Chapter 9

Series
Sequence
Series
finite

1 1 1

2 4 8
infinite

1 1 1
...
2 4 8
1 1 1 1
...
1 2 3 4
Sometimes it is helpful to look at an infinite series as a sequence of partial sums.

1 1 1
...
2 4 8
S1 =
{

S2 =
,

S3 =

S4 =

While the partial sums are noted as Si, the terms in a sequence are noted by __________.
1. Find the sum of the infinite series:
{

3
3
3

...
10 100 1000

This series follows a pattern. This pattern, series, is known as a ________________________ series.
A geometric sequence/series is where you go from term to term by ________________________.
Two important values in a geometric series are a1, the ___________ term, and r, the _______________ or
_____________.

Chapter 9

If |r| < 1 then

and the sum Sn =

3
2. =
k 0 5

3.

2 3

...

The above problems are often referred to as a Series of ______________________.

We will now look at:

Power Series
Power Series, a series involving ______________________.

4.

n 0

What type of series is this?

Sn = x n
n 0

So 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + ...+ xn = 1/(1-x). What does this mean?

We say that the power series

x
n 0

1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + ...+ xn converges to

Chapter 9

Find the partial sums: {

Find the equation for the line tangent y = 1/(1-x) at x = 0.

Look at the graphs of the partial sums around (0, 1)

The graphs of these partial sums of the _______________ _______________ are better and _____________
approximations of _____________.

Is there a bound to where these partial sums best approximate f(x)?

A power series is said to have an Interval of ___________________. In this case, the interval is (-1, 1) and is
centered at _______.

Does this power series converge at the endpoints of the interval?

In general, every power series will be made up of a series of terms, each with a ___________________,
which may or may not stay the same, and a variable, plus/minus a number (the center), to an increasing
__________________.

Chapter 9

Centered at x = 0

a x
n 0

a 0 x0 a1x1 a 2 x 2 ...

Centered at x = c

a (x c)
n 0

a 0 (x c)0 a1 (x c)1 a 2 (x c)2 ...

5. Determine if this power series converges. If it does, to what does it converge, and on what interval.

(x)

n 0

Homework
Same as number 5

2n xn
n 0

1
n

2 (x 3)

n 0

and

Chapter 9

Calculus of Power Series

Derivatives:
If

1
1 x x2 x3 x4 ... +xn then
1 x

d 1 d
1 x x 2 x3 x 4 ... x n which means...

dx 1 x dx

The interval of convergence will be the same except for the possibility of losing an included endpoint.

Integrals:
If

1
1 x x2 x3 x4 ... + xn then
1 x
1

1 x dx 1 x x

x3 x 4 ... x n dx which means...

The interval of convergence will be the same except for the possibility of gaining a not included endpoint.

Homework
Using the concept of a geometric power series
create a power series for f(x) = 1/x
then use that answer to find a power series for f(x) = ln(x).

Chapter 9

Maclaurin and Taylor Series

Lets work backwards, or is forwards, and see if we cant find a pattern/model/procedure for creating a
power series for a given function.
We know that f(x) = f (x)

1
xn
1 x n 0

How can we start with 1/(1-x) and get 1 + x + x2 + x3 + ..., knowing we are centered at x = 0?
There is an interesting relationship between derivatives of the function and the series.

6. Howse about the same thing for f(x) = ex?

Chapter 9

These power series created by following this pattern are known as Maclaurin or Taylor series.
Maclaurin when the series in centered about x = __________.
Taylor when the series in centered about x = __________.

Homework
Create a Maclaurin Series for f(x) = cos(x) and
a Taylor series, centered at x = 2, for f(x) = ex.

Every Taylor and Maclaurin series converges to its associated function at at least one point, the
____________, sometimes on an ____________________ about the center and sometimes for all
___________________ of x.

Interval of Convergence
To find the interval of convergence we will use the Ratio Test.
If an is the __________ term in the power series, and an+1 is the next ______________, the interval of
convergence for the ______________ _______________, is found when the

lim a n 1

n an
We __________________ need to be able to write a general description for the nth term of a series.
7. f(x) = ex
Find the I of C.
What is the power series?
What is the nth term?

Chapter 9
Radius of Convergence -

8. Find the I of C for f(x) = 1/(1-x)

Homework
Find the I of C for the power series for:
f(x) = ln(x) and f(x) = cos(x)
Page 666 11, 15, 17, 21 (ignore endpoints)

Manipulation of Power Series

9. Given that the Maclaurin series for f (x)

1
is
1 x

find the power series, the general term and the the sigma notation for:
a) g(x)

1
1 x

b) h(x)

x
1 x

Chapter 9
c) j(x)

1
1 x2

d) k(x)

1
2
1 x

e) l(x) arctan(x)

Homework
Given the Taylor series for ln(x) create a Taylor series for:
ln(x + 1), xln(x + 1), ln(2x + 1) and 1 + ln(x)
Memorize the Series, the general term, the notation and the I of C for:
1/x, 1/(1-x), ln(x), ex, sin(x) and cos(x)
Page 682

Chapter 9

10

Errors
Taylor Polynomials
A Taylor (Maclaurin) series does not fully represent its associated function until we involve the
________________ number of terms in the series. Knowing this we sometimes are satisfied with
____________________ the function by using a ___________________ number of terms from the series.
When we are using the first few number of terms we no longer have a series but rather have a
__________________. The greater the number of terms, the better the polynomial will approximate the
function on its _________________ of ___________________.
These Taylor/Maclaurin polynomials are noted by the highest _____________ among the terms, and not the
_________________ of terms.
We may use these polynomials to approximate y-values on the original ________________.
Being approximations these polynomials will have an associated ______________ with their results.
The error is dependent upon two, probably more, things:
1.

b.
The error is equal to the sum of

Even though we will often not know, or find, the value of this sum, we will be able to find a
____________________ for the value.

10.

a) Find a second degree Maclaurin polynomial for f(x) = 1/(1-x).

b) What is the error associated with this polynomial?

c) Find a second degree Maclaurin approximation for f(0.1)

d) What is the error associated with this approximation.

Chapter 9
11. a) Find a third degree Maclaurin polynomial for f(x) = ex.

11

b) What is the error associated with this polynomial?

c) Find a third degree Maclaurin approximation for e0.2.

d) What is the error associated with this approximation.

Taylors Theorem
LaGrange form of the remainder
We have seen that if we know for which value of x we are using a Taylor Polynomial we can sometimes find
the exact error of the approximation because we are able to find the actual value of the ________________.
If we ______________ find the exact value of the function for that x-value, the best we can do is to put a
_________________ on the potential error.
Brook Taylor, sometime around _________, figured out how. Plus or minus 100 years, Colin Maclaurin,
James Gregory, Sir Isaac Newton, ___________ Lagrange, Leonhard Euler, et.al., were also working on
such things.
Taylor figured that the remainder/error of a nth degree polynomial can be determined by evaluating the

f (n1) (z)
(n + 1) degree term in a polynomial. He saw that the remainder, R n (x)
(x c)n1 , where z is a
(n 1)!
st

magic x-value between c, the center, and x, the x-value for which we are approximation.
We will not be able to find this __________________ z, but what we can do is find the _________________
value for f(n + 1)(z), and therefore find an ____________________ bound for the remainder/error.
12. Find an upper bound for the error associated with a third degree Maclaurin approximation of e0.2.

Chapter 9
13. Find the error bound for the 2nd degree approximation of f(0.1) if f(x) = 1/(1-x)

12

14. Find the error bound for the third degree approximation of sin(0.01).

15. What is the minimum degree polynomial that will have an error < 0.001 for an approximation of ln(1.2)?

Homework
Page 657 45, 46, 53

Chapter 9

13

CARPING
Back to page 1.
The convergence of an __________________ series of _________________.

G
n

5
3

n 0 4

n 1

1
n

n4
1

n 1

n 1
n

n 1

cos(n )

n
n 1

Chapter 9

14

n2

n
n 0 5

23
1

n 1

2
n 1

1
n

Homework
Page 646 51-66
no 56, 58, 59

Chapter 9

15

What do we use this CARPING for?

(1)n (x 2)n
.

n2n
n 1

16. Find the interval of convergence for the series

Homework
Page 666 11, 21

One Last Thing

The Alternating Series Remainder Theorem
IF the series you are asked to find an error bound for is a convergent alternating series for the particular x,
then the remainder/error will always be less than the value of the first not included term in that series
evaluated at that x.

f(x1)

P1(x1)

17. Find an error bound for P3(0.2) for f(x) = sin(x)

Final note: If alternating series remainder is applicable make sure that the question is not telling you to use
the Lagrange Form / Taylors Theorem.