SUMMARY OF POWER FLOW STUDIES

1.

Circuit Analysis and Load Flow Analysis

In circuit analysis, given all the values of impedances in the circuit and given the
parameters of all voltage or current generators in the circuit, all nodal voltages and
branch currents can be calculated directly. The key feature of this analysis is that
the relationship between nodal voltages and branch current is linear (i.e. in the form

V ZI

In Load Flow analysis, loads and sources are defined in terms of powers not
impedances or ideal voltage or current generators. All power network branches,
transformers or overhead and underground circuits, are defined as impedances. The
relationship between voltage, power and impedances is non-linear e.g.

P V 2 / Z

or

P V Y

and appropriate methods for solving non-linear circuits need to be used.

Network node (bus) parameters

A network node or bus is described electrically by
V
Voltage phasor magnitude

Voltage phasor angle

Injected active power P
Q
Injected reactive power
Network Node (Bus Types)
Only two of the above parameters are known for each node and the nodes can therefore be
classified according to their known parameters
1.

The Load bus (also known as the PQ bus or Voltage controlled bus)

Pi and Qi

V and

In a load bus the system sees a load of constant power,

are specified,
are
unknown. The loads are modeled as constant power sinks instead of impedances. The reason for
this is that load flow is usually computed at higher voltages above 50 kV and any changes resulting
from load changes are cancelled out by changing the tap positions of power transformers.
2.

The Generator bus (also known as PV bus)

Generators (except wind generators) have two controls: active power control and voltage control) ,

Qi and i

Pi and Vi
thus
3.

are specified

are unknown.

The Slack bus (also known as the swing bus or reference bus)

Load flow analysis needs one network node called the slack node which acts as a reference to all
other nodes. This is the only node where the angle of the phasor is specified. The actual value of

0
is not important as other voltage phasors will be referenced to it, it is normally assigned
.
Also power injection into the slack node is not specified, because all the other nodes will have load
1

or a generator thus active power injection would be known and therefore specifying active power at
a slack node would involve specifying line losses without knowing the current. It is impossible to
find line currents if node voltages are unknown. The power injection at the slack node will
therefore fluctuate or swing to take into account the losses or slack in the system.

Summary of Node Types

Node Type

No. of nodes

Sequence

1
Ng
N-(Ng+1)

Slack (Swing)
node
Generator Bus
Load Bus

i=1

Specified
Parameters
|Vi|, i

Unknown
Parameters
Pi , Qi

i = 2, Ng+1
i = Ng+2,N

Pi , |Vi|
Pi , Qi

Qi , i
|Vi|, i

The Admittance Matrix, Ybus

I1 Y11 Y12 L
I Y
Y
L
I Ybus V 2 21 22
M
M M

I N YN 1 YN 2 L
One row of this matrix can be written as

Y 1 N V1
Y 2 N V2
M M

Y NN
VN

I i Yi1V1 Yi 2V2 L YiN VN YinVn

............(1)

n 1

Both Yin and Vn are complex quantities which can be written as:
Yij Yij ij Yij (cos ij j sin ij ) Gij jBij
Vi Vi i Vi (cos i j sin i )

The Power Flow Equations

Power injected into port i is found from:

in in Vn n YinVV
i n in n i
n 1
n 1

Changing this to rectangular components:

Si Vi I Vi i
*
i

Si Pi jQi YinVV
i n cos in n i j sin in n i , whereby
n 1

Pi YinVV
i n cos in n i

............(2)

n 1

Qi YinVV
i n sin in n i

............(3)

n 1

These power flow equations express the real and reactive power injected into (or taken out of)
any node i in terms of voltage at all nodes, Vn , including that at node i itself, Vi and the admittances
of the interconnecting lines. We may further extract the terms referring to the node i as follows
2

Pi Vi Gii
2

n 1, n i

Qi Vi Bii

YinVV
i n cos in n i

n 1,n i

YinVV
i n sin in n i

............(4)
............(5)

Solution of the Power Flow Equations:

Pi

Qi

The power flow equations (Eqns 4,5 or 2,3) represent computed active
and reactive power
injection
at a node i as a function of all node voltages (n = 1,2,.N) in the network. The power flow problem can

Vi Vi i
now be formulated as determine all voltages in complex form (

i.e. magnitudes

Vi and angles i
) such that when these are inserted into the load flow equations, the calculated active
and power injections at the specific nodes correspond with those specified (in the generator and load buses,
see the summary table).

In equation form we seek to ensure that the differences in calculated and specified active and real
power injections are zero i.e.
Pi Pi ,specified Pi ,calculated 0
Qi Qi ,specified Qi ,calculated 0

From the node voltages and network parameters we can obtain the other results shown below.
Input Data and Results:

Since the equations are non-linear, numerical iterative techniques are used. We discuss the
following methods:
1.

Gauss-Seidel

2.

Newton-Raphson

3.

Fast Decoupled

Gauss-Seidel Power Flow Method

The essence of Gauss-Seidel Method was discussed in class using the
example:

1 2 5
x F ( x)
6
6
1
5
and solve two equations y F ( x) x (straight line) and F ( x) x 2 iteratively.
6
6
(0)
We begin by making a guess e.g. let x 1.5, substitute this into second equation
To solve f ( x) x 2 6 x 5 0, we rewrite it in the form x

F ( x 1.5) x(1) , then use this as the new x estimate and calculateF ( x x (1) ) x (2) and so on until
x ( k ) x ( k 1)

or

x(k ) F x(k )

The value of is determined by the desired degree of convergence in the estimates

The power original flow equation reproduced below

S
P jQ
hence I i i i i
Vi
Vi

Si Pi jQi V I

*
i i

But using eqn (1)

N

I i Yi1V1 Yi 2V2 L YiNVN YinVn

n 1

YiiVi
Vi

n 1, n i

YinVn

Pi jQi
Vi

Pi jQi
Vi

1 Pi jQi

YinVn for i = 2,3,4...N, for swing bus i =1

Yii
Vi
n 1, n i

The last equation is the Gauss-Seidel form of the power flow equation. Note that the equation is only if the
summation does not involve elements where i = n. The values of Pi and Qi are defined as positive if real and
reactive power is going into the node and negative if real and reactive powers are flowing away from the
node. This equation can be solved using the Gauss-Seidel iteration technique whose iterative equation is

spec

spec
N
P

jQ
1

i
Vi ( k +1) Vi
i i
YinVn .............(6)
*
(
k
)
Yii V ( k )
n 1

i
i
n i

This iterative equation converges slowly and an acceleration

( k 1)

( k 1)

k 1)
factor (1 2) may be used, Vi ,(acc
Vi ( k ) Vi ( k +1) Vi ( k )

Vi

(0)

(0 )

The Gauss-Seidel Algorithm solves equation (6) from initial guesses

for each node i
with unknown voltage magnitudes and unknown voltage angles. Iteration is stopped when desired
degree of convergence is obtained.
5

Example 1 Simple two bus problem

A 100 MW, 50 MVAR load is connected to a generator through a line with impedance
Y = j0.25 p.u
Y = j0.05 p.u

Y = j0.05 p.u

V1 10o p.u.
ZL = 0.02+j0.06 p.u

z 0.02 j 0.06 p.u.

and line charging of 0.05 p.u. on each end, based on 100 MVA base. Also
there is a 0.25 p.u. capacitance at bus 2. If the generator voltage is 1.0 p.u, what is V2?
Solution

Line Admittance

1
1

5 j15 p.u. Specified power S2 1 j 0.5 p.u.

Z L 0.02 j 0.06

5 j15
Y12
5 j15 j 0.05

5 j14.95 5 j15

5 j15 j 0.05 j 0.25

5 j15 5 j14.7

21 Y22
5 j15

spec
spec
N

( k 1)
P

jQ
1
(
k

1)
k
i
Using G-S iteration: Vi ( k +1) Vi
i
i
YinVn with n 1 for swing bus
*
(k )
(k )
Yii
n 1

Vi i
n i

1 P2 spec jQ2 spec

( k +1)
( k )
V1 1.00 given, then V2

Y11V1

(k ) *
(k )
Y22

V2 2

Ybus Y11

To solve for unkown voltage V2 we make a first guess V2(0) 10 1 j 0

Hence V2(1)

1 j 0.5

j
14.95
(1

j
0)

5 j14.7 1 j 0 *

Newton-Raphson Power Flow Method

Vi
Load flow computation is first and foremost the calculation of the unknown voltage magnitudes

and

angle
at each bus (or node) of a power system under specified conditions. Calculations of other values
like current flows, power flows occur after that.

x
Let the unknowns (angles and magnitudes) be combined as a vector

x V

so that

2
3

VN g 2

VN g 2

VN g 2

The subscript for voltage angle starts from 2 because only the slack node angle is known (as reference), and
voltage magnitude starts from Ng +2 because generator (PV) node voltages are known and only load node
(PQ) voltages are required.
We had derived the load flow equations and put them in the form shown in eq 4 and 5 as

2
Y
VV

V
G

in i n
YinVVi n cos in n i
in
n
i
i
ii
n 1

n 1, n i
N

Pi Re

2
Y
VV

V
B

in i n
YinVVi n sin in n i
in
n
i
i
ii
n 1, n i
n 1

Qi Im

............(7)
............(8)

These being non-linear equations, the unknown voltage magnitudes and angles must be determined such
that when all voltages values are entered into the above equations the active and reactive power injections at
the specific nodes correspond with the specified power injections. In equation form the differences between
the specified and calculated power injections are equal to zero, i.e.

Power mismatch = Specified power - Calculated power

PNSpecified

PNCalculated
2
g 2
g

P( x)
0
Specified

Calculated
PN g
PN

QNSpecified

QNCalculated
g 2
g 2

Q( x)
Specified

QNCag lculated
QN

............(9)

............(10)

 h( x )
The differences or power mismatches can also be combined into one vector

P ( x)
0
Q ( x)

given by

h( x )

(9)

First Order Taylor Approximation

The application of the 1st order Taylor approximation illustrated below results in the Newton-Raphson

x
iterative formula. If for a particular calculated vector

h( x) 0
the power mismatches

, then a

h( x (0) )

h( x (1) )

h( x(2) )
0

correction

x(2)

x(2)

h ( x x ) 0
must be determined such that

x (0)
From a first guess

the correction -

h( x )
first derivative of

. In general

x (1)

( k 1)

x (1)

x (0)

(1)

x (1)

h( x (0) )
h( x (0) )

is determined from

h( x ( k ) )

h( x ( k ) )

h( x (0) )
where

is the

h( x ( k ) ) h( x ( k ) ) x ( k 1)
or

. In other words

mismatch 1st differential new correction value

We can therefore write the iterative form of our multivariable (multidimensional) case eqns 9 and 10 as

Power mismatch = Specified power - Calculated power 0

Mismatches Jacobian Corrections
J 11
P ( x)
Q( x) J 21

J 12

0 or
J 22 V

............(11)

where the Jacobian is a matrix of first differentials which can be written as sub-matrices as follows

Load Flow equations:

Pi ( k ) calc Pi Vi
( k ) calc
i

(k )

(k )

Qi Vi

, i( k ) Vi ( k ) Gii
,

(k )
i

(k ) 2

n 1, n i

Bii

YinVn ( k )Vi ( k ) cos(in n( k ) i( k ) )

n 1, n i

YinVn ( k )Vi ( k ) sin(in n( k ) i( k ) )

where i 2,3, 4....N and k 0 for initial guess

Mismatches:
Pi ( k ) Pi spec Pi ( k ) calc ,

Qi ( k ) Qispec Qi( k ) calc

and

Corrections evaluated from:

Jacobian Corrections Mismatches

J 11 J 12
J 21 J 22

( k )

(k )

(k )

V
Expanding the Jacobian:
P2

P2
N

PN
2

P ( k )

(k)
Q
P2
VN g 2

PN
N

PN
VN g 2

(k )

P2

VN

QN g 2

2

QN g 2
N

QN

QN g 2
VN g 2

QN
N

QN

( k 1)

(k )

(k )

and

Vi

(k )

Vi

(k )

Vi

PN

( k 1)

(k )
VN g 2

(k )

VN

VN g 2

Add corrections to previous values to get new estimates:

P ( k )
2

( k )
N

QN g 2

V
QN

VN

PN

VN

(k )

QN g 2

(k )
Q
N

(k )

(k )

The elements of the Jacobian are:

10

Evaluation of Diagonal Elements of the Jacobian (i.e partial derivates), at any node i
(k )
ii

J11

Pi
=
i

J12ii( k ) =
(k )
ii

J21

J22ii( k ) =

(k )

n 1, n i

YinVn ( k )Vi ( k ) sin(in n( k ) i( k ) ) Qicalc Vi ( k ) Bii

(k )

Pi
Vi

2 Vi ( k ) Gii

Qi
i

(k )

YinVn ( k ) cos(in n( k ) i( k ) )

n 1, n i

n 1, n i

YinVn ( k )Vi ( k ) cos(in n( k ) i( k ) ) Pi calc Vi ( k ) Gii

(k )

Qi
Vi

2
1
2 Vi ( k ) Gii J21ii
( k )

Vi

2 Vi ( k ) Bij

n 1, n i

YinVn ( k ) sin(in n( k ) i( k ) )

1
Vi ( k )

2 V ( k ) 2 B J11
i
ii
ii

Evaluation of Off-Diagonal Elements of the Jacobian, for nodes i and j

(k )
ij

J11 =

Pi
j

(k )

YijV j ( k )Vi ( k ) sin(ij (j k ) i( k ) )

(k)

Pi
J12 =
Vj

(k )
ij

Qi
J21ij( k ) =
j

YijVi ( k ) cos(ij j( k ) i( k ) )

1
V j (k )

J21ij

(k)

Qi
J22ij( k ) =
Vj

YijV j ( k )Vi ( k ) cos(ij (j k ) i( k ) )

(k)

YijVi ( k ) sin( ij j( k ) i( k ) )

1
J11ij
Vi ( k )

Hence, if submatrices J11 and J21 of the Jacobian are computed, the other submatrices J12 and
J22 can be obtained from them. However the Jacobian elements need recalculation every iteration.
The Newton-Raphson Algorithm

i(0) , Vi
1.

(0)

Make an initial estimate of

Pi ,calc , Qi ,calc
2.

Calculate

using the load flow equations 7 and 8.

Pi , Qi
3.

Calculate the mismatches

using equations 9 and 10.

i(0) , Vi
4.

(0)

Construct the Jacobian at

i(0) , Vi
5.

Calculate the corrections

(0)

using equation 11

11

 i(0) , Vi
6.

Test the magnitudes of the corrections

(0)

?
If not go to step 7, If yes go to

step 8.

7.

Add the corrections to the previous estimates

i(1) i(0) i(0) , and Vi

8.

(1)

Vi

(0)

Vi

(0)

Stop

12

z 0.025 j 0.25 pu Bus 2

Bus 1

Example of N-R Method

V1 10
A two bus network is shown in the figure. Bus 1 as a swing bus
, obtain the magnitude
and angle of the voltage at bus 2
Solution
1
1
y
0.39604 j 3.9604 g jb 3.9801
84.29
S20.6
j0.3 pu
z 0.025 j 0.25
G jB11 G12 jB12
0.39604 j3.9604 0.39604 j3.9604
11

0.39604 j 3.9604 0.39604 j 3.9604

G21 jB21 G22 jB22

Ybus

Y 11
3.9801 84.29 3.980195.71
11

3.980195.71 3.9801 84.29

Y21 21
N-R Formulation Power Flow Eqns:

Ybus

Pi Vi Gii
2

n 1,n i

Qi Vi Bii

YinViVn cos in n i

Y12 12

Y22 22

n 1, n i

YinViVn sin in n i

For the two bus problem, and bus 1 as the slack bus 10, these equations become

G22 Y21V2V1 cos 21 1 2

2
Q2 V2 B22 Y21V2V1 sin 21 1 2
P2 V2

Substituting the values, with V1 10

0.39604 3.9801 V2 cos 95.71 2 .......... 1

2
Q2 V2 3.9604 3.9801 V2 sin 95.71 2 .......... 2
P2 V2

Matrix Eqn of corrections and mismatches

Jacobian Corrections Mismatches

J11 J12
J J
21 22

(k )

J11 J12
J J
21 22

(k )

( k )

P ( k )
P ( spec ) P ( calc )( k )

( spec )

(k )
(k )
V
Q ( calc )( k )
Q
Q
For the two bus problem, the sub-matrices have one element each

2( k )

P2( k )
P2( spec ) P2 (calc )( k )

( spec )

(k )
(k )
V2
Q2( calc )( k )
Q2
Q2

........... 3

13

Elements of the Jacobian

P
J11 2 3.9801 V2 sin 95.71 2
2
J12

...................... 4

P2
2 V2 0.39604 3.9801 cos 95.71 2
V2
0.79208 V2 3.9801 cos 95.71 2 .............. 5

J 21

Q2
3.9801 V2 cos 95.71 2
2

J 22

Q2
2 V2 3.9604 3.9801 sin 95.71 2
V2

...................... 6

7.9208 V2 3.9801 sin 95.71 2 ................. 7

Iteration will start with a flat start i.e. V2 V2

(0)

2(0) 10 p.u.

J11 3.9801 sin 95.71 3.9604

J12 0.79208 3.9801 cos 95.71 0.39609

J 21 3.9801 cos 95.71 0.39599

J 22 7.9208 0.39801 sin 95.71 3.9604

The corrections are obtained using eqn (3) as follows
J11 J12
J J
21 22

2(0)

(0)

P2(0)

(0 )
Q2

(0)

V2

0.39609
3.9604
0.39599 3.9604

2(0)

P2( spec ) P2( calc )(0)

( spec )
Q2( calc)(0)
Q2

2(0)

(0)

0.6 0

(0)
V2 0.3 0

0.1425 0.1425 rad

0.0900 0.0900 p.u.

....note the units here!

V2
Adding these corrections to initial guesses
(0)

2(1) 2(0) 2(0) 0 0.1425 0.1425 rad 8.16

V2

(1)

V2

(0)

V2

(0)

1 0.0900 0.91 p.u

For the first iteration go back to re-calculate the new Jacobian values using eqns 4-7
Table below gives the iteration values: (fill the rest of the table as an exercise)
Iteration k
0
1
2
3

V2

(k )

pu

1.0000
0.9100
0.8863
0.8853

V2

(k )

pu

-0.0900
-0.0237
-0.0009

2( k )
(deg)
0.0000
-0.1425 (-8.16o)
-0.1610 (-9.22o)
-0.1617(-9.26o)

2( k )
rad
-0.1425
-0.0185
-0.0007

P2( k ) pu

Q2( k ) pu

-0.6
-0.0594
-0.0021
0.0000

-0.3
-0.0634
-0.0024
0.0000

The power flow equations are second order so there is another solution which is obtained by
V2 V2 0.10
choosing low starting values e.g.
which is unrealistic and should be discarded.

. This will give a very low bus voltage

14

Fast Decoupled Power Flow Method

In the Newton-Raphson method which uses the following equation
J 11 J 12
J 21 J 22

( k )

(k )

(k )

P ( k )

(k)
Q

The Jacobian Matrix had to be re-calculated every iteration. However if a few practical
assumptions are introduced, the Jacobian Matrix can be reduced to a constant which need not be
calculated during every iteration. These practical approximations are:
Qi
0 or J21 0
i
1.

A change in voltage magnitude does not substantially change active

Pi
0 or J12 0
Vi

power , i.e.
2.

A change in voltage angle has little effect on reactive power, i.e.

The new iteration equation for obtaining corrections becomes

J 11 0
0 J 22

( k )

(k )

(k )

Pi ( k )
Qi

(k )

or

Pi ( k ) J 11
Qi

(k )

J 22

k
k

( k )
V

(k )

0.39609
3.9604

0.39599 3.9604

See, for example the previous problem, where

3.

Further, since voltage phase change in a transmission line is small,

i j is small, Gij sin( i j ) 0 and Bij cos( i j ) Bij

Vi V j 0
4.

For a flat start and thereafter, voltage differences in p.u. are small i.e.

5.

The resistance of overhead lines is usually << the reactance of the line, R<<X , therefore
Gij<<Bij.

The above assumptions give the following approximations for the elements of J11 and J22:

15

Evaluation of Diagonal Elements of the Jacobian (i.e partial derivates), at any node i
(k )
ii

J11
J22

(k )
ii

Pi
=
i

(k )
2

(k )

Qi
Vi

Qicalc Vi ( k ) Bii Vi ( k ) Bii Vi ( k ) Bii

1
Vi ( k )

2 V ( k ) 2 B J11 V ( k ) B
i
ii
ii
i
ii

Evaluation of Off-Diagonal Elements of the Jacobian, for nodes i and j

Pi
j

(k )
ij

J11 =

Qi
J22ij( k ) =
Vj
Qi
Vj

(k )

YijV j ( k )Vi ( k ) sin( ij (j k ) i( k ) ) V j ( k )Vi ( k ) Yij sin ij V j ( k )Vi ( k ) Bij Vi ( k ) Bij

(k )

YijVi ( k ) sin(ij j( k ) i( k ) )

1
Vi ( k )

J11ij

(k )

Vi ( k ) Bij

The decoupled iteration matrices now become:

V2 ( k ) B22

(k )
VN BN 2 L

V2 ( k ) B2 N 2( k )

M M

( k )
VN ( k ) BNN N

VN 2 ( k ) BN 2, N 2
g
g
g

P 2

(k )
P N
(k )

VN g 2 ( k ) BN g 2, N

M
M

L
VN ( k ) BNN
VN ( k ) BN , N g 2

Diving each row by the common voltage:

L

(k )
V ( k )
QN 2
Ng 2
g

(k )
(k )
VN
QN

P2

(k )
V2

M
P ( k )
N

(k )
VN
(k)

B22 L
M

BN 2 L

B2 N
M
BNN

(k )

(k )

QN 2
g
(k )

BN g 2, N g 2

B
N ,Ng 2

BN g 2, N

M
BNN

(k )
V ( k )

V
Ng 2
Ng 2

M
M

(k )
(k)
VN
QN

V (k )
N

The Fast decoupled load flow method, even though it converges slowly, may be used for fast calculations in
real time situations such as required in contingency analysis.

16

The Jacobian matrices are now replaced by matrices of the imaginary parts of the
admittance matrix Ybus . In short we may write the above equations as:
B

P
V

B V

Q
V

and work out corrections as

1 P
1 Q
and V B
B
V
V
In other words the inversion of the Ybus sub matrix need only be inverted once at
the beginning

17

EXAMPLE ON POWER FLOW USING THE FAST DECOUPLED METHOD

18

Consider the power system network shown where the generator voltages are given in p.u. values

19

20

(a)

Calculate the value of p.u reactive power Q3 in bus 3.

21

(b)

Obtain the network admittance matrix Ybus.

22

(c)

Choose bus 1 as the slack bus. Using the Fast Decoupled Power Flow Method, find the voltage
magnitudes in bus 3 and voltage angles in buses 2 and 3 after two iterations.

23

V2 1.0 p.u

P3
P2
0.707 or 32 0.5, Therefore Q3 P3 1 pu
p.u.S3
S3

p. f .

P2 0.60
(a)
(b)

V1 1.030 p.u
o

By inspection
0
j10
j10
B11

B 0 j 20 j 20 j B21
j10 j 20 j 30
B31
Bus 1

(c)

B
13
B 23
B 33

B12
B22
B32

Bus 2

2 , 3 , V3

Unknown voltage magnitudes and angles are

Y23 = -j20

V1 1.03 pu, V2 1 pu, 1 0

Given voltage magnitudes and angles are

1 as the slack bus.

2

Unknowns x 3 , Initial guess
V3

Here we will use bus

(0)
2(0)
3

(0)

V3

0
0
1

For Fast Decoupled Method

P2
V
2

P3

V3

and

B V3

B23
20 20

B33
20 30

B 30

B22
B32

Q3
V3

0.15 0.10

0.10 0.10

1 30

where
Using the general power flow equations we can calculate the Powers where specified and evaluate

P2 , P3 and Q3
the mismatches i.e.
N

Pi YinVV
i n cos in n i
n 1

Qi YinVV
i n sin in n i

G1

n 1

Y13 = -j10

P3 1.0 p.u

24

P2(0) Y21V2V1 cos 21 1 2(0) Y22V2V2 cos 22 2(0) 2(0) Y23V2V3(0) cos 23 3(0) 2(0)
Since 1 2(0) 3(0) 0 and Y21 0, 22 90, 23 90
P2(0) 0

P3(0) Y31V3(0)V1 cos 31 1 3(0) Y32V3(0)V2 cos 32 2(0) 3(0 ) Y33V3(0)V3(0) cos 33 3(0) 3(0)
Since 1 2(0) 3(0) 0 and 33 90, 31 32 90
P3(0) 0

Q3(0) Y31V3(0)V1 sin 31 1 3(0) Y32V3(0)V2 sin 32 2(0) 3(0) Y33V3(0)V3(0) sin 33 3(0) 3(0)
Since 1 2(0) 3( 0) 0 and 33 90, 31 32 90
Q3(0) 10 1.03 20 30 1 0.3 pu
P2
P
3

Q3

(0)

0.6 0

0.6

1 0 1

1 (0.3)

0.7

The power mismatches =

2(0)

(0)
3

P2(0)

V2
1
B
P3(0)

(0)
V3

0.6
0.15 0.10 1
0.01

0.10 0.10 1
0.04

Angle Corrections =

V3

(0)

Q3
0.7
1/ 30
0.02333
V3
1.0

Voltage correction =
Corrected values after 1st iteration are

(1)
2

(1)
3

(1)

V3

0 2(0)
0 (0.01)

(0)

0 (0.04)
0 3

(0)
1 ( 0.02333)
1 V3

0.01 rad

0.04 rad

0.9767 pu

Use these for the second iteration

25

26

DC POWER FLOW METHOD

Numerous attempts have been made to improve computing speeds for the unknown voltages,
especially for very large systems. These involve linearizing the equations, using partially complete
solutions and using reduced network equivalents. These methods effectively alter the model of the
system unlike those which have so far been discussed.
2

Pi Vi Gii

n 1, n i
N

Qi Vi Bii

YinVV
i n cos in n i

n 1, n i

YinVV
i n sin in n i

The DC method described here involves just one

iteration! The approximate, first iteration solution can be used to check for major limit violations
and the calculation of different contingency severity measures. This approximation can also be
used instead of a flat start in the accurate power flow methods. Returning to equation obtained
before for the real power P,
2

Pi Vi Gii

n 1, n i

YinVV
i n cos in n i
Assume that

All voltages are 1.0 p.u.

Resitances are negligible compared to reactances:

j i ~ 0
j i
Angle differences are small
so that

Gij 0, ij / 2

27

Currents, Power Flows and Losses

After the iterative solution of the bus voltages we calculate the line flows and line losses. Consider a
medium length line between node i and node j. Let the line current Iij be defined as measured at bus I
positive in the direction i to j.
Vi
Iij

ILij

Vj

Yij

Ii0
Yi0

Iji
Ij0
Yj0

The line current measured at bus i is given by

I ij I Lij I i 0 Yij (Vi V j ) Yi 0Vi
Similarly the line current measured at bus j defined positive in direction j to i
is given by
I ji I Lij I j 0 Yij (V j Vi ) Y j 0V j
The complex powers Sij from node i to j and S ji from node j to i are
Sij Vi I ij
S ji V j I ji
The power loss in the line i to j is the algebraic sum of the two complex powers
at either end
Power Loss = Sij S ji

28