Sheet Metal - Wikipedia

11/23/2016
SheetmetalWikipedia
Sheetmetal
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Sheetmetalismetalformedbyanindustrialprocessintothin,flat
pieces.Itisoneofthefundamentalformsusedinmetalworkingandit
canbecutandbentintoavarietyofshapes.Countlesseverydayobjects
arefabricatedfromsheetmetal.Thicknessescanvarysignificantly
extremelythinthicknessesareconsideredfoilorleaf,andpiecesthicker
than6mm(0.25in)areconsideredplate.
Sheetmetalisavailableinflatpiecesorcoiledstrips.Thecoilsare
formedbyrunningacontinuoussheetofmetalthrougharollslitter.
ThethicknessofsheetmetalisintheUSAcommonlyspecifiedbya
traditional,nonlinearmeasureknownasitsgauge.Thelargerthegauge
number,thethinnerthemetal.Commonlyusedsteelsheetmetalranges
from30gaugetoabout7gauge.Gaugediffersbetweenferrous(iron
based)metalsandnonferrousmetalssuchasaluminumorcopper
copperthickness,forexampleismeasuredinounces,whichrepresents
thethicknessofoneounceofcopperrolledouttoanareaofonesquare
foot.Intherestoftheworld,thesheetmetalthicknessisgivenin
millimeters.
SheetsofNirostastainlesssteelcover
theChryslerBuilding
Therearemanydifferentmetalsthatcanbemadeintosheetmetal,
suchasaluminum,brass,copper,steel,tin,nickelandtitanium.For
decorativeuses,importantsheetmetalsincludesilver,gold,and
platinum(platinumsheetmetalisalsoutilizedasacatalyst.)
Sheetmetalisusedinautomobileandtruck(lorry)bodies,airplane
fuselagesandwings,medicaltables,roofsforbuildings
(architecture)andmanyotherapplications.Sheetmetalofironand
othermaterialswithhighmagneticpermeability,alsoknownas
laminatedsteelcores,hasapplicationsintransformersandelectric
machines.Historically,animportantuseofsheetmetalwasinplate
armorwornbycavalry,andsheetmetalcontinuestohavemany
decorativeuses,includinginhorsetack.Sheetmetalworkersare
alsoknownas"tinbashers"(or"tinknockers"),anamederived
fromthehammeringofpanelseamswheninstallingtinroofs.[1][2]
Microscopiccloseupofmildsteelsheet
metal.
Contents
1 Materials
1.1 Stainlesssteel
1.2 Aluminium
2 Gauge
2.1 Tolerances
3 Formingprocesses
3.1 Bending
3.2 Curling
3.3 Decambering
3.4 Deepdrawing
3.5 Expanding
3.6 Hemmingandseaming
3.7 Hydroforming
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheet_metal
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4
5
6
7
3.7 Hydroforming
3.8 Incrementalsheetforming
3.9 Ironing
3.10 Lasercutting
3.11 Photochemicalmachining
3.12 Perforating
3.13 Pressbrakeforming
3.14 Punching
3.15 Rollforming
3.16 Rolling
3.17 Spinning
3.18 Stamping
3.19 Waterjetcutting
3.20 Wheeling
Fasteners
Seealso
References
6.1 Bibliography
Externallinks
Materials
Stainlesssteel
Grade304isthemostcommonofthethreegrades.Itoffersgoodcorrosionresistancewhilemaintaining
formabilityandweldability.Availablefinishesare#2B,#3,and#4.Grade303isnotavailableinsheetform.[3]
Grade316possessesmorecorrosionresistanceandstrengthatelevatedtemperaturesthan304.Itiscommonly
usedforpumps,valves,chemicalequipment,andmarineapplications.Availablefinishesare#2B,#3,and#4.[3]
Grade410isaheattreatablestainlesssteel,butithasalowercorrosionresistancethantheothergrades.Itis
commonlyusedincutlery.Theonlyavailablefinishisdull.[3]
Grade430ispopulargrade,lowcostalternativetoserie300'sgrades.Usedwhenhighcorrosionresistanceis
notaprimarycriteria.Commongradeforapplianceproducts,oftenwithabrushedfinish.
Aluminium
Aluminumisalsoapopularmetalusedinsheetmetalduetoitsflexibility,widerangeofoptions,cost
effectiveness,andotherproperties.[4]Thefourmostcommonaluminiumgradesavailableassheetmetalare
1100H14,3003H14,5052H32,and6061T6.[3][5]
Grade1100H14iscommerciallypurealuminium,highlychemicalandweatherresistant.Itisductileenough
fordeepdrawingandweldable,buthaslowstrength.Itiscommonlyusedinchemicalprocessingequipment,
lightreflectors,andjewelry.[3]
Grade3003H14isstrongerthan1100,whilemaintainingthesameformabilityandlowcost.Itiscorrosion
resistantandweldable.Itisoftenusedinstampings,spunanddrawnparts,mailboxes,cabinets,tanks,andfan
blades.[3]
Grade5052H32ismuchstrongerthan3003whilestillmaintaininggoodformability.Itmaintainshigh
corrosionresistanceandweldability.Commonapplicationsincludeelectronicchassis,tanks,andpressure
vessels.[3]
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Grade6061T6isacommonheattreatedstructuralaluminiumalloy.Itisweldable,corrosionresistant,and
strongerthan5052,butnotasformable.Itlosessomeofitsstrengthwhenwelded.[3]Itisusedinmodern
aircraftstructures.[6]
Gauge
UseofGaugetodesignatesheetmetalthicknessisdiscouragedbynumerousinternationalstandards
organizations.ForExample,ASTMstatesinspecificationASTMA48010a"Theuseofgagenumberis
discouragedasbeinganarchaictermoflimitedusefulnessnothavinggeneralagreementonmeaning."[7]
Manufacturers'StandardGaugeforSheetSteelisbasedonanaverageweightof41.82lb(18.96kg)persquare
footperinchthick.[8]Gaugeisdefineddifferentlyforferrous(ironbased)andnonferrousmetals(e.g.,
aluminiumandbrass).
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Standardsheetmetalgauges[9]
U.S.standard[10][11]
[12]
Galvanizedsteel Stainlesssteel Aluminium Zinc[12]
Gauge forsheetandplate Steel
inch(mm)
inch(mm)
inch(mm) inch(mm)
ironandsteel
inch(mm)
decimalinch(mm)
0000000 0.5000(12.70)
......
......
......
......
......
000000 0.4688(11.91)
......
......
......
......
......
00000
0.4375(11.11)
......
......
......
......
......
0000
0.4063(10.32)
......
......
......
......
......
000
0.3750(9.53)
......
......
......
......
......
00
0.3438(8.73)
......
......
......
......
......
0.3125(7.94)
......
......
......
......
......
0.2813(7.15)
......
......
......
......
......
0.2656(6.75)
......
......
......
......
......
0.2500(6.35)
0.2391(6.07)
......
......
......
0.006(0.15)
0.2344(5.95)
0.2242(5.69)
......
......
......
0.008(0.20)
0.2188(5.56)
0.2092(5.31)
......
......
......
0.010(0.25)
0.2031(5.16)
0.1943(4.94)
......
......
0.1875(4.76)
0.1793(4.55)
......
0.1719(4.37)
0.1644(4.18) 0.1681(4.27)
0.1719(4.37) 0.1285(3.26) 0.016(0.41)
0.1563(3.97)
0.1495(3.80) 0.1532(3.89)
0.1563(3.97) 0.1144(2.91) 0.018(0.46)
10
0.1406(3.57)
0.1345(3.42) 0.1382(3.51)
0.1406(3.57) 0.1019(2.59) 0.020(0.51)
11
0.1250(3.18)
0.1196(3.04) 0.1233(3.13)
0.1250(3.18) 0.0907(2.30) 0.024(0.61)
12
0.1094(2.78)
0.1046(2.66) 0.1084(2.75)
0.1094(2.78) 0.0808(2.05) 0.028(0.71)
13
0.0938(2.38)
0.0897(2.28) 0.0934(2.37)
0.094(2.4)
14
0.0781(1.98)
0.0747(1.90) 0.0785(1.99)
0.0781(1.98) 0.0641(1.63) 0.036(0.91)
15
0.0703(1.79)
0.0673(1.71) 0.0710(1.80)
0.07(1.8)
16
0.0625(1.59)
0.0598(1.52) 0.0635(1.61)
0.0625(1.59) 0.0508(1.29) 0.045(1.1)
17
0.0563(1.43)
0.0538(1.37) 0.0575(1.46)
0.056(1.4)
18
0.0500(1.27)
0.0478(1.21) 0.0516(1.31)
0.0500(1.27) 0.0403(1.02) 0.055(1.4)
19
0.0438(1.11)
0.0418(1.06) 0.0456(1.16)
0.044(1.1)
20
0.0375(0.95)
0.0359(0.91) 0.0396(1.01)
0.0375(0.95) 0.0320(0.81) 0.070(1.8)
21
0.0344(0.87)
0.0329(0.84) 0.0366(0.93)
0.034(0.86)
0.028(0.71) 0.080(2.0)
22
0.0313(0.80)
0.0299(0.76) 0.0336(0.85)
0.031(0.79)
0.025(0.64) 0.090(2.3)
23
0.0281(0.71)
0.0269(0.68) 0.0306(0.78)
0.028(0.71)
0.023(0.58) 0.100(2.5)
24
0.0250(0.64)
0.0239(0.61) 0.0276(0.70)
0.025(0.64)
0.02(0.51)
0.125(3.2)
25
0.0219(0.56)
0.0209(0.53) 0.0247(0.63)
0.022(0.56)
0.018(0.46)
......
26
0.0188(0.48)
0.0179(0.45) 0.0217(0.55)
0.019(0.48)
0.017(0.43)
......
27
0.0172(0.44)
0.0164(0.42) 0.0202(0.51)
0.017(0.43)
0.014(0.36)
......
28
0.0156(0.40)
0.0149(0.38) 0.0187(0.47)
0.016(0.41)
0.0126(0.32)
......
29
0.0141(0.36)
0.0135(0.34) 0.0172(0.44)
0.014(0.36)
0.0113(0.29)
......
30
0.0125(0.32)
0.0120(0.30) 0.0157(0.40)
0.013(0.33)
0.0100(0.25)
......
0.0105(0.27) 0.0142(0.36)
0.011(0.28)
0.0089(0.23)
......
31
0.0109(0.28)
0.162(4.1)
0.012(0.30)
0.1875(4.76) 0.1443(3.67) 0.014(0.36)
0.072(1.8)
0.057(1.4)
0.045(1.1)
0.032(0.81)
0.040(1.0)
0.050(1.3)
0.036(0.91) 0.060(1.5)
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31
0.0109(0.28)
0.0105(0.27) 0.0142(0.36)
32
0.0102(0.26)
0.0097(0.25)
......
33
0.0094(0.24)
0.0090(0.23)
34
0.0086(0.22)
35
0.011(0.28)
0.0089(0.23)
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
0.0082(0.21)
......
......
......
......
0.0078(0.20)
0.0075(0.19)
......
......
......
......
36
0.0070(0.18)
0.0067(0.17)
......
......
......
......
37
0.0066(0.17)
0.0064(0.16)
......
......
......
......
38
0.0063(0.16)
0.0060(0.15)
......
......
......
......
Tolerances
Duringtherollingprocesstherollersbowslightly,whichresultsinthesheetsbeingthinnerontheedges.[3]The
tolerancesinthetableandattachmentsreflectcurrentmanufacturingpracticesandcommercialstandardsand
arenotrepresentativeoftheManufacturer'sStandardGauge,whichhasnoinherenttolerances.
Steelsheetmetaltolerances[3][13]
Nominal
Max
Min
Gauge
[in(mm)]
[in(mm)]
[in(mm)]
Aluminiumsheetmetaltolerances[3]
Sheetwidth
Thickness
36(914.4)
48(1,219)
[in(mm)]
[in(mm)]
[in(mm)]
10
0.1345(3.42) 0.1405(3.57) 0.1285(3.26)
11
0.1196(3.04) 0.1256(3.19) 0.1136(2.89) 0.0180.028(0.460.71) 0.002(0.051) 0.0025(0.064)
12
0.1046(2.66) 0.1106(2.81) 0.0986(2.50) 0.0290.036(0.740.91) 0.002(0.051) 0.0025(0.064)
14
0.0747(1.90) 0.0797(2.02) 0.0697(1.77) 0.0370.045(0.941.14) 0.0025(0.064) 0.003(0.076)
16
0.0598(1.52) 0.0648(1.65) 0.0548(1.39) 0.0460.068(1.21.7)
0.003(0.076) 0.004(0.10)
18
0.0478(1.21) 0.0518(1.32) 0.0438(1.11) 0.0690.076(1.81.9)
0.003(0.076) 0.004(0.10)
20
0.0359(0.91) 0.0389(0.99) 0.0329(0.84) 0.0770.096(2.02.4)
0.0035(0.089) 0.004(0.10)
22
0.0299(0.76) 0.0329(0.84) 0.0269(0.68) 0.0970.108(2.52.7)
0.004(0.10)
24
0.0239(0.61) 0.0269(0.68) 0.0209(0.53) 0.1090.125(2.83.2)
0.0045(0.11) 0.005(0.13)
26
0.0179(0.45) 0.0199(0.51) 0.0159(0.40) 0.1260.140(3.23.6)
0.0045(0.11) 0.005(0.13)
28
0.0149(0.38) 0.0169(0.43) 0.0129(0.33) 0.1410.172(3.64.4)
0.006(0.15)
0.008(0.20)
0.1730.203(4.45.2)
0.007(0.18)
0.010(0.25)
0.2040.249(5.26.3)
0.009(0.23)
0.011(0.28)
0.005(0.13)
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Stainlesssteelsheetmetaltolerances[3]
Sheetwidth
Thickness
36(914.4)
48(1,219)
[in(mm)]
[in(mm)]
[in(mm)]
0.0170.030(0.430.76) 0.0015(0.038) 0.002(0.051)
0.0310.041(0.791.04) 0.002(0.051) 0.003(0.076)
0.0420.059(1.11.5)
0.003(0.076) 0.004(0.10)
0.0600.073(1.51.9)
0.003(0.076) 0.0045(0.11)
0.0740.084(1.92.1)
0.004(0.10)
0.0055(0.14)
0.0850.099(2.22.5)
0.004(0.10)
0.006(0.15)
0.1000.115(2.52.9)
0.005(0.13)
0.007(0.18)
0.1160.131(2.93.3)
0.005(0.13)
0.0075(0.19)
0.1320.146(3.43.7)
0.006(0.15)
0.009(0.23)
0.1470.187(3.74.7)
0.007(0.18)
0.0105(0.27)
Formingprocesses
Bending
Theequationforestimatingthemaximumbendingforceis,
,
wherekisafactortakingintoaccountseveralparametersincludingfriction.Tistheultimatetensilestrengthof
themetal.Landtarethelengthandthicknessofthesheetmetal,respectively.ThevariableWistheopenwidth
ofaVdieorwipingdie.
Curling
Decambering
Deepdrawing
Drawingisaformingprocessinwhichthemetalisstretchedovera
formordie.[14]Indeepdrawingthedepthofthepartbeingmadeis
morethanhalfitsdiameter.Deepdrawingisusedformaking
automotivefueltanks,kitchensinks,twopiecealuminumcans,etc.
Deepdrawingisgenerallydoneinmultiplestepscalleddraw
reductions.Thegreaterthedepththemorereductionsarerequired.
Deepdrawingmayalsobeaccomplishedwithfewerreductionsby
heatingtheworkpiece,forexampleinsinkmanufacture.
Inmanycases,materialisrolledatthemillinbothdirectionstoaidin
deepdrawing.Thisleadstoamoreuniformgrainstructurewhichlimits
tearingandisreferredtoas"drawquality"material.
Exampleofdeepdrawnpart
Expanding
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Expandingisaprocessofcuttingorstampingslitsinalternatingpatternmuchlikethestretcherbondin
brickworkandthenstretchingthesheetopeninaccordionlikefashion.Itisusedinapplicationswhereairand
waterflowaredesiredaswellaswhenlightweightisdesiredatcostofasolidflatsurface.Asimilarprocessis
usedinothermaterialssuchaspapertocreatealowcostpackingpaperwithbettersupportivepropertiesthan
flatpaperalone.
Hemmingandseaming
Hemmingisaprocessoffoldingtheedgeofsheetmetalontoitselftoreinforcethatedge.
Seamingisaprocessoffoldingtwosheetsofmetaltotogethertoformajoint.
Hydroforming
Hydroformingisaprocessthatisanalogoustodeepdrawing,inthatthepartisformedbystretchingtheblank
overastationarydie.Theforcerequiredtodosoisgeneratedbythedirectapplicationofextremelyhigh
hydrostaticpressuretotheworkpieceortoabladderthatisincontactwiththeworkpiece,ratherthanbythe
movablepartofadieinamechanicalorhydraulicpress.Unlikedeepdrawing,hydroformingusuallydoesnot
involvedrawreductionsthepieceisformedinasinglestep.
Incrementalsheetforming
Ironing
Lasercutting
Sheetmetalcanbecutinvariousways,fromhandtoolscalledtinsnipsuptoverylargepoweredshears.With
theadvancesintechnology,sheetmetalcuttinghasturnedtocomputersforprecisecutting.Manysheetmetal
cuttingoperationsarebasedoncomputernumericallycontrolled(CNC)lasercuttingormultitoolCNCpunch
press.
CNClaserinvolvesmovingalensassemblycarryingabeamoflaserlightoverthesurfaceofthemetal.
Oxygen,nitrogenorairisfedthroughthesamenozzlefromwhichthelaserbeamexits.Themetalisheated
andburntbythelaserbeam,cuttingthemetalsheet.Thequalityoftheedgecanbemirrorsmoothanda
precisionofaround0.1mm(0.0039in)canbeobtained.Cuttingspeedsonthin1.2mm(0.047in)sheetcanbe
ashighas25m(82ft)aminute.MostofthelasercuttingsystemsuseaCO2basedlasersourcewitha
wavelengthofaround10msomemorerecentsystemsuseaYAGbasedlaserwithawavelengthofaround
1m.
Photochemicalmachining
Photochemicalmachining,alsoknownasphotoetching,isatightlycontrolledcorrosionprocesswhichisused
toproducecomplexmetalpartsfromsheetmetalwithveryfinedetail.Thephotoetchingprocessinvolves
photosensitivepolymerbeingappliedtoarawmetalsheet.UsingCADdesignedphototoolsasstencils,the
metalisexposedtoUVlighttoleaveadesignpattern,whichisdevelopedandetchedfromthemetalsheet.
Perforating
Perforatingisacuttingprocessthatpunchesmultiplesmallholesclosetogetherinaflatworkpiece.Perforated
sheetmetalisusedtomakeawidevarietyofsurfacecuttingtools,suchasthesurform.
Pressbrakeforming
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Thisisaformofbendingusedtoproducelong,thinsheetmetalparts.
Themachinethatbendsthemetaliscalledapressbrake.Thelowerpart
ofthepresscontainsaVshapedgroovecalledthedie.Theupperpartof
thepresscontainsapunchthatpressesthesheetmetaldownintothev
shapeddie,causingittobend.[15]Thereareseveraltechniquesused,but
themostcommonmodernmethodis"airbending".Here,thediehasa
sharperanglethantherequiredbend(typically85degreesfora90
degreebend)andtheuppertoolispreciselycontrolledinitsstroketo
pushthemetaldowntherequiredamounttobenditthrough90degrees.
Formingmetalonapressbrake
Typically,ageneralpurposemachinehasanavailablebendingforceof
around25tonnespermetreoflength.Theopeningwidthofthelower
dieistypically8to10timesthethicknessofthemetaltobebent(forexample,5mmmaterialcouldbebentin
a40mmdie).Theinnerradiusofthebendformedinthemetalisdeterminednotbytheradiusoftheupper
tool,butbythelowerdiewidth.Typically,theinnerradiusisequalto1/6oftheVwidthusedintheforming
process.
Thepressusuallyhassomesortofbackgaugetopositiondepthofthebendalongtheworkpiece.The
backgaugecanbecomputercontrolledtoallowtheoperatortomakeaseriesofbendsinacomponenttoahigh
degreeofaccuracy.Simplemachinescontrolonlythebackstop,moreadvancedmachinescontroltheposition
andangleofthestop,itsheightandthepositionofthetworeferencepegsusedtolocatethematerial.The
machinecanalsorecordtheexactpositionandpressurerequiredforeachbendingoperationtoallowthe
operatortoachieveaperfect90degreebendacrossavarietyofoperationsonthepart.
Punching
Punchingisperformedbyplacingthesheetofmetalstockbetweenapunchandadiemountedinapress.The
punchanddiearemadeofhardenedsteelandarethesameshape.Thepunchissizedtobeaveryclosefitin
thedie.Thepresspushesthepunchagainstandintothediewithenoughforcetocutaholeinthestock.In
somecasesthepunchanddie"nest"togethertocreateadepressioninthestock.Inprogressivestampingacoil
ofstockisfedintoalongdie/punchsetwithmanystages.Multiplesimpleshapedholesmaybeproducedin
onestage,butcomplexholesarecreatedinmultiplestages.Inthefinalstage,thepartispunchedfreefromthe
"web".
AtypicalCNCturretpunchhasachoiceofupto60toolsina"turret"thatcanberotatedtobringanytoolto
thepunchingposition.Asimpleshape(e.g.,asquare,circle,orhexagon)iscutdirectlyfromthesheet.A
complexshapecanbecutoutbymakingmanysquareorroundedcutsaroundtheperimeter.Apunchisless
flexiblethanalaserforcuttingcompoundshapes,butfasterforrepetitiveshapes(forexample,thegrilleofan
airconditioningunit).ACNCpunchcanachieve600strokesperminute.
Atypicalcomponent(suchasthesideofacomputercase)canbecuttohighprecisionfromablanksheetin
under15secondsbyeitherapressoralaserCNCmachine..
Rollforming
Acontinuousbendingoperationforproducingopenprofilesorweldedtubeswithlonglengthsorinlarge
quantities.
Rolling
[16]
Spinning
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Spinningisusedtomaketubular(axissymmetric)partsbyfixinga
pieceofsheetstocktoarotatingform(mandrel).Rollersorrigidtools
pressthestockagainsttheform,stretchingituntilthestocktakesthe
shapeoftheform.Spinningisusedtomakerocketmotorcasings,
missilenosecones,satellitedishesandmetalkitchenfunnels.
Stamping
Stampingincludesavarietyofoperationssuchaspunching,blanking,
embossing,bending,flanging,andcoiningsimpleorcomplexshapes
canbeformedathighproductionratestoolingandequipmentcostscan
behigh,butlaborcostsarelow.
Bendingsheetmetalwithrollers
Alternatively,therelatedtechniquesrepoussandchasinghavelowtoolingandequipmentcosts,buthighlabor
costs..
Waterjetcutting
Awaterjetcutter,alsoknownasawaterjet,isatoolcapableofacontrollederosionintometalorother
materialsusingajetofwaterathighvelocityandpressure,oramixtureofwaterandanabrasivesubstance.
Wheeling
[17]
Fasteners
Fastenersthatarecommonlyusedonsheetmetalinclude:
Clekos[18]
Rivets[19]
Sheetmetalscrews
Seealso
Circlegridanalysis
Corrugatedgalvanisediron,alsoknownasCorrugatedSheetMetal
Diamondplate
Forminglimitdiagram
Stripsteel
Tempermill
References
1.Lodhi,VeerendraSinghJain,Prof.A.K.(30April2014)."AReviewofExperimentalStudyofSpringBackEffect
ofAluminumSheetMetal".InternationalJournalofEngineeringResearchandScience&Technology(IJERST).
CollegeJabalpur(MP),India:Academia.edu.3(4):2.doi:10.7763/IJET.ISSN22779655.Retrieved14July2015.
2.Green,Archie(1993).Wobblies,pilebutts,andotherheroes:laborloreexplorations.Urbanau.a.:Univ.ofIllinois
Press.p.20.ISBN9780252019630.Retrieved14July2015.
3."Sheetmetalmaterial".Retrieved20090726.
4."SustainabilityofAluminiuminBuildings"(PDF).EuropeanAluminiumAssociation.Retrieved20June2013.
5."CentralSteel&WireCompanyCatalog"(20062008ed.):151.
6.AllMetalConstructionMadeEasy(http://www.zenithair.com/kitdata/allmetal.htm)
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7."ASTMA480/A480M13bStandardSpecificationforGeneralRequirementsforFlatRolledStainlessandHeat
ResistingSteelPlate,Sheet,andStrip".ASTMInternational.
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9.Rowlett,Ross(26July2002)."SheetMetalThicknessGauges".UniversityofNorthCarolinaatChapelHill.
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13."ASTMAISIThicknessToleranceRanges"(PDF).CoyoteSteel.com.Retrieved20June2013.
14.Parker,DanaT.BuildingVictory:AircraftManufacturingintheLosAngelesAreainWorldWarII,p.20,85,
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Bibliography
Obergetal.(2004).Machinery'sHandbook(27thed.).NewYork:IndustrialPress.ISBN083112700
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WikimediaCommonshas
mediarelatedtoSheet
metal.
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sheet_metal&oldid=749707670"
Categories: Metalforming Fabrication(metal)
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon15November2016,at19:48.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmay
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0.1719(4.37) 0.1285(3.26) 0.016(0.41)

0.1563(3.97) 0.1144(2.91) 0.018(0.46)

0.1406(3.57) 0.1019(2.59) 0.020(0.51)

0.1250(3.18) 0.0907(2.30) 0.024(0.61)

0.1094(2.78) 0.0808(2.05) 0.028(0.71)

0.0781(1.98) 0.0641(1.63) 0.036(0.91)

0.0625(1.59) 0.0508(1.29) 0.045(1.1)

0.0500(1.27) 0.0403(1.02) 0.055(1.4)

0.0375(0.95) 0.0320(0.81) 0.070(1.8)

0.1875(4.76) 0.1443(3.67) 0.014(0.36)

0.1345(3.42) 0.1405(3.57) 0.1285(3.26)

0.1196(3.04) 0.1256(3.19) 0.1136(2.89) 0.0180.028(0.460.71) 0.002(0.051) 0.0025(0.064)

0.1046(2.66) 0.1106(2.81) 0.0986(2.50) 0.0290.036(0.740.91) 0.002(0.051) 0.0025(0.064)

0.0747(1.90) 0.0797(2.02) 0.0697(1.77) 0.0370.045(0.941.14) 0.0025(0.064) 0.003(0.076)

0.0598(1.52) 0.0648(1.65) 0.0548(1.39) 0.0460.068(1.21.7)

0.0478(1.21) 0.0518(1.32) 0.0438(1.11) 0.0690.076(1.81.9)

0.0359(0.91) 0.0389(0.99) 0.0329(0.84) 0.0770.096(2.02.4)

0.0299(0.76) 0.0329(0.84) 0.0269(0.68) 0.0970.108(2.52.7)

0.0239(0.61) 0.0269(0.68) 0.0209(0.53) 0.1090.125(2.83.2)

0.0179(0.45) 0.0199(0.51) 0.0159(0.40) 0.1260.140(3.23.6)

0.0149(0.38) 0.0169(0.43) 0.0129(0.33) 0.1410.172(3.64.4)

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