Analyzing Structure

(the Summary of
Chandlers Semiotics: the Basic)

-SemioticsNi Wayan Swardhani W.

2015

Semiotics

An approach to textual analysis

Structural analysis

Focuses on the structural relations which are functional in the signifying

system at a particular moment of history

Involves identifying constituent units in a semiotics system (text or

socio-cultural practice), the structural relationship between them (the
opposition, correlation, and logical relations) and the relation of the
parts to the whole
(Chandler p. 83)

Horizontal
and Vertical
Axes

 Syntagmatic positioning

Paradigmatic substitution associative relations (Saussure)

girl

boyfriend

old

man

punches

his

friend

young

lady

calls

her

parents

Syntactic axis

Paradigmatic axis

The

kisses

cloudy

seems

sky

shows

sunny

weather

looks

stormy

Syntactic axis

Paradigmatic axis

The

raining

buys

book

reads

newspaper

Father

writes

letters

Syntactic axis

Paradigmatic axis

Mother

Source:
http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/S4B/semiotic.html
Semiotics can be applied to:
anything which can be seen as signifying something
to everything which has meaning within a culture.
media texts (including television and radio programs, films,
cartoons, newspaper and magazine articles, posters and other ads)
the practices involved in producing and interpreting such texts.

The task of the semiotician (Saussurean tradition)

to look beyond the specific texts or practices to the systems of
functional distinctions operating within them.
to establish the underlying conventions, identifying significant
differences and oppositions in an attempt to model the system of
categories, relations (syntagmatic and paradigmatic),
connotations, distinctions and rules of combination employed.

Conducting Semiotic Analysis

Identifying the text
Include a copy of the text with your analysis of it (if possible), noting
any significant shortcomings of the copy. Or provide a clear
description which would allow someone to recognize the text easily if
they encountered it themselves.
Briefly describe the medium used
the genre to which the text belongs
the context in which it was found.

Consider your purposes in analyzing the text.

Why did you choose this text?

Your purposes may reflect your values: how does the text relate to
your own values?

How does the sign vehicle you are examining relate to the type-token
distinction?
Is it one among many copies (e.g. a poster) or virtually unique (e.g. an
actual painting)?
How does this influence your interpretation?

Eco lists three kinds of sign vehicles, and it is notable that the distinction
relates in part at least to material form:
signs in which there may be any number of tokens (replicas) of the
same type (e.g. a printed word, or exactly the same model of car in the
same colour);
'signs whose tokens, even though produced according to a type, possess
a certain quality of material uniqueness' (e.g. a word which someone
speaks or which is handwritten);
'signs whose token is their type, or signs in which type and token are
identical' (e.g. a unique original oil-painting or Princess Diana's
wedding dress).

What are the important signifiers and what do they signify?

What is the system within which these signs make sense?

Modality

What reality claims are made by the text?

Does it allude to being fact or fiction?
What references are made to an everyday experiential world?

What modality markers are present?

How do you make use of such markers to make judgments about the
relationship between the text and the world?
Does the text operate within a realist representational code?
To whom might it appear realistic?

Paradigmatic analysis

To which class of paradigms (medium; genre; theme) does the whole text belong?
How might a change of medium affect the meanings generated?
What might the text have been like if it had formed part of a different genre?
What paradigm sets do each of the signifiers used belong to?
Why do you think each signifier was chosen from the possible alternatives within
the same paradigm set? What values does the choice of each particular signifier
connote?
What signifiers from the same paradigm set are noticeably absent?
What contrasted pairs seem to be involved (e.g. nature/culture)?
Which of those in each pairing seems to be the 'marked' category?
Is there a central opposition in the text?

Apply the commutation test in order to identify distinctive signifiers and to define
their significance. This involves an imagined substitution of one signifier for
another of your own, and assessing the effect.

What is the syntagmatic structure of the text?

Identify and describe syntagmatic structures in the text which
take forms such as narrative, argument or montage.
How does one signifier relate to the others used (do some carry
more weight than others)?
How does the sequential or spatial arrangement of the elements
influence meaning?
Are there formulaic features that have shaped the text?
If you are comparing several texts within a genre look for a
shared syntagm.
How far does identifying the paradigms and syntagms help you to
understand the text?

Rhetorical tropes
What tropes (e.g. metaphors and metonyms) are involved?
How are they used to influence the preferred reading?

Intertextuality
Does it allude to other genres?
Does it allude to or compare with other texts within the genre?

How does it compare with treatments of similar themes within

other genres?
Does one code within the text (such as a linguistic caption to an
advertisement or news photograph) serve to 'anchor' another
(such as an image)? If so, how?

What semiotic codes are used?

Do the codes have double, single or no
articulation?

How direct is the mode of address and what

is the significance of this?

Are the codes analogue or digital?

How else would you describe the mode of

address?

Which conventions of its genre are most

obvious in the text?
Which codes are specific to the medium?

What cultural assumptions are called upon?

To whom would these codes be most
familiar?

Which codes are shared with other media?

What seems to be the preferred reading?
How do the codes involved relate to each
other (e.g. words and images)?

How far does this reflect or depart from

dominant cultural values?

Are the codes broadcast or narrowcast?

Which codes are notable by their absence?
What relationships does the text seek to
establish with its readers?

How 'open' to interpretation does the sign

seem to be?

Social semiotics

What does a purely structural analysis of the text downplay or

ignore?
Who created the sign? Try to consider all of those involved in the
process.

Whose realities does it represent and whose does it exclude?

For whom was it intended? Look carefully at the clues and try to be
as detailed as you can.
How do people differ in their interpretation of the sign? Clearly this
needs direct investigation.
On what do their interpretations seem to depend?
Illustrate, where possible, dominant, negotiated and oppositional
readings.
How might a change of context influence interpretation?

Benefits of semiotic analysis

What other contributions have semioticians made that can be
applied productively to the text?

What insights has a semiotic analysis of this text offered?

What other strategies might you need to employ to balance any
shortcomings of your analysis?

 Syntagm and paradigm

provide a structural context within which signs make sense

does not only in sentence any kind of signs
Garment system of paradigmatic and syntactic of Barthes (p. 86)
Syntagmatic

Paradigmatic

the combination of 'this-andthis-and-this'

the selection of 'this-or-thisor-this

refer to intratextually to
other signifiers co-present
within the text

refer to intertextuality to
signifiers which are absent
from the text

possibilities of combination

functional contrasts - they

involve differentiation.

an orderly combination of
interacting signifiers which
forms a meaningful whole
(sequential)

media or genre

Syntagmatic
Level

Syntagmatic Relation

Signified
Signifiers

conceptual
sequential

spatial

Syntagmatic forms:
sequential (and causal) relationships before and after
in film and television narrative sequences
plotting, literary genre the pattern, how it is compossed

 spatial relationships montage in posters and photographs,

which works through juxtaposition spatial (space, dimention)
above/below, in front/behind, close/distant, left/right,
north/south/east/west, and inside/outside (or centre/periphery)

conceptual relationships in exposition or argument (text)

introduction, body, conclusion.
Many texts contain more than one type of syntagmatic structure,
though one may be dominant.

Paradigmatic
seeks to identify the various paradigms (or pre-existing sets of
signifiers) which underlie the manifest content of texts.
involves comparing and contrasting each of the signifiers present
in the text with absent signifiers which in similar circumstances
might have been chosen, and considering the significance of the
choices made.
It can be applied at any semiotic level, from the choice of a
particular word, image or sound to the level of the choice of style,
genre or medium.
The analysis of paradigmatic relations helps to define the 'value'
of specific items in a text.

Denotation, Connotation, and Myth

Connotation and denotation levels of representation or levels of

meaning.

Roland Barthes adopted from Louis Hjelmslev there are different

orders of signification (Barthes 1957; Hjelmslev 1961, 114ff).
The first order of signification denotation at this level there is a
sign consisting of a signifier and a signified.
Connotation a second-order of signification uses the denotative
sign (signifier and signified) as its signifier and attaches to it an
additional signified connotation is a sign which derives from the
signifier of a denotative sign (so denotation leads to a chain of
connotations).

Denotation an underlying and primary meaning - a notion

which many other commentators have challenged.
Barthes himself later gave priority to connotation, and in
1971 noted that it was no longer easy to separate the
signifier from the signified, the ideological from the 'literal'
(Barthes 1977, 166).
'what is a signifier or a signified depends entirely on the
level at which the analysis operates: a signified on one level
can become a signifier on another level' (Willemen 1994,
105).
This is the mechanism by which signs may seem to signify
one thing but are loaded with multiple meanings.

 Denotation
literal, obvious, commonsense meaning (word)
what all viewers from any culture and at any time would
recognize the image as depicting (Panofsky) (visual image)
socio-cultural and 'personal' associations (ideological,
emotional etc.) of the sign
primarily representational and relatively self-contained
The denotational meaning of a sign would be broadly
agreed upon by members of the same culture, whereas
'nobody is ever taken to task because their connotations
are incorrect', so no inventory of the connotational
meanings generated by any sign could ever be complete
(Barnard 1996, 83)

 Connotation
Connotations are not purely 'personal' meanings - they are
determined by the codes to which the interpreter has access.

Cultural codes provide a connotational framework since

they are 'organized around key oppositions and equations',
each term being 'aligned with a cluster of symbolic attributes'
(Silverman 1983, 36)
the 'expressive' values which are attached to a sign

 Myth
mythological or ideological extended metaphor
the dominant ideologies of our time
Barthes argues that the orders of signification called
denotation and connotation combine to produce ideology

function: to naturalize the cultural - in other words, to

make dominant cultural and historical values, attitudes
and beliefs seem entirely 'natural', 'normal', self-evident,
timeless, obvious 'common-sense' - and thus objective and
'true' reflections of 'the way things are'.
order of signification the sign reflects major culturallyvariable concepts underpinning a particular worldview such as masculinity, femininity, freedom, individualism,
objectivism, Englishness and so on

I am at the barber's, and a copy of Paris-Match is offered to me.

On the cover, a young Negro in a French uniform is saluting, with his

eyes uplifted, probably fixed on a fold of the tricolour.
All this is the meaning of the picture.
But, whether naively or not, I see very well what it signifies to me:
that France is a great Empire, that all her sons, without any colour
discrimination, faithfully serve under her flag, and that there is no
better answer to the detractors of an alleged colonialism than the
zeal shown by this Negro in serving his so-called oppressors.
I am therefore again faced with a greater semiological system: there
is a signifier, itself already formed with a previous system (a black
soldier is giving the French salute); there is a signified (it is here a
purposeful mixture of Frenchness and militariness); finally, there is
a presence of the signified through the signifier... In myth (and this is
the chief peculiarity of the latter), the signifier is already formed by
the signs of the language...
Myth has in fact a double function: it points out and it notifies, it
makes us understand something and it imposes it on us...

One must put the biography of the Negro in parentheses if

one wants to free the picture, and prepare it to receive its
signified...
The form does not suppress the meaning, it only
impoverishes it, it puts it at a distance...
It is this constant game of hide-and-seek between the
meaning and the form which defines myth.
The form of myth is not a symbol: the Negro who salutes is
not the symbol of the French Empire: he has too much
presence, he appears as a rich, fully experienced,
spontaneous, innocent, indisputable image.
But at the same time this presence is tamed, put at a distance,
made almost transparent; it recedes a little, it becomes the
accomplice of a concept which comes to it fully armed,
French imperiality...

Myth is... defined by its intention... much more than by its

literal sense...
In spite of this, its intention is somehow frozen, purified,
eternalized, made absent by this literal sense (The French
Empire? It's just a fact: look at this good Negro who salutes like
one of our own boys).
This constituent ambiguity... has two consequences for the
signification, which henceforth appears both like a
notification and like a statement of fact...
French imperiality condemns the saluting Negro to be nothing
more than an instrumental signifier, the Negro suddenly hails
me in the name of French imperiality; but at the same
moment the Negro's salute thickens, becomes vitrified,
freezes into an eternal reference meant to establish French
imperiality...

We reach here the very principle of myth: it transforms history into nature...
In the case of the soldier-Negro... what is got rid of is certainly not French
imperiality (on the contrary, since what must be actualized is its presence); it
is the contingent, historical, in one word: fabricated, quality of colonialism.
Myth does not deny things, on the contrary, its function is to talk about them;
simply, it purifies them, it makes them innocent, it gives them a natural and
eternal justification, it gives them a clarity which is not that of an explanation
but that of a statement of fact.
If I state the fact of French imperiality without explaining it, I am very near to
finding that it is natural and goes without saying: I am reassured.

In passing from history to nature, myth acts economically: it abolishes the

complexity of human acts, it gives them the simplicity of essences, it does
away with all dialectics, with any going back beyond what is immediately
visible, it organizes a world which is without contradictions... Things appear
to mean something by themselves...
(Barthes 1987)

Denotative level : (what are we looking

at)
This is a photograph of the movie star
Marilyn Monroe.

Connotative level : (what it implies)

We associate this photograph with Marilyn
Monroe's star qualities of glamour, sexuality,
beauty - if this is an early photograph - but
also with her depression, drug-taking and
untimely death if it is one of her last
photographs.
Mythic level: (the world view)
We understand this sign as activating the
myth of Hollywood: the dream factory that
produces glamour in the form of the stars it
constructs, but also the dream machine that
can crush them - all with a view to profit and
expediency. (Hayward 1996, 310)