A N D

P NEU MATI C ENG I N EERI NG

E " P ER I MEN T

No 52
.

To show that the atmo s phere will l i ft

15 lb s p er s q in but n o more
.

The plungers have a n area o f

s q in I f then the atmos phere w ill
l ift 15 lb s o n 1 s q i n i t will lift
x 15
4% lb s o n
s q in
.

S oap the plungers hav e water b e

,

tween them b ut n o a ir pour an inch

o f water above the upper plunger to
m ake it a ir t ight attach a p a il weigh
i n g les s than 4% lb s t o the lower
plunger Fig 138 a nd ra is e the upper
plunger D oe s the atmo sphere l i ft
the lower plunger and we ight ?
,

A dd water to the pa il unt il the to

tal weight i s 4% lb s and ra is e the
upper plunger D o y ou n d that the
atmo sphere does no t lift the lower
plunger ? I t does no t do s o becaus e
the at m o s pheri c pre s s ure on
sq
i n cannot l i ft 4% lb s and a l s o o v e r
.

l 38 S h owin
th e A tm o s p h er e
.

th a t
'

11 Y
tR

:3
,

in

15

but

lb s

no n

c om e

th e

fr i c t i o n

the upper plunger an d l i ft the

tube D oe s the atmosphere now l i ft
4% lb s we i ght ? I t does s o becaus e
the fr i ct ion help s it i n th i s cas e
H old
.

H YD RA UL IC A ND P NE UMATIC E NGI N EERI N G

106

for c e d out through the outer p ipe The wa ter comes out a s a con tinuous
heav y s p ra y be c a us e the a ir is mixe d with th e wa ter in b ubbl es rather
than in la y ers
.

Thes e are called a i r lift p ump s but the water i s not ra i s ed by the
a ir p re s s ure I t is rai s e d by the weigh t o f th e water i n th e well out
s ide the p ump b ecaus e the water r i s i ng i n t h e p um p i s rea lly a mixture
o f air and water an d i s lighter than a water column o f the s ame height
-

ca n illus tra te th i s b y mean s of ex

1
s
hown
i
n
i
1
4
1
I
n
r
i
m
e
n
t
s
F
e
g
(
)
p
b oth s i de s o f the U tub e are lle d with
water an d y ou know from y our e x p e r i
ment s tha t the water will b e at the
s ame level i n both s ides I n (II ) on e
s ide i s lle d with kero s en e o il whi c h i s
onl y
a s heav y a s water a n d y ou
know that a column o f wa ter 8 in h igh
w ill support a column o f o il 10 i n high
S imilarl y in (III ) a dep th o f water of
8 i nche s w ill s upport a column o f o il 10
I f n ow the o il i n (III ) were
i nches h igh
re p lace d b y a m ixture o f a ir 0 n d water
which wa s o nl y
a s heav y a s water
y o u ca n s ee that the 8 inch dep th of
water woul d s upport a column of the
m ix ture 16 in che s h igh an d s o on
The bo ttom o f the a ir lift pump i s a l
wa y s p la c e d a t l ea s t a s far b elow the s ur
Yo u

WAT ER

Fig
p or t s

1 4 1 A Col u m n
.

l on

Cou r tes y

c ol u m n

er

of
of

a ter

L i gh t

f th e Ma c M il l a n Co

F ig

su p

O il

1 40 A n oth e r ty p e
.

P um p

of

A ir

L i ft

H YD RA UL IC A ND P NEU MAT IC ENGI NEERI N G

107

face o f the water a s the t o p i s a b ove and the water outs i de the pump
l i ft s the l ighter m ix ture o f a i r an d wa ter t o the top Y ou w ill i llu s trate
th i s i n the ne x t e x per iment
,

E " P E R I MEN T

To

No

m ake

53

a n d operate two a ir l ift pump s

M ake a n a ir l i ft pump (1 ) F ig 142 U s e a
quart sealer to repre s en t the well ll i t to
the top w i th water an d i n s ert the a ir lif t
pump un t il i t i s half s ubmerged that i s unt il
the water i n the s ealer i s a t a p o in t half w a y
b etween the b otto m o f the w i de tu b e a nd th e
top o f the el b ow of the d i s charge p ipe
F o r c e a ir in
through the hos e
a n d o b s erve wha t
ta kes place near
the b otto m o f the
p ump
D o y ou ob s erv e
tha t the wa t er
level i n the pump
m ove s altern atel y
d own b elow the
end o f the d i s
charge p i pe a nd
then up ab ove it
an d tha t altern
a tel y
w at er an d
a ir are forced up
the dis charge
p ip e ?
D o y o u ob s erve
further tha t when
y o u force a ir in
at j u s t the r ight
rate the pump
wo r k s s t e a d i ly
an d the water
come
s
up
the
d
is
1 4 2 I l l u t t in g t h e w o k i g o f
charge p ipe in
t wo d i ff
t A i L i ft P m p
-

F ig

ra

eren

r-

108

HYD RA U L I C AND P NEU M T I C EN G I N

EERI NG

s purt s at regu l ar interva l s

I n the other t y pe o f air lift pump the compre s s ed a ir pas s e s down
the i ns i de p i pe and the m ixed a ir and water m ove up the other p ipe
M ake a pump o f thi s kind (2) Fig 142 an d blow air in through the
i n s i de p ipe
D o y ou nd tha t air an d w ater are force d up over the top of the
outs i de p ipe ?
R e p ea t the e x perimen t w i th the pump deeper in the water
D o y ou n d that it works better the deeper it i s i n the water ?
.

L AWS

W H IC H A PP L Y
PA S CAL

I n the rema in ing p age s

To GAS E S

S LA W

this book y ou w ill s tud y three laws wh ich

appl y t o gas es a nd y ou w ill illu s trate man y pract ical appl icat i on s of
thes e laws The y are P a s cal s law A rch imedes law an d B o y le s law
Y o u w ill beg i n w i th P a s cal s l a w
You l earne d on p ages 49 50 an d 51 P a s ca l s l a w whi c h s t a tes one p r o
pert y o f liqu ids ; namely p res s ure exerted o n a liquid i s tran smitted
Th i s law als o
b y the liqu i d equall y an d un d imi n i s hed i n all d irections
s tates a propert y of ga s e s a s follows : p r e s s u r e a p p l ie d t o a g a s i s t r a n s
of

m i t te d b y t h e g a s

equa

ll y

a n

u n d im in i s

he d i n

ll d ire c t i o n s

are very familiar with on e appli ca t ion o f thi s law namel y i n the
pneumat i c t ire The a ir i n a b icy cle o r automo b ile t ire exerts pres sure
outward equall y a t ever y p art o f the tire
Yo u

E X P E R I MEN T

No

54

T o illu s trat e P a s cal s law a s i t appl i e s to gas es

S hov e the plunger in (1) F ig 143 down an d feel the a ir at the n ozzle s
A re the p res s ures equal ?
B low a s oap bubble
I s i t a p erfect s phere ? Th i s s hows that
the a i r exert s pre s s ure equall y i n all d irect i on s aga i n s t the in s i de o f
the b ubble
M ake a three legged s iphon lled with a ir
place two legs in
tu m b lers o f water place the th ird leg i n the w i de tub e partl y lled
with water an d ra is e a nd lower the wi de tube

1 10

H Y D RA UL I C A ND P NE U MATI C ENGI NEER I NG

T HE

B A L L OO N S A N D
Th e L a w

of

B U O Y A NT

Ar c him e d e s

F O RC E OF A IR

a p p lie d

to G a s e s

B allo on s oat i n a ir a n d th i s fact i s due to a p rop ert y o f

i s expres s ed b y the law o f A rch im edes

a ir

wh i ch

have alread y made e x per im ents o n th i s law w i th liqu i ds an d y ou

hav e shown that t h e b u o y a n t f o r c e o f a l iq u i d o n a b o d y i s e q u a l t o th e
Th i s i s the l a w o f A r c h i
w e i g h t o f t h e l i q u i d d i s p l a c e d b y th e b o d y
m e d e s a s it appl i es t o l iqu id s
Yo u

Th e l a w
ga

on

rc

b o d y is

F ig

i n regar d t o gas e s i s :

h im e d e s
e qu a

l t o th e w e ig h t

1 44 Th e B u oy a n t
.

t o th e

W igh t
e

Court es y

of

of

or c e

on

th e

ga

th e

d i s p la c e d by

of a

the

bo d y

i s E q ua l
B a l oon

th e B a l l oon

Air d is p l a c e d b y th e
Th e S c i en tic Amer i can

How t h e To t a l L if t

bu oy a n t f o r c e

B a ll oon is

Ca l c ula te d

T h e we ight o f a ir i s ab ou t 1 % ounce s p er cub ic foo t a t or d in ary tem

I f then a b alloon d i splace s
p e r a tu r e s a n d a t the s urface o f the earth
cub i c fee t o f a ir its total l i ft o r buo y ancy i s
x
ounce s
The u s e fu l
1 250 000/l 6 lb s
lb s an d s o o n
l o a d a b alloo n ca n l i ft is its t otal l i ft m i nu s the weight o f the e nvelope
o f the ga s i n the e nvelope o f the cars o f the engines and o f the fuel
.

I n Fig
G erman y ,

we show the relat ive s trength s in d irig ible balloon s o f

Fra nce a n d G rea t B rita i n a t th e b eg inn i ng o f the war B r i ta in
145

HYD RAUL IC A ND P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI NG

111

an d France bu ilt man y d irigible s dur i ng the war an d o n e o f the late s t

bu i lt b y B r i tai n d is places
cu b i c feet o f a ir I ts total l i ft there
lb s
fore i s l 600 000/l 6 x
.

The balloon i s lle d with h y drogen wh ich we ighs about

a s much
a s a ir a nd therefore
o f the to tal l i ft i s us ed up i n l i ft i ng the
8 928 lb s
h y droge n ga s The we ight of the h y drogen i s 125 000/l 4
,

F ig

ve

1 4 5 Com p a r a ti
.

G r e a t B r i ta in

f
g
g

at

th e

Z ep p elin S tr en th of G e r m a n y ,
O utb r ea k of th e G r e a t W or l d

ra n c e

Wa r

O n th e l e t, th irt een G e r m a n s h i p s in c om m is s i on a n d ou r (i n wh it e ) b u il d i n
On t h e r i h t, a b o e , on e
r en c h s h ip b u il t a n d two b u il d in
On th e r i h t, b el ow, t wo B r itis h s h ip s b u il d in
Cou r tes y of Th e S c i e n tic A m er i c a n

H y drogen

ga s ha s b een u s ed i n ballo on s becaus e i t i s the lightes t

ga s kn own I t ha s o n e grea t drawback however i n that i t b urn s v er y
read il y There i s another ga s called h e l i u m wh ich i s tw ice a s heav y a s
h y drogen but wh ich ha s the grea t a dva ntage tha t it does n ot burn
.

B efore the war helium wa s very expen s iv e bu t d uring the war i t wa s

foun d that the hel ium which occurs in s ome o f the na tural gas e s o f the
U n i ted S tate s could b e s eparated at a rea s o na b le co s t I t i s expected
that the d ir ig ib le s o f the future w ill b e lled w ith hel ium an d s i nce i t
doe s n ot burn i t w ill b e p o s s ible to p u t the eng i nes i n a ro om i ns ide
the balloo n a s s hown i n Fig 146
.

1 12

H YD RAU L IC A N D P NE U MATI C ENGI NEERI NG

F ig

gr

D ir i i b l e
1 46 Con c ep ti on o f th e P a s s en e Ca r y in
t h e Nea r
u tu r e m a kin
u s e of H el ium G as
Cou r tesy of th e S ci ent i c A mer ica n

of

A lthough hel ium i s twice a s heav y a s h y d rogen i t s li fting p ower is

onl y
les s becau s e the lift o f a balloo n depend s primar il y on the
weight o f a ir d is placed Y ou ca n s how thi s a s follows :
I f a balloo n d i s places
lb s o f a ir a n d i t is lled with h y drogen
lb s o f h y drogen s in c e h y drogen we igh s
i t hold s 140 000/l 4
a s much a s a ir
lb s of
I f the b alloon i s lle d with hel ium i t hol d s
helium s ince helium weighs
a s much a s a ir
lb s
The l ift minu s th e weight o f h y drogen
lb s
The lift m inus the weight o f hel ium
Tha t i s the l ift with h el ium i s o nl y
les s
.

E " P E R I ME N

No

55

To illu s trat e the buo y an t force o f a ir

B low a s oap bubble with illumi nat ing gas (1) Fig 147
D oe s the bubble ri s e ?
.

AND

H Y D RAU L IC

1 14

I f the metal z inc

P N E UM AT IC ENGI NEERI NG

i s p laced

in an acid the metal i s d i s s olved b y the

acid an d h y drogen ga s i s produced Yo u ca n make h y drogen ga s and
ll the large balloo n w i th i t a s follows
,

P urcha s e a t a drug s tore 2 o unce s of s trong h y drochlori c acid (als o

called mur i at i c ac id ) which s hould co s t ab ou t 5 o r 10 cents ; als o pur

chas e a t a n electr i cal s hop a z in c ro d for a L e c l a n c h b a ttery wh i ch

w ill als o cos t about 5 o r 10 c ent s or p urcha s e two z in c s tr i ps
,

P our the a c id in to the b ottle and

a dd a n equal v olum e of water Thi s

d ilute s the acid an d slows up the
product i on o f the h y drogen I f the
h y drogen i s pro duced t o o fas t i t
w ill b ubble a c i d up i nto the b alloon
.

Now t o make h y drogen and to

ll the b alloon proceed a s follows :

A rra nge the bottle a s s hown i n
Fig 148 a n d a ttach the large b al
Ic on t o the elbow by mean s of
a short p iece (about 1 % i n ) o f a
W hen y ou
s t r e t c h e d r u bbe r b a n d
have d one th i s place the z in c rod
F ig
1 48
F i11in g a B a l l oon wi th
o r zin c s trip s gentl y in the bottle
H y d og en
in s ert the s topp er a t o nce and a l
low the h y drogen t o ll the b alloon I t will take about 5 m i nute s to
ll the large b alloo n completely
,

When the balloo n o ats well in the a ir slip i t o ff the elb ow

tr e t c h e d r u b be r b a n d The ban d will contract and clo s e the
,

or

clothes

b alloon

n d that it oat s up t o the

B e very careful n ot t o get a n y o f the a c i d o n y our hands
I t will burn very bad holes if i t does

Now releas e the b alloon

P r e c a u tio n s

w i th i t s

Do

?
i
ceil ng

y ou

When y ou are through empt y o u t th e liqui d left in the bo ttle a s it

i s o f n o further u s e a n d ri n s e the b ottle and r o d very thoroughl y w i th
water
,

You mus t n ot u s e the zin c i n s mall p iece s b ecau s e i t produce s the

h y drogen too fa s t and makes the acid bu bb le up i nto the b alloon Us e
the z i nc i n the shape o f a r o d or s tr ip s
.

HYD RA UL IC A ND

E"

P NEU M AT IC ENGI NEERI N G

P E R I MEN

No

1 15

57

To shoo t down a balloo n

We s how i n Fig 149 three v iews of a balloo n s hot down by mean s
o f incend i ary bullet s
Thes e bullets s et the h y drogen on re the e n
v e l o p e burn s
a n d the car a n d machinery fall t o the ground
.

Fig

l
2
3

1 49

Th r ee

Ph a s es

of

Ob s er a v ti on

f
i

S uc c e s s
B al

l oon

ful

Atta ck

on

an

h it h a s b e en s c or ed
Not e th e a e r op l a n e a n d b all oon
I m m ed ia t e y a te r th e
a s t r e d u c e d t o a s h a p el e s s m a s s
e d in a m e s i s
B a l l oon e n v e l
W r e c k a e of e ob s erv a ti on b a l l oon a l li n to e a r h , Wi th a s m ok e tr a i l i n i ts
wa k e
Cou r tesy of th e S a en tz c A mer i ccm

'

b alloo n ll e d with hy d rogen a s i n the las t exp erimen t oats

up t o the ce iling I t will com e down b y i ts elf i n a few hours b ecau s e
the h y drogen gra duall y p as s e s o u t through the rub b er
I f y ou are i n a hurry t o get the balloo n down an d i f y o u have a n
air r il e y ou ca n sho ot a hole through the b alloo n : the h y drogen w ill
the n e s cape a n d the balloo n will fall a t on c e T hi s method however
spo ils the b alloo n

t oy

1 16

HYD RAUL IC A N D

P NEU MAT I C ENG I NEER I NG

Y ou can s ho ot the balloo n down

with

a s y ringe
w itho ut des tro y i ng it a s shown in F ig 150 The
water o n the balloon w ill make i t s we ight gr eater
than the b uo y ancy o f the a ir d i splaced b y the bal
loon an d th i s w ill br i ng i t down
.

If

let the water evaporate the balloo n w ill

r i s e again becau s e i t aga i n beco m e s l ighter than the
a ir i t d i s pla ces
You ca n then shoo t i t down aga i n
wi th water
y ou

E X P E R I MEN T

No

58

To i llus trate the buo y an t force o f a ga s heav i er

than a ir b y m ean s o f a s oap bubble lled w i th a ir
.

P urcha s e at a drug s tore

ounce o f e ther an d
p our it into a n empt y 12 qt pa il cover the pa il
w i th a news paper an d allow it t o s tan d for about
10 minutes
on e
.

The ether w ill evapora te an d pro d u c e ether gas

Th i s b e i ng heav ier than a ir will remain i n the bot
tom o f the pa il a nd force the lighter a ir out a t the
.

1 50

F ig

D ow n

S m a ll

B a l l o on t op

Now d ip the en d of the w i de tub e i n the s oap

s uds an d shake o ff the exces s s oap y water B low

a large bubble an d detach it about 6 in above
the b ott om o f the p ail
.

Do
oats

y ou
on

n d tha t the s oap b ubble lled w i th

the heav y ethe r gas ?

a ir

The buo y ant force o f the ether gas i s the

we ight of th i s ga s d is place d b y the bubble This
buo y an t force is s u f c i en t to s upport the s oap
bubb l e lm an d the a ir ins ide o f i t
.

F ig
th e
a

I S L I l l us tra tin

B u oy a n t

H ea vy

Ga s

E fect
.

of

HYD RA UL I C A N D

1 18

P NEU MAT IC ENGI NEERI NG

B o y l e s law i s us uall y illus trated by m ean s of the

a pp aratu s shown i n Fig 153
The gla s s tube A i s clo s ed
a t the top a nd i s partl y lled with a ir the s econ d glas s
tube B i s open a t the t op an d the two tu b e s are c on
n e c t e d b y a rubber tub e lled with mercur y

The mercu ry s urface s a t the beg inn ing are at the

s ame level (1) F ig 154 a nd s ince the pres s ure on the
m ercur y s urface i n B i s 1 atmosphere the pres sure
o n the a ir in A i s als o 1 atmo s phere
.

If

B i s rai s ed unt il it s mercury

i s 30 in above that i n A the

n ow

s urface
a ir in A i s under 2 a tmo s phere s pres
s ure an d i t i s com p re s s e d to
its
rs t volume
.

I f B i s ra i s e d until
its mercury s urface i s
in abov e that i n A

F ig

1 53

A para tus

I I a s tra

B oy l e s L a w

u s ed

Th e

to

of
s l Ia u

Cou r tes y

M ac M

to

Co

the a ir i n A i s u n d er
atmo s pheres pre s s ure an d
its
i t i s compre s s e d to
a n d s o on
r s t v ol ume
I f on the ot h e r h a n d B
i s lowere d
unt il it s
mercur y s urfa c e is 15 in

F ig

1 54 I l l u s t r a tin
.

B oy l e

L aw

H YD RA UL I C A ND P NEU MAT IC EN G I NEERI NG

1 19

below that i n A the a ir

i n A is un d er a pres s ure
of
o nl y
atmo s phere
and it exp and s unt il its
volume i s 2 tim es its v ol
ume i n
,

V01 2
.

I f B i s lowere d (6 ) unt il
mercury s u rfa c e is 20
i n below tha t i n A the a ir
i n A i s u nder a pres s ure
of
onl y l /3 a tmo sphere
an d it exp an d s until its
volume i s 3 times i ts vol
ume i n
a n d s o on
i ts

No te :

A column o f mer

cury 30 i n c he s high exerts

a pres s ure equal t o that
o f o ne a tmo s p here
S im
il a r l y 15 i n
a tmo s
p h e r e a n d 10 i n
a tmo s p her e
.

I ll u s t

r a t in

6
B oy l e

Law

E X P E R I MEN T
T o illus trat e

If

B o y le s law

No 59
.

have a s pr i ng balan c e y o u ca n prove B oy l e s l a w a s follows :

U s e the apparatu s (1 ) F ig 155 a n d compres s the a ir t o on e half its
volume a s i n
I s the average p ul l o n the balan ce 4% lb s ?

y ou

No t e :

Fr ict i on oppo s e s the plunger when it i s moving in b ut i t

helps the plunger to rema i n in You will n d that it t ake s m ore than
4% lb s to compre s s the ga s but les s than 4% lb s to hold i t a fter it
is compre s s ed the average i s 4% l b s
,

HY D RA UL IC A N D

120

P NEU MAT IC ENGI NEERI NG

The area o f the plunger i s
s q in therefore the
pres s ure p er s quare i nch i s
x
1 5 lb s or 1 a t
m o s p h e r e b ut the a ir on the
outs ide e x erts a pres s ure o f
1 at m o s phere on the plunger
therefore the total pres s ure
the plunger exert s o n the a ir
2 at
i n the tu b e i s 1 + 1
.

2:

m os ph e r e s

Y ou have shown here that

when y o u dou b le the pres s ure
o n a ga s y o u compres s the
ga s t o one half it s rs t vol
ume
.

h ow t h at wh en y ou
halve the p res sure o n a ga s
i ts v olume doubles u s e the
apparatus (3) Fig 155
To

S tart w i th a d is tan ce

of

i nches

between the plungers

(3 ) then p ull up the s pr i ng
b alan ce un t i l the d i s tance i s
I s the average
4 i nches
p ull o n the b alan ce 2% lb s ?
,

A pull

of

2% lb s

on

s q in i s
x
lb s
per s q in o r
atmos phere
S ince the pull of the balance
atmo s phere the air
i s onl y
i n the tub e mus t b e exert i ng
the other
atmos phere
.

F ig

1 55

D ou bl e

th e

V ol u m e

Hal f

th e
.

D ou b l e

r es s ure

Hal f

th e

th e

on

A ir

Pr e s s ur e

V ol um e

and

an d

y ou

y ou

have shown here that

when th e pres s ure o n air i s
halved i ts volume i ncrea s es
to double what i t wa s at rs t
You

HY D RA U L I C A N D P NEU M ATIC ENGI NEERI NG

122

decrea s es the triple valve s hift s i n such a w a y that compre s s ed a ir

pa s s e s from the tan k E into the cy linder C ; thi s compres s ed a ir drives
the p i s to n ou t with a pres sure o f 75 lb s p er s q in an d p uts the

brake s on

Whe n the engin eer wis h e s to take t h e brake s 0 3 aga in h e tur n s the
lever back Th i s clo s e s the tra in pip e an d a t the s ame t ime allows a ir
to ow from ta n k B through the tra in p i pe t o the triple valve F When
the pres s ure i n the trian p ipe i ncreas e s the tr iple valve sh i fts b ack i n
s uch a w a y tha t it let s a ir pa s s from B in to E als o it clo s es the pa s s age
from E to C an d lets the a ir o u t o f C The s p ring then forces the

plunger in an d takes the brake s 0 5

I t will b e n otice d tha t i f the tra in s h ould brea k i n two by the breaking
o f a coupl in g the rubber a i r hos e co nn ectio n o n the tra i n p ipe i s broken
an d the a ir i s let o u t o f the tra i n p ipe Th i s automat i cally s ets the
b rakes on each car a n d bo th p art s o f the tra in are brought t o a s tand s t ill
Y ou will now make an d o p erate an ai r brak e a n d i llus tr a te the
work i ng o f the cy l i n der triple valve and a ir tan k
,

E"

P E R I ME N

No

60

To make an d o p erat e an a ir brake a n d t o illus tra te t h e wor k ing o f

the tr i ple valve c y l i nder a ir tank an d tra i n p ipe
U s e th e apparatus a s
s hown i n F ig 157 ope n
clip 1 an d b low a ir int o
the rubber tub e
Your m outh here r ep r e
s ent s the compres s or an d
tan k o n the l o c om o
a ir
tive an d while y ou are
blow ing air in to the tan k
E y ou are rep re s ent ing

7
I ll us t a t in g th e W o kin g of th e
1
F ig
5
th e con ditio n s when th e
Ai B ak e
tra in i s runn ing a nd the

You will n ot i ce here tha t wh en clip 1 i s open an d 2 i s

b ra kes are o ff
clo s ed the tri p le valve i s a dm itting air to the tank E the cy linder C 1 8

open a n d the br a kes a r e off

C lip s 1 an d 2 re p re s en t the tri p le valve
Now c lo s e clip 1 a n d o p e n clip 2 D o y ou ob s erv e t h at the c ompre s sed
a ir in E for c e s the p i s to n out ? Thi s i s exactl y what happ en s when the
.

HYD RA UL IC A N D

P NE UM AT IC ENGI NEERI NG

123

eng ineer puts the bra ke s o u

You w ill notice here that when cl ip 1 i s
clos ed an d 2 i s opened the triple valv e ha s clo s ed the p as s age between
the cy l i n der a nd trai n p ip e a n d ha s open ed the p ip e between E a nd the

c y l i nder
Th i s i s the co ndi t i o n whe n the bra ke s are o n
I f y ou have a b icy cle p ump u s e i t i n s tea d o f y our mouth a n d p u m p
You w ill then n d tha t the p i s t on i s dr iven
m ore a ir into the tan k E
o u t w i th greater force
A t the next opportun it y examin e the a ir brake s u nder a b o x car o r
at car on a railwa y s id i ng I dent i fy the a ir tan k c y l i n der p i s to n r o d
end the triple valve an d the tra i n p ipe Not i ce that the outward move
men t o f the p i s to n r od move s a lever a n d tha t this lever in turn s ets
the bra kes

THE F L A M E TH ROWER

hav e read o f the ame throw

ers wh i ch were u s ed dur ing the war
Y o u w ill illu s trate the i r a ct i on i n the
n ext exper iment
Yo u

A ame thrower i s a s tro ng metal

tan k wi th a p ipe an d nozzle lead ing
fro m the b ottom I t conta in s a mix
ture o f i n a m a b l e o ils i n the lower
.

1 58

F l a m e Th r owe r

Ac t ion

part a nd ab ov e th i s hy drogen ga s
un der g rea t p re s s ur e
The tan k i s carrie d o n the back o f
the s old ier a s s hown i n Fig 158 an d
when the n ozzle i s op ened the c om
pres s e d hy drogen drive s the o il o u t
with grea t force The o il i s s et o n
re b y a p ilot ligh t j us t beneath the
n ozzle a nd the m oving s tream b e
come s a s tream o f ame or l iq u i d
,

r e

F ig

1 59 S h ow in
.

h ow

Com p r e s s e d
O il ou t of a

H y d m g en d r iv e s th e
l a m e Th r ow e r

124

H YD RA UL I C A N D

P NEU MAT IC ENGI N EE RI N G

E X P E R I MEN T

No

61

To illus trat e the action o f the ame thr ower

I t i s d angerou s t o i llus trate the a ct i on o f a ame thrower with o il
an d y ou w ill u s e water in s tead
A rra nge the appara tu s a s s hown i n F ig 159 T o loa d the ame
thrower place a cl ip on the r ubber tube put a s topper an d elbow o n the
en d in s ert the s t opp er i nto a water faucet open the faucet gentl y open
the cli p an d allow water t o e nter the bo ttle unt il i t i s one half full
then clo s e the cli p
The ame thrower i s now loa ded ; the water repre s ents the oil an d
the compre s s e d a ir repres en ts the compres s ed h y drogen
Now t o u s e the ame thrower ; replace the elbow a nd s topper a t the
end o f t h e rubb er tub e b y a n ozzle turn th e b ottle up s ide d own po i nt
the n ozzle a t the th i ng y o u w i sh to h i t an d open the cl ip
.

TH E F I RE E " T I N GU I S H ER

The commo n h ous ehold re ex

160 i s a s trong
F ig
t in g u is h e r
bras s cy l in der with a s h ort p iece
o f ho s e attache d a t th e t op ; thi s
hos e and i t s nozzle are open a t
all time s
The ext i ngu isher i s
charged a s follows : I n the b ottom
there i s a s olut io n o f 1 % lb s of
s od ium carb onate (N8 C0 ) a nd 2%
gal o f water an d ab ove th i s there
i s a n 8 oz b ottle conta in i ng 4 0 2 3
o f s tron g s ulphuric a c i d (H 8 0 )
Th i s bottle i s tted with a loos e
l e ad s topp er which falls o u t whe n
the extin g u i s h er i s turn ed up s id e
dow n
To u s e th e e xt i n gui s h er :y o u
carry i t r i g ht s i d e u p t o the re
then turn i t u p s i d e d o w n a nd di

f
rect
the
s
tream
o
water an d gas
n
d
a
i
s
d
e
u
t
h
n
g
t
O
h
i
o
S
1
6
0
w
F ig
I n s id e of a F i e E tin g u is h e
up on the re b y mea n s of the
Cour tes y of th e Ma c M i ll n Co
short ho s e U s e all o f the water
becaus e once y o u hav e turn ed the ext i ngu i s her up s ide down the l iqu ids
are m ixed , a n d th e ext ingu i sher i s o f n o f ur ther u s e u ntil y ou have r e
.

H YD RAU L IC

126

A ND

P NE U MATI C ENGI NEERI NG

rmly turn the bo ttle up s ide down a n d s hake

water o u t w ith con s i dera b le force ?
,

D oes the ga s dr ive the

R epeat

the exper imen t bu t thi s t ime make a cigarette shaped t i s sue

p aper package o f th e bak ing s oda a nd attach the open end to the under
s ide o i the s t opp er b y mean s of a p in The e x t i ngu i sher then w ill work
when y o u turn it u p s ide d own
.

R epeat

but us e the white an d blue package s o f a S e idlitz powder

i n s tead of the v i negar an d s oda
D is s olv e the content s o f the blue
package in the water a n d dump i n the con tent s o f the wh ite The y pro
du c e carbo n d ioxide ga s
.

E X P E R I MEN T

No

63

To show h ow carb on dioxide ga s put s out a re

F ig l 6 2 P u ttin g Out a Ma tc h an d a
by me an s of H ea v y Ca r b on D i ox id e
.

You c a n s how that the ca rbo n d ioxi d e g a s (C0 2) i s

will pu t out a re a s follows : P our s ix table s p oon s ful

heav y an d that
o f v i negar into
it
a n emp t y ten quart pa il Fig 162 a n d add one level tables po onful of
b ak ing s oda S t ir w i th a s poon unt il the zzin g s tops Y o u now hav e
the b ottom o f the pa il full o f carbon d ioxi de gas You canno t s ee it
but it i s there Now light a match an d lower i t slowl y into the pail
-

D oe s

it go out wh en it get s a c e r t a in d i s tan c e into the p ail ? I t

go e s ou t becaus e it i s s urroun d e d by c arb on d ioxi d e g a s whi c h d oes
not s upp ort c ombu s tion
.

H YD RAU L IC A N D P N E UM AT IC ENGI NEERI NG

L ight a can dle a n d lower i t i n to the p ail in the s am e wa y
it

go out ? I t goes

for the reas on s tated above

ou t

127

D oe s

kn ow that (CO ) ga s i s heav i er than a ir b ecau s e i t rema i n s i n

the b ottom of the pa il I f i t were l ighter the a ir would s in k to the
bottom o f the p a il an d lift i t o u t
Yo u

Y ou can s how that the

(C0 2) ga s i s heav y a n d that i t will p our j u s t

l i ke water a s follows : P ut a l ighted match or a very s hort l ighted

candle at the b ottom o f a n empt y pa il then l i ft the p a il co nta i n ing
the C O ga s a n d p our it int o the empt y p a il j us t a s y ou would p our water
,

D oe s

the ga s put o u t the match or can dle ? Thi s s hows tha t the gas
pours a nd therefore tha t it i s heav ier tha n a ir I t als o s hows aga i n that
the C0 g a s put s out a re
.

THE A I R

PUM P

The a ir p um p s h own h e re h a s a s olid

plunger a n d two valves A an d B ;
valve A open s i nward a n d valve B
The v es s el R o u t o f wh i ch
o utward
the a ir i s be ing pumped ha s a n open
b ottom w i th a groun d edge wh ich t s
a ir t ight o n the smoo th greas ed s ur
face o f the s tan d The a ir i s pump ed
o u t through a hole i n the center o f
the s tan d an d through the p ipe F
F ig 1 6 3 An Ai P ump
When the plunger i s p ulle d u p v a lv e
of t h e M a M na 6 0
B clos e s an d part o f the air e x p a n d s
from the ves s el R through A into the p ump c y l i nder C Whe n the
plunger i s force d down valve A clo s e s an d the a ir i n C i s forced o u t
through th e v alve B
.

'

When the plunger i s aga in ra i s e d p art o f the a ir remain ing in R

e xpa nds
int o C an d when the plunger i s forced down th i s a i r i s forced
o u t through B
a n d s o on
,

w i sh to pump a ir i n t o R y o u a ttach i t to B i n s tea d o f to A

an d operate the plunger E ach s troke of the plunger lls the c y lin der
C with a i r an d each d own s troke f orce s thi s a ir i nto R

If

y ou

128

HYD RA UL IC

AND

P NEU MAT IC EN GI N EERI N G

E X P ER I M EN T

No

T o make an d operate an

F ig

1 64

64

pump

a ir

I l l u s t r a t in g

an

A ir

Wo r k in g

th e

Pum p

A rrange the appara tu s a s in (1) Fig

pump a i r o u t of the bottle ?

A rrange t h e a p p a r a t u s a s i n (2)
D o y o u pump a i r i n t o the bottle ?

164

an d opera te the plunger

Do

y ou

TH E

F ig

1 64

and op erate the plunger

B IC YC L E PUM P A N D T I RE

Th e B ic c l e P um
y
p
Cour tes y of th e Ma cMil l a n Co
F ig

1 65

The b ic y cle pump i s a v er y s impl e a ir p ump

I t con s i s t s o f a cy linder C an d a plunger P ; o n e
v alve i s the cup s haped p iece of leather o n the
bo tto m o f the plunger a nd the other i s the valve
S wh ich remain s on the b icy cle tir e T

H Y D RA U L I C AND P NEU MAT I C EN G I NEERI NG

13 0

TH E A I R C O M P RES S O R

The co m m erc ial a ir co m pre s

s o r i s s im pl y a large a ir pu m p
a s s hown i n F ig 167 I t has a
s oli d plunger P an d two valves
When the plunger i s ra i s ed the
pre
s
s
ure
o f the a tmos phere l i fts
F ig
1 6 7 _A i
P mp
C mp
d
St
g T k
valve V I a nd force s a i r i nto the
F m th
O t i o H ig h S h
l P hy i
pump barrel ; when the plunger
m i i on of th e P bl i h s
By P
l S dr i ven down
valve V I clos es
bu t valve V open s an d the a i r i s force d into the s torage tan k R Th i s
opera tion i s repeate d a t each s troke The pump i s d r iven b y a s team
eng i ne gas olin e e ngine electric motor or wa ter wheel
.

or a

ro

r e s s or

er

an

an

n ar

oo

ss

s cs

er

THE S AN D B L AS T

The s an d bla s t

form o f wh ich i s illu s tra ted

i n (1 ) F ig 168 i s u s ed to clean metal cas t i ngs
etch gla s s cut the letters i n marble clea n the walls
o f bu i ld ings a n d s o on
The s an d i s dr iven b y compres s ed a ir w i th
great force aga in s t the obj ect t o b e cleaned E ach
p arti cle o f s an d pulver izes the mater ial which it
s tr i ke s a nd s i nce m ill i on s o f gra i n s s tr i ke the
material each m i nute the s urface i s worn awa y
v ery rap i dl y
.

on e

2
of

F ig
a

1 6 8 n te ri or
S an d B l a s t

F r om H i tc h c ock s
Comp r es s e d A zr a n d

I ts A pol zca tzons

'

Cou r tes y of th e
Nor ma n W H e nl ey
P u bl is h i ng Co
.

F ig

16 8 A S an d B la s t

H YD RAU L I C

A ND

P N E UMATI C E N G I NEERI N G

13 1

The in s ide o f the machin e i s repre s ente d i n (2) F ig 168 The s and
i s d ump ed int o the V s hap e d top a n d i s a dmi tte d to the chamber CC
below through the valve A The compres s e d a ir e nters a t B an d p as s es
The s and i s dropp ed
o u t t o the ho s e a n d n ozzle through the tub e D
into the mov i ng a ir through the valve F a n d i s carried through the hos e
a n d n ozzle t o the obj ect
.

E X P E R I MEN

No

66

To make a n d opera t e a s an d bla s t

A rra n g e the a p para tus a s
s ho wn i n F ig 169 Th e s an d
i s hel d i n the fun nel an d
d r op s d own in t o the moving
a ir when the c li p i s o p en ed
.

F i ll th e f unne l with d ry
c oa r s e
sand
a n d a s k y o ur
p a rtn er to h ol d h i s h a n d
ov e r t h e fun n el a n d open the
clip while y o u blow a ir i nto
the
a
n
d
o u f han d
y
F i g 1 6 9 I l l t ti
th
W ki g f
opp os i te th e te e op en i ng to
S
l t
d
feel the e e c t
Your p artner s han d mus t b e hel d over the fun nel o therwi s e p art o f
th e a ir will blow up through the s an d
R e p ea t thi s with th e b ott l e us e d a s a compre s s e d a ir tan k
P ump
a ir
in to th e t a n k by m ea n s of a b i cy c l e p um p a n d c l o s e t h e h os e
with a c l i p C on ne c t t h e h os e wit h th e tee a s k y our p art ner to hold
hi s han d over the funnel a n d open the fun nel cl ip then hold y our han d
in fron t o f th e tee o p en ing a n d Op e n the cli p o n the ho s e
D o y ou n d tha t th e s an d s trike s y our han d wit h c o n s i d erab l e f or c e ?
,

us

ra

an

or

as

P NE UMATI C PA I NT B RUS H
The wo rk in g of t h e p neumati c p a i n t b ru s h i s a s foll ows : T h e c om
pre s s e d a ir enter s through the ho s e an d handle a n d i s s ue s from a smal l
nozzle Th e curren t o f a ir thu s p ro du c ed carrie s o u t with i t the a ir
aroun d the n ozzle a n d create s a p art ial va c uum The a tmo s ph eri c p re s
sure o n the p ai nt in the tan k the n for c es p a i n t i n to t h e va c uum aro un d
the n ozzl e a n d t h i s p a in t is c arrie d out t h r oug h th e l a r g e n ozzle by t h e
a ir c urr e n t Th e a ir p r e s s ure i s from 50 t o 8 0 lb s p er s q in a n d t h e
s tream of pa int c an be regula ted fr om a ne m i s t to a s ol i d s tr eam
.

H Y D RA U L IC

132

A ND

F ig

P N E U MATI C E N G I NEERI N G

1 70

Pn euma tic Paint

r om

A ir

Pa in t Nozz l e
H i tc h c oc k s Compr es s ed

a nd

I ts

Cou r tes y

Nor m a n W

Appl i c a ti ons

th e

H e n l ey P ubl is h ing

Co

Th i s fo rm of p a in t brus h i s us e d in all kin d s o f p a inting an d per

mit s v ery ra p i d work I t is us e d i n p a in ting b uil d ings bridge s ma c h in
railwa y c a rs f urn iture a n d e ven p ictures als o i n c a l s omin in g an d
e ry
white w ashing walls hou s e s a n d fen ces and i n s pra y ing d is infectant s
in hos p itals camp s tren ches hen h ou s es etc The common atomizer i s
ma de on the s ame p r i nciple
,

E XP E R I MEN

No 6 7
.

To make an d operat e a p neu m ati c pa in t brush

A rran g e the apparatu s a s i n F i g 171 and b low hard i nto the r ubber
tube
D o y o u o b s erv e that water r i s es fro m the tu m b ler into the wi d e tube
an d i s s ue s from the n arrow tub e i n the form o f a l ight s pra y ?
.

H Y D RA U L I C A N D P NEU MATI C ENGI NEERI NG

134

The compre s s ed a ir wh ich i s forced

into the b ell s uppl ies the men w ith
fres h a ir a nd als o preve nts the
wa ter from enter i ng the bottom o f
the bell ; the e x ce s s a ir e s capes in
bubble s u nder the edge of the b ell
A form o f d iv ing bell u s ed b y
d ivers i s illu s trated i n Fig 173 I t
i s lowered by a heav y cable fro m a
s hip a t the s urface from wh ich it
i s s upplied w it h co m pre s s ed a ir
electric it y a n d telephon e connec
tio n The d iver carr i es h is a ir in
a tan k o n h is b ack an d i s there
fore no t encu m b ere d b y a heav y
a i r ho s e ; the l ight ca b le wh i ch he
drags i s h i s telephon e connection
The bell s erv e s a s a s tore hous e for
tool s an d a s a place to whic h the
d iver can retreat to repa ir h is s u i t
i f nece s s ary H e en ters an d leaves
the bell through an op en in g n ear
the b ottom a s shown
.

F ig
as

l 73 A

L a r g e D ivin g

U n d e r s e a S tor e h ou s e

an

Cou r tesy

B el u s e d
by D i e s

th e S c ienti c A mm

ca n

vr

E X P E R I MEN T

No

68

To make and operate a d iv i ng bell

P lace a p iece o f a match s t i ck on the s urface o f the water i n a wash

b owl I nvert a n e m pt y tumbler over the match a nd force the tu m bler to
.

the bo ttom o f the bowl without le tting a ir es cape D o y o u n ot ice that

the water en ters the tumbler only to a v ery sl igh exten t and tha t y ou
can make the match re s t o n the bottom o f the bowl
.

The tu m bler repres en ts the d iving bell an d the match s t ick repre s ents
the man who could n ow go to work o n the b otto m o f the r iver o r lake
O f cours e the ma n i n a regular d iv i ng bell would n o t get i nto the water
rs t but would s tan d o r s it o n a shelf in s i de the bell R a i s e the tumb ler
graduall y a nd n ot i ce tha t the water l ift s the match up aga in
I n th is experi m ent the lower edge o f the d iv i ng bell the tu m bler i s
o nl y s ix o r e ight i nche s un der the s urface o f the water there fore the

HYD RAUL IC A ND

P NEU MAT I C ENGI NEERI NG

2
F ig

1 74

1 35

3
.

I ll u s tr a ti n g
th e

D ivin g

th e

B el

W o ki g
r

of

o f the water u pwar d o n

i n the b ell is small a n d
the a ir i s o nl y sl ightly compres s ed
W hen the regular d iving bell i s
s un k i n water however the p re s
s ure o f the water upwar d o n the
a i r in the bell increas es a s the bell
s
inks
deeper
a
n
d
deep
er
an
d
th
e
5
water would r i s e in the b ell were i t n ot that th e c om p res s ed a ir i s
pum p e d in at s u f cie n t p r es s ure to ov er c ome th is wa ter p r es s ur e an d
t o kee p the water ou t
R epeat the e x per im ent with th e h os e a s i n
Op en the h os e I s
the a ir forced o u t ? B low a i r i nto the ho s e I s the water forced out ?
L if t a b oa t a b ov e the water lev el a s i n
M a k e the
(4) an d
e x p erim e n t wi t h the m e tal tan k u s e d a s the div in g h el l
p re s s ure
the a ir

E X P E R I MEN T No 69
make a home ma d e d iving bell
.

To

You can hav e fun in y our swimming p ool b y u s ing e ither a 12 qt

p a il a wa s h bo iler o r a was h t ub a s a d iv i n g bell D o thi s a s follows :
P lace the I nverted p ail over y our head and let y our s elf s ink Y ou
wil l nd that y ou c a n b r e at h und e r th e p a i l f or a s h ort t im e b ut th a t th e
.

HY DRA UL IC A N D P NEU MAT IC EN G I NEERI N G

13 6

oo n need s renewing You will n d al s o that you ca nn ot s in k ve r y

far becau s e the buoya ncy o f the inverted p ail i s greater than the weight
o f your b ody in wate r
R epea t the expe r imen t with a was h bo iler
o r wa s h tub
You will n d aga i n that y ou
can b r ea th un der the b o iler or tub You wil l
n d al s o tha t y ou ca nnot s i nk the b oile r
o r tub becaus e the i r bu o ya ncy when inve r
ted a nd lle d with a ir i s much g r eater tha n
the we ight of your bo dy i n water
Make th i s expe r imen t G o to a part o f
the s wimmin g p o ol where you can s i t on
the bo ttom with y our head ab ove wate r
F ig
the n let two of you r f r iend s place the tub
U p s i d e down a n d full o f a i r ove r your head
an d force it down gently unt il the b ottom
You r hea d i s now below the
o f the tub i s s lightly u nder the s u r face
level of the wa te r outs ide but y o u will n d tha t you have plenty o f a i r
i n the tub b ecau s e th e water level in the tub i s only slightly abov e t h e
level o f the edge o f the tub
a ir

M a ke expe r imen t s

of

your own

P NEU M ATIC

CA I S S ONS
A cai s s o n s imilar to that s hown he r e i s u s ed to remo v e the earth
d own to the r ock f o r the f o undati o n s o f b r idge p iers I t i s lled with
co m p r e s s ed a i r which d r ive s the water out a t the b o ttom and leave s
the ea r th d r y for the wo r kmen
.

The ca is s o n i s clos e d i n o n all s ides to kee p o ut th e water I t i s

o pen a t the b o ttom but i s clo s ed above by well braced t imb ers we ighted
down by co nc r e te CD The bot tom i s let do wn i nto the mud the com
p r e s s ed a ir i s tu r ne d o n t o fo r ce the wate r o ut o f the wo r king cha mbe r
an d th e wo r kmen then e nter the wo r king chambe r to excavate the mud
The weight o f the concrete C D g r adually s in k s the ca i s s on a s the mud
i s excavate d until the s olid r ock i s r eache d
.

The men e nte r th e ca i s s o n through the a ir l ock L a s follows :

lowe r do or B i s clo s e d comp r e s s ed a ir i s le t o ut of L t h e d o or
,

'

Th e
A is

HYD RAU L I C

138

P NEU M ATIC

A ND

ENGI NEE R I NG

ente r s hea d downwa r d s but the head of the p in will n o t s t ick i n t o

t h e r ubber a s the p o int m ight
Now ope n the lowe r door
Doe s the p i n d r op to the b o ttom an d ha s the whole o pe r at i o n bee n
c o m plet ed withou t letti n g a ir ou t o f the ca i s s o n o r water i nt o i t
This r ep r e s ent s the way a m a n would enter the ca i s s on I t i s called

locking in
The man o f c o u r s e w o uld n o t d r o p f r om the a ir lock t o
the b o t t o m o f the ca is s o n ; he w o uld cli m b d own a ladde r Tools a n d
mate r ial s a r e a dm itte d t o th e cai s s o n in the s ame way a nd r emoved by
r eve r s e op era tion

ma n

E" PE
To

h ow

h ow

Fi g
By
to

l 78

torp e d o

i s s ho t out

Th e R ev olv er

To p
r

t o p ed oes
eve al t o ped o s in

c a rry in g th e

r e

R I ME N T

No 71
.

of a

ed o

T ub e

ubm a ri ne or battl e

in

S ubma r in

s h ip .

a r ev olving cra dle b a ck of th e t or p edo tub e

ra p id s u c c es s i on whi l e th e s ub ma rin e i s b e a rin g
in

p o ib le
e e my
th

i t is
on

ss
n

t o r p edo i s r e d out o f a s ubmarin e or b attle ship by mea n s o f

comp r es s ed a ir a n d i s kep t in mot ion a fter i t i s r ed by mea n s o f
a compre s s e d a ir motor
S how how the to rp ed o i s red by mean s o f the app aratus Fig 179
T h e b ottle here repres ent s the compres s ed a ir tanks o n the battle s hip
the wide tube rep r e s e n t s the t o r pedo tub e a n d the plunge r the torp ed o
A

HYD RAU L IC

A ND

P NEU M AT IC

E N G I NE E R I N G

139

2
F ig

Cl o s e

1 79

h o w in
g

H ow

a Sh ip

is

T pe d ed
or

bo ttle by mea n s o f c o r d a n d r ub b e r ba n d s an d comp r e s s

a i r in i t by mea n s o f a b icycle p ump (1) i f you have on e ; i f n ot
a ttach
th e r ubber tub e to a wate r faucet by mean s o f a n elb ow a n d s toppe r
(2) a nd ll the bo ttle half full o f water i n order to c ompres s the a ir
to half its r s t volume a n d the r eby give i t a p re s s ure o f 15 lb s p er s q in
Connect the b ottle with the t o r p edo tub e p o in t the tub e a t the s hip
(3 ) and op en the clip Do you to r pe do th e s hip in a ve r y r eali s tic
manner
th e

E " PE RI ME NT
T o s h ow
t aken f r o m
A r r a n ge

h ow
sea

the m e n
wate r

in

No

72

ub m a r i n e c ould b e

upplied with

a ir

appa r atu s a s in (1 ) Fig 18 0 The s pace betwee n the

s topp e r s i s c o m pletely lled with wate r an d i s f r ee fr o m a ir ; the plunger
i s c o ve r ed with wate r t o m ake it a ir t igh t
th e

140

HY D RAU L I C

A N D P NEU M AT IC ENGI N E ER I NG

1
18 0

F ig

S h owin g

H ow
Ai r

a S ubm e g ed S ubm a rin e

f m S ea Wate
r

ro

c ou

l d take

D o you ob s erv e that a ir bubble s come

Now lift the plunger a s i n
o u t o f the water ? L et the plunge r go back
D o y ou ob s erv e that

t h e r e i s a s mall bubble o f a ir between the r ubber s topp e r s ? Thi s i s

ext r emely inte r e s t ing an d i s expla ine d a s f ollow s : Al l wate r o n t h e
e a r th which i s exp o s ed to the a ir h a s a i r d i s s o l v e d i n i t (the s h i n
wate r liv e o n thi s a ir )
When yo u li ft the plunger you p r o duce a
vacuum ab ove the water a n d the r eby reduce the p r e s sure o n th e wate r
t o ze r o
The a ir i n the water then expa nd s into bubbl es a n d e s cap e s
f r o m the water
,

S ubma r i ne s

could b e s upplied with pure a ir when nd er wate r a s

foll ow s : They w o uld n ee d a pump s imila r t o your apparatu s ab ov e but
a r r ange d a s follow s : D u r i ng the up s t r o ke o f the plunger the inlet valve
would op en f or s a y o nly
of t he s t r o ke a n d then clo s e f o r the r e
main i n g ; 4 o f th e s t r oke The plu n ge r would thu s d r aw i n wate r du r ing
s t r o ke
an d would p r o duce a va cuum abov e the water for the remai n
i n g ; 4 s t r oke the a ir i n th e wa ter would then expand a n d e s cap e f r o m
the water
.

the down s troke o f the plunger the a ir a n d water woul d b e fo r ced

o u t o f the pump but o n thei r way o u t o f the s ubma r in e they would p as s
th r ough a tan k the a ir would e s cap e i nt o the tan k but the water would
pa s s on o u t The a ir a ccumulate d i n the tan k c ould then b e u s ed in
the s ubma r ine
On

F I NI

HY D RAU L IC

142

pe

ri

m en t
17
18

19

20

th at th atm ph e e e e t p e u e
To h ow t h at th at m p h e
pp o t c ol um f wate
wi ll
To p ov th at i t i th p e u
o f th
atmo ph wh i h l ift th
w a y t h t th at m o p h e e e e t p e
e d w
To h w i
o th e
upw
g
T i llu t ate t w
e f at m p h e i p e
i m ple

To

ENGI N EE R I NG

AT M S P H E I C P E S S U E
" ER T S P RESS U RE
AI R
WE G HT

AI R HA S
Ex

P NEU M ATI C

AND

s h ow

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21

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22

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7
.

8
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25

a e

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s

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10

ri

e t

27
.

ake

and

29

pe ate a l ift p
r

ak

LS

T o s h ow
d ir ec i on s

To m

ake

um

and

s s ur

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pe ate a

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L LO C

18

ell ow

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r

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of

th e

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32

us r

E PLA NA T I O N

r os

ox

OS TA T I C P A RA D O "
H OW T O CALC U LA T E T H E P RES S U RE E " ER T E D
"

a ll

in

31

ll y

eq u a

"

i tted

a li p e
V A TO R
pe at e a h y d a l i elevat
h y dr

tat i

on

S
LI F T L O C " S
h y d a ul i l i ft l o k
T m k
d pe at
T H E P R ESS U R E E " E R T E D B Y WA T E R
h w t h at th
p e e at a
l e i i d epe d e t
T
f th ta k
d p i pe
T H E H Y D R O S T A T I C P A RA D O "
T ill t ate th h y d
tat i pa a d
CA NA

H YD A U L I C L I F T

30

nk.

L AW

elevated ta

n o an

I
m ake
pe ate a
H
H YD RA U L I C E L E
k

H YD A U L I C A PP L I A N C E S
r

To

th at p e
an

H Y D RA U L C P R ESS

T E
To ma

p e ate a f e p um p
at
pe d i t
te t

To m e a n d o r
or c
To s h ow h ow w e r is p um
or c e P um
Con s

PA S C A

FO R C E PU M P

TH E
28

L F T P UM P

To m

s y r in g

s s ur e

IPH N

O F T HE S

of a

26

r c

TH E
24

on

os

us r

TH E
.

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ll t ate th a ti
Wate G u S h o ti g
B ig G u
B attle
Ma h i e G u B attle
Th
D ia b l Wh i tle

To i

23

us

OF

HYD R

BY

WA T ER

ape

HYD RAUL I C

P NEUMAT I C

A ND

E NG I N E E R I NG

143

P R E S S U R E U N DE R W A T E R
T H E D E P TH B O M B T O R P E D O A ND S U B M A R I N E
pe im e t
33
w ate i c ea e W i t h th e d e pth a nd th a t
T
h ow t h at t h e p s u e u n d e
i t i s e q u al i n all d i e c t i on s at n y d ept h
34
To h ow th at w ate r ex e t s p r e s s u e u p wa d o
a y th in g u n d er i ts su r fa c e
n d th at t h i
u p wa d p e s u e i
e qu al t o th d ow w a d p e s su e a t
aepth
H O W T O CA L C U LA T E TH E P R ESS U R E ON DE P T H B O MB
.

Ex

n
.

re

Ex

pe

im

e t

WHY D OE S

TE E

A S

S U B M AR I N E

A ND

TO RPED O

O
YA N C Y
L S H I P LOA T
.

BU

35

e t of wat e
TH E L A W O F A R C H I M E D ES
T i ll t ate th l w of A h im e d e
To ill t ate th l w f A h im e d e f
b od ie wh i h i k in wate
RA I S I N G S U N " E N S H I P S
T
h w h w
ke h ip
a i e d b y m ea of i
FLOA T I N G DR Y D O C "
T m ake
d ope ate a fl atin g d y d k
T H E S M A L L S U B MAR I N E
T m ake th
m all u b m a i e
bm e g e
d i e i
w at
R
U NN I N G W AT E R
F R I CT I O N
T ill u t ate th e t of f i t i
i g wate
N O Z Z L ES
To h ow wh y th e t a m i l o g e wi th a
o
le th a with ou t

To i

ll u t at
s r

th e b u oy

a t

eff

r.

36

37
.

us r

us r

rc

rc

or

s n

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38

o s

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39

an

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40

su

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er .

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41

ec

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Ex

pe

42

ri m

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43

re

t at
t

T o s h ow h
h n wi th ou

le

y ou p u t

ss

t a
V E LO C I T Y O F FL O W
h w th at th
T
vel ity
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g eat
AI R LO C"
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i lo k

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oc

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a g i ve t i m e
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d ou b

is

led

wh

th e

ea d

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45

Ex

pe

ri

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an

a r

P NEU M ATI C ENGI NEE R I NG

ATM O S P H E R I C P R E S S U R E
.

46

atmo ph e e e t p e u e
H O W A TM O S P H E R I C P R ESS U R E WA S F I RS T M EA S U R E D
T m ea
e th p e u e f th atm ph e
T H E B A R O M ETE R
H OW A I R M E N " N OW T H E I R AL T I T U D E
T H E AL T I T U D E G A U G E
To

w th a t

sh o

th e

er

r s

ss

47
.

s ur

n ozz e

44

ss

os

r e.

a e

m d

HYD RAUL I C

144

P NEUM AT IC

AND

ENGI N EER I NG

WA T ER B A R O M E T ER
h w t h at th
ve t i al h eigh t t wh i h th atm ph e wi ll li ft w te
T
48
f th
le gt h d la t f th t b e
i i d epe d e t
h e ig h t t
wh i h th
h w t h at t h
at m p h e e will l ift w ate i i d e
T
49
i e d h ape f th t b e d f th wate
fa e t id e
d t f th
p
t ge
th
h w th at th
atm p h e e l i ft h eavy alt wate t a le h eigh t
d
T
50
l i gh t g a l i e t a g eate h e i gh t th a i t l i ft f e h w ate
atm ph e e wil l l i ft w e i h t
h w t h at t h
T
51
m e
tm p h e e will l i ft 1 5 gb p q a e i h b t
52 T o h w t h at th
A I R L I F T PU M P S
i l i ft p m p
T o m ake
d ope ate tw
L AW S W H I C H A PP L Y T O G A SES
P A S CAL S LA W
l w
T
i ll t ate P a al
i t appl i e t
54
ga e
B A L L O O N S A ND TH E B U O Y A N T FO R C E O F A I R
T H E L A W O F A R C H I M E D ES A PP L I E D T O A I R
H OW TH E T O TA L L I F T O F A B ALLO O N I S CALC U LA T E D
pe i m e t
55
T
i ll t ate th
e f i
b
ya t f
56
T
b
e f i b y m ea
f a b all
ill t ate t h
lle d wi th
ya t f
h d
ge
h
57
t d w a b all
T
i ll
t ate th b a t f e f a g h eav ie t h a i b y m ea
58
f a
ap b b b le lle d w ity i
THE
o

en

er

an

S z

re

an

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os

os

os

os

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an

s ur

ou s

so

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an

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no

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.

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or c

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or c

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o on

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uo

as

a r

ns

a r.

C MP ES S E D
B O Y L E S LA W

E " PA N D E D G A S E S

A ND

S9

ll t ate B y le la w
T H E A I R B RA " E
T
m ake
d
pe ate
i b ke
d t
i ll t ate
t i ple valve y l i d e
ta k d t a i p ipe
T H E F LA M E T H R O WER
T
i ll u t ate th
a ti o f th a m e th we
T H E F I R E E " T I N G U I S H ER
T m ake
e ti g i h e
d pe ate a
T o h ow h ow a b
d io i d e g
p u ts ou t

To i

us r

60

an

an

a r

ra

us

an

th e

r,

air

an

of

w o r in g

th

61

s r

ro

62
63

an

re

on

T H E A I R P UM P
To m
ra
and o

as

r e.

pe te
i pump
T H E B I C Y CL E PU M P A ND T I RE
T
m ake
65
d ope ate a b i y c l p um p
TH E A I R COMP R E S S O R
T H E S A N D B LA S T
a d bl t
T o m ake
d ope at
66
P N E U M A T I C PA I N T B R U S H
T o m ak e
d ope at a p e um ati p in t b
67
T H E D I V I N G B E LL
pe im e t
T m ake
d pe ate a d iv i g b ell
68
T m ake a h m e m a d e d iv i g b ell
69
P N E U M A T I C CA I SSO N S
pe ate a p e m at i a i
T
70
m ake
d
th gh th i l k
T
h w h ow a t
pe d i h ot t f a
71
h w h w th
a ub m a i e
T
m
i
72
f om s ea wat
64

ake

u s

an

a r

an

an

e a

as

an

r us h .

Ex

n
.

an

r ou

an

a r - oc

or

er .

s s on

and

en

ou

s ubm

r n

c ou

ld

to
ri n

be

s h ow

attle h i p
u ppl i e d wi t h

or
s

h ow m e n

e te

a ir

it

t ke
a

ME MO R A N D U M

ME

OR A

DU

ME

MORA N DUM

MEMORANDUM

MEMOR A NDUM

WATER
AND A IR
Two v e ry common y e t
important su bstances a nd
very powerful too wh en
you learn how to u s e them
Do y ou know why water
come s out of a f auce t
when you turn it on ?
Wh y air compres ses ? You
will be co m e fa m iliar wi th
facts that
a great many
at one ti m e were d ifc ult
prob lems in e ngin ee rin g
if y ou h a v e a
.

G ILB ER T

Hy d ra u lic

d P n e u m a tic En gin e e r in g

an

outt wh ich s hows y ou how yo ur hous e is piped for water why

i t is water co m es out of a faucet up s ta irs ju s t a s e asily a s it d oe s on
th e ground oo r
I t al s o s hows you how a hydra ulic elevator opera tes
how to make a rapid r e water gun h ow to make a trench gun h ow a
siphon opera te s th e e ff e ct air pres s ure h as on water and any num b er
of inten s ely interesting things that I be t you n e ver thought of
The outt contain s all of th e apparatu s complete together with a
b ook on Hydraulic and P ne umatic E ngineering that is very eas y to
unders tand and illus trates many interes ting expe riments you c a n perf orm
Your dealer s h oul d have thi s outt I f not write u s
An

THE A C G ILB E R T COMP ANY

.

5 05
In

B LA TC H LEY

C a n a da

I n E n g la n d

Th e A

NE W

AV ENU E
.

Th e A

Gil b M i
C Gilb
C
e rt-

e rt

e nz e s

O.,

HAV EN

Ltd 4 3 9 " in g S t W
1 25 Hig h H o l b o r n W C ,
CO

C NN

To r o n t o

Lo nd o n

R a in
To m o r r o w "
You d o n ot l ike
m
ll
a
e
o
r
a
g
b
o
u
r
y
n
ed
s
t
o
c
n
i
o
i
c
p
p
p
u
s e of
a
s
e
c
t
u
b
j
r a in d o y ou ? You
wa n t a b r ig h t d a y
,

f or t h a t e v e n t

T h e n d on t gu es s
wh a t th e we a t h er
will b e on a c er t ain

d a y kn ow L e ar n
to u s e t h e
.

Weather Bureau
t o r e a d we a t h e r i n

d i c a tion s fr om in

i
i
a
n
s
m
e
T
s
o
o
w
n
u
r
o
h
h
i
n
lf
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r
s
e
o
s tru m e n ts s e t u p b y y
y
n
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o
o
s
e
a
d
f
l
r
u
r
l
c
i
a
e
k
d
e
a
s
M
e
l
n
s
l
i
i
mm
e
e
y
y
ou t t y ou wil l
p
y
t o p r ov i d e y ou with a n e w k in d of pl a y
u
r
e
r
i
n
a
t
e
n
e
m
i
t
e
s
f
a
n
c
o
d
c
o
r
s
k
n
g
h
g
e
,
a
i
r
i
n
m
p
Th e fu n y ou get
h umidi ty , a n d i n m a kin g f or e c as ts will s u r el y b e gr e a t Your b oy
e
m
h
x
l
a
o
t
e
i
n
t
t
u
e
o
e
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s
w
ere
t
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i
n
t
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i
o
u
t
h
n
o
i
l
s
t
e
t
f rien d s w il l
p
y
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f
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a
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t
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w
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c a u s e of s torm s a n d h
p
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c
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T
y q p
c lim a ti c di s tur b a n c es
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k
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a
t
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n
w
o
i
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b
m en t a n d a b g
,
y
goin g to s torm a n d m a n y ot h e r in te r es tin g t h in gs Your d e a l er
a
s
n
t
f
h
e
I
e
s
S
t
u
a
B
u
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e
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h
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b
W
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r
t
h
e
t
will s ow y ou
.

t h em , wr ite

THE A

5 05 B l a t c h l e y

G I LB ERT

ve n u e

C OM P AN Y
Ne w H a ve n

Con n

ILB ER T M ENZ I ES C O Li m i t e d T o o t o 0 n t
G ILB ER T C O 1 25 H i g h H o l b o m L o n d o n W C l

I n C a n a d a : TH E A C
I n En g l a n d : THE A. C .
.

Ou t

S upp os e y ou h ad to lay
out a te n n is c our t Wh at
?
l
wou d y ou d o
Wh ere
woul d y ou s ta rt ? Ten to
one y ou woul d n t know
h ow to go a bout it V ery
l ikely y ou woul d h a ve to
c al l on y our fa th e r to h elp
ou but y ou would n t
av e to i f y ou own ed a
G ilb e rt Civil E ngineer
mg Out t
.

G IL B E R T
E NG INE E R ING
(S UR VE YI NG)
Not only can

out y our own tenn is cour t with a G ilbe rt S urve ng Ou t t

b u t y ou ca n al so s ur ve y y our own y ard or farm nd th e he ight of a uild in g or
nd the d i sta nce to a b u ild ing if y ou kno w its he ight nd the d ista nce ac ross a
r iver and any nu m b er of other intens el y interes t ing expe riments They are all
th ings that wi ll come in handy to y ou in many way s
E ach outt conta i n s a regular s urve y or s trans i t
I t comes knocked down with
full instructi ons for as s e m b l i ng and us ing There is a lso included a well ill us
tr a ted b oo k tell ing y ou m any th ings ab out s urve y ing that w ill be v ery useful to
I t is pac ked in a
y ou at home or whenever y ou go camp ing or on a h ike
hard wood cab inet s ize 20 x 1 2 x 3 % inche s
You will l ike th i s outt m ighty
well I t is on sale at all good toy deale rs I f y ou are u nab le to get it wr ite us
and we ll tell y ou where y ou can
y ou l a y

'

THE A C G ILB E R T COMP ANY

.

5 0 5 Bl a tc h l e y Av e
In C a n a d a Th e
I n E n g l a n d Th e

A C G il b t M
A C G il b r t C
.

e r

Ne w

e n zi e s

CO

1 25

Ha v e n ,

Lim ite d

Conn

To r o n t o , On t

Hig h Ho l b o r n , Lo n d o n ,

C 2.
.

ful
Th e Mos t
B ook f or B oy s E ve r
P u bl is h e d
Footb al l S tr ategy , by Walter

How to P ole V a ult, by Former

Camp

Wor ld s Ch amp ion, A C G ilbert

a nd
Athle tic
by Ed die Ric kenb ac ke r,

Tr a inin g,
by th e famous Ya l e tr ai ner,
l
r
u
i
a
l
i
n
h
n
t
e
s
a
o
t
s
k
a
b
g
g
h
C
nn
M
ac
o
,
y
p
J
wir el es s , won d erf ul h ea t s oun d a n d
l ig h t ex p er i m en ts h ow to b u ild a r ea l
of

it "

wea th er b ur ea u s ta tion of y our own ,

c h e m is tr y f or b oy s , e l ec tr i c a l , h y d r a ulic
a n d p n eum a ti c e n g in e er i n g a n d s urv ey in g,

n
l
n
e
l
a
l
i
n
o
e

n
t
r
r
e
a
c
t
i
ar
l
c
ca
y ill us
y
p
p
tr a ted b ook
I t s y ours f or a qu ar ter a n d
worth d oll ars to y ou

B uy i t f r o m y ou r d e a le r o r
'
You
s e n d us 2 5 c t o - d a y
,

n e ve r

Th e G r ea tes t
B ookf or B oy s
in Yea rs

be

s o r ry

The A C Gilbert
Company
5 05 B l t h l y A
.

Ne w

Ha ve n

v e n ue

Con n