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International Journal of Middle East Studies
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Int. J. Middle East Stud. 41 (2009), 555-575. Printed in the United States of America
doi: 10. 1017/S0020743809990067
SOCIOLEGAL INTERPRETATION OF
raphy, is set by the values of each epoch. As "the light of the gre
moves on," this research, as Max Weber puts it, "follows those st
able to give meaning and direction to its labors."5 This study of the
public law is accordingly guided by the prominence of a constitu
Islam among the values of our generation.
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the inhabitants of Medina, both pagan and Jewish, who became their affiliates. Michael
Lecker, the most recent student of the CM, is basically antipathetic to any constitutional
interpretation. Not mentioning the main Jewish clans of Medina, in his opinion, makes
the document "too vague and too limited to serve as a charter."8
Moving from the substantive to the formal aspects of the text, Wellhausen and W.
Montgomery Watt, as Michael Lecker notes, rightly considered the CM a composite
document on the basis of internal evidence, but neither attempted to reconstruct its
component parts.9 Serjeant divided the document into eight components, but the formal
reasons for his division were not convincing and the substantive ones somewhat quirky
and eccentric. Against this arbitrary division, M. Gil and, following him, Lecker argue
that it is more reasonable to treat the CM as a unitary document.10 Lecker, however,
hedges his bet, stating that it "is made of two clearly defined parts"11; he accordingly
divides his translation and commentary into two separate chapters on "the treaty of the
mtfminrT and "the treaty of the Jews." This hardly suffices to bring to satisfactory
closure the issue of the composite nature of the CM.
I have divided the document into three separate deeds. The most important is the act
of foundation of a new unified community (umma) in Medina, which I call the Covenant
of Unity. This covenant was supplemented by two further constitutional settlements by
Muhammad. My argument is that the document can be divided into two separate parts
(corresponding to Lecker' s two parts) with considerable confidence and that the second
part can in turn be subdivided, with reasonable probability, into a main deed, which I
call the Pact with the Jews of Medina, and a supplement to that pact. My hypothesis is
that the supplement was occasioned by the later adhesion of Banu Qurayza to the pact.
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What follows is an edited translation of the three constitutional deeds with analytical
subheadings and commentaries. The subheadings are frankly anachronistic, so I give
them in square brackets. They indicate the logic of the sociolegal interpretation of
the deeds as acts of constitutional legislation. My commentaries primarily draw on the
Qur3an as a contemporary historical source, accepting Estelle Whelan's convincing evidence and arguments for its early codification12 and Fred M. Donner's for the historicity
and stability of the Qur'anic text and its priority over the sTra literature.13 The early
biographies of the Prophet are used as a second source, as are a few crucial hadiths that
have passed modern critical scrutiny.
My sociolegal interpretation, in contrast to Serjeant's and Lecker's, follows the constitutionalist reading of the CM and is a study in historical jurisprudence. It is a rereading
of the pact of security that served as the foundational act of Muhammad's own umma in
Medina, with the hindsight of a new era obsessed by the relation between Islam and the
state. That so little attention is paid to this important document in the massive ideological
literature on the Islamic state is surely proof of the poverty of Muslims ' current historical
too little sociolegal coherence to be accessible to those engaged in the public debate on
Islam and the constitutional order.
modern constitutionalism that endowed such medieval legal documents as Magna Carta
with the significance they now possess. Current debates on Islamic constitutionalism,
by contrast, lack a historical perspective.15 We have a long way to go in constructing a
similar historical reality that could supply badly needed facts for the debate on Islamic
constitutionalism. My intention is not to suggest that the CM should serve as a blueprint
for the 21st century or the basis for any sort of ideological construction. On the contrary,
I aim to change the ideological character of the current constitutional debate and give
it a historical basis by reading this most significant early document systematically as
proto-Islamic public law. Neither Islamic jurisprudence ifiqh) nor the modern academic
study of Islamic law can meet the challenge of guiding the constitutional development
of the Muslim world. What is needed is a new discipline of historical jurisprudence that
can begin nowhere better than with the historic act of foundation of the Muslim umma
in Medina.
The tripartite CM comprises the core of what we may consider Muhammad's constitutional legislation on his own authority as the Prophet of God. This corpus includes his
institution of "brotherhood" among the "emigrants" from the Quraysh and the "helpers"
in Medina that preceded it, as well as a few security pacts by Muhammad after the
conquest of Mecca a few years later that incorporated Arab tribes into the Muslim polity
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pluralism in Islam, and the hypothesis on the pact with Banu Qurayza. They may also
consider the explanations, in passing, of the formula used by Muhammad during the
ritual of sacrifice and of the first use of amir al-mu^minn in the Medinan period.
ready strongly present in the Meccan verses of the QurW8 and ref
conception of the new community he wanted to create. Such a comm
could not be constituted in Arabia without a revolution, because it
that held apart its segments, the clans.19 The construction of a new
These three groups - Muslims, pagans, and Jews - made up the social structure
of Yathrib and were somewhat mixed because they were organized as clans, with
Muhammad's own emigrating followers reconstituted as the clan of "the emigrants
from the Quraysh" (CM.3).22 Shortly after his arrival in Medina in 622, "the Messenger
of God wrote a document (kitb) between the emigrants (muhjirn) and the helpers
(ansar), and in it he made a peace and a covenant with the Jews, establishing them in
their religion and possessions, and stated the reciprocal obligations."23 The Jews are
given even greater prominence in Waqidi's24 and subsequent Muslim commentators'
reference to this agreement as a covenant (cahd) and a pact of mutual security (amari)
between Muhammad and the Jews of Medina. Waqidi, however, does not give the text
of this or the other pacts with the Jews he mentions subsequently.
In the document preserved by Ibn Ishaq, however, the place of the Jewish clans is
secondary. The Jews are only once mentioned explicitly in the first part; it is clear from
the rest of the text that the Jewish clans were clients of the Aws and Khazraj tribes' Arab
clans and were legally represented by their Arab patron clans and allies. The deed in
question probably did not include one or more of the three wealthiest Jewish clans with
fortification and arms25 and in fact comprised a much broader constitutional settlement,
albeit for a community that had yet to grow.
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first year in Medina, 622.26 Ibn Ishaq places the deed immediately before Muhammad's
first acts of legislation for his Muslim followers in Medina, namely, the institution of
brotherhood (mu'akhat) between the emigrants and the helpers.27 The rite of bonding
men into brotherhood through Muhammad's mixing their blood dates from before migration to Medina and continued through the rest of his life.28 This particular instance of
group fraternization between the emigrants and their Yathribite hosts should be consid-
ered a constitutional act, however, especially because its legal implications, including
mutual inheritance, were spelled out.29 Were there an extant text of the deed, I would have
included it in the CM.30 Furthermore, the conjunction is important for understanding the
first part of the text (CM. 1-26) on the foundation of the umma, the Covenant of Unity.
The very small number of helpers from Yathrib named in the brotherhood ceremony (less
than twenty)31 suggests that the Muslims were a small minority among the inhabitants of
Medina, whose great majority were Jews and polytheists. The Jews and polytheists were
each mentioned only once explicitly, because they joined the new community mostly as
clients or clansmen of the Muslim helpers.
Further constitutional deeds by Muhammad followed very soon thereafter. Muhammad's early revolutionary struggle was on two fronts: against the Quraysh oligarchs in
Mecca and against his opponents in Medina. The half- Jewish poet Kab al-Ashraf was
the key link between the two groups, and Muhammad had him assassinated in 625, a
few months after the Battle of Badr against the Quraysh (624). The murder of Ka'b
al-Ashraf "cast terror among the Jews, and there was not a Jew in Medina who did
not fear for his life."32 Some Jewish leaders approached Muhammad, and he seized the
opportunity to conclude a pact with them that not only reaffirmed the status of Jews as
members of the unified community of Medina but also obligated them to pay the war tax
(nafaqa).33 Although Jews and their pagan allies were in a state of shock, "the Messenger
of God called on them to conclude a written agreement between himself, them, and the
Muslims; and the Prophet wrote between him and them and all the Muslims a treaty/deed
(sahifa) . . . After the Prophet's death the treaty was kept with 4Al b. Ab Tlib."34
The deed in question is very probably the second section of the text (CM. 27-5 2), the
Pact with the Jews of Medina. Six Jewish groups were now specifically mentioned as
clients of their respective Arab patron clans, all parties to the pact. The Jewish clan of
Thaclaba, presumably the most important, was named a party to the pact not only in its
own right but also as the representative of its client subclan, Jafna, and of an Arab client
clan.35 Two years earlier, Muhammad could muster very few native clan leaders for the
ceremony of institution of brotherhood. Now that he was master of the city, many more
settlement. By this time, the direction of prayer, al-qibla al-tacabbudiyya, had been
changed from Jerusalem to Mecca, the house founded by Abraham. Because Mecca
remained under Muhammad's Quraysh enemies, however, Islam urgently needed its own
sacred place, a sacred enclave in the Arabian tradition, and several ancient prophecies
concerning Medina circulated. According to one attributed to a certain Samuel, "This
is the city whereto will emigrate the prophet [nabiy] from the children of Ishmael. His
birthplace is Mecca, his name Ahmad,36 and this his House of Migration [dr al-hijra]"
Another predicted more ominously that "Ahmad the prophet will arise in the land of
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The issue was doctrinally addressed in the Qur3an. The complaint that Muhammad's
followers did not have a written scripture like the Jews and the Christians (Q. 6:155ff)
may have predated hijra, but it was in response to the religious situation in Medina that
Muhammad began compiling the recitation (qur^n) of divine revelation into a written
scripture, a book and criterion of differentiation ifurqn) of the final revelation. At this
. time, too, the Qur'an introduced the plural "scriptures/books" (kutub) in two creedal
statements.39 Muhammad also used the opportunity of contracting the pact with the
Jews to settle these two religious issues constitutionally. Unlike polytheism, the religion
of the Jews was recognized in the constitution of the wnma, and the inner part of Medina
was declared a sacred enclave (harm) for the faithful covenanters,40 just as Abraham
had reportedly declared Mecca a sacred enclave.41
The lasting effect of the constitutional recognition of the Jews' religion was the institution of religious pluralism in Islam. Muhammad's constitutional settlement concerning
the Jewish clans of Medina, by contrast, did not have any lasting effect. Already before
this pact of 625, he had expelled one of the three wealthy and armed Jewish clans, the
Qaynuqac, from their fort, and at the beginning of the following year (626) he proceeded
to expropriate and expel the Nadir; nor did the last wealthy and armed Jewish clan, the
Qurayza, remain for long. The Qurayza did not react to the elimination of their armed
rival, the Nadir, which increased their strategic importance in the defense of Medina as
the only armed Jewish clan living in their own fort. Several reports on the Battle of the
Trench in 627 mention Muhammad's pact or contract - caqd in Waqidi,42 cahd and, less
conveniently, walthu min cahdin in Ibn Sacd43 - with the Qurayza.
Given the increased strategic importance of the Qurayza and their fortress after the
elimination of the Nadir, and given Muhammad's concern with the defense of Medina
during the intensification of the war with the Quraysh of Mecca preceding the Battle
of the Trench (627), it was important for him to reach an agreement with the Qurayza,
who were not a confederate clan of the umma. As Wellhausen notes,44 the repetition
of "the Jews of the Aws" (already mentioned in CM.23) on line 57 strongly suggests
that the paragraph is a later addition. In the context of the hostile move by the Quraysh
(CM.54-56), it is plausible to argue, as Serjeant does,45 that a new group of the Jews
of the Aws, presumed by me to be the clan of Qurayza, was added to defend Medina.
I therefore consider the last part of the text (CM.53-64) the separate agreement with
the Qurayza and have accordingly edited it as the Supplement to the Pact with the Jews
on the Defense of the City. If this interpretation is correct, the supplement was added
between 625 and 627, probably around the time of the elimination of the Nadir in 626.
Muhammad accused the Qurayza of breaking their pact immediately after repelling
the Quraysh in the Battle of the Trench. The accusation was confirmed by the Qur3an
(8:57-60), where Muhammad is told to make an example of those who break their
agreement: "And if you fear treachery from them, cancel the peace, for God does not
like the treacherous people." We should assume that the supplement was invoked when
Muhammad made an example of the Qurayza by the judicial murder of all its 400 men
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and, more important, by the legal logic of each section or its cohere
The critical division is between the first two deeds. Little needs to
concluding lines of the first two make God and Muhammad the arbit
that may arise among the parties to the deed. If the last deed is essent
seal, the provision for judicial arbitration in the earlier deed would
benediction of those who observe the pact of God and his messenge
native clans of the tribes of Khazraj and Aws and one of the emigra
clans. The pact and its supplement, by contrast, formally identify the
to the Muslims of Quraysh and Yathrib in the first line and again af
new Jewish groups into the community constitution under the prot
it coheres around the constitutional regulation of religion. Its insti
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tion offered in Medina's sacred enclave. The counterpart to the Jews in participation in
the war effort, therefore, is not "Muslims" but "faithful covenanters" of the confederate
[under God's security] (mu'minmf* and the Muslims from the Quraysh and Yathrib, and those
who follow them as clients, join them, reside with them,49 and strive along with them.
[3.a] The emigrants of Quraysh keep to their own tribal organization and leadership,50 paying
their blood money jointly among themselves and ransoming their prisoners in accordance to what
themselves at the previous rates [under paganism], and each group ransoming its prisoners in
accordance with what is customary, equitably shared among the faithful covenanters.
[4.b] And no faithful covenanter shall make any alliance with the client (mawla) of another
covenanter against the latter.
[Article 7. General Security and Indivisible Protection of God for the Community] (CM. 16)
The protection (dhimma) of God is one and indivisible, and the lowliest of them [th covenanters]
can extend it on behalf of all.51
[8.b] The Jews who follows us as clients are entitled to support and are granted equal rights; they
shall not suffer any injustice, and no one will be aided against them.53
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[9.c] The faithful covenanters shall execute retaliation on behalf of one another with respect to
their blood shed in the path of God.
Whosoever does so shall incur the curse of God and his wrath on the Day of Resurrection, and no
[The Constitution of Medina II: Pact with the Jews of Medina] (CM.27-52)
Jews having their religion (din) and the Muslims their religion,56 their clients and their pers
except for any wrongdoer or traitor who brings perdition upon himself and his household.
[15.b] It is likewise the same as the Jews of the clan of cAwf with the Jews of the clans of
clan of Thaclaba, except for any wrongdoer or traitor who brings perdition upon himself and
household. As the Jafna is a subclan of Thaclaba, it is treated as the latter; it is the same with
clan of al-Shutayba as with Jews of the clan of cAwf ,57
[15.d] Let there be observance [of this] pact and not treachery.58
[17.b] But whoever engages in murder has forfeited his own life and those of his household, unl
grievously wronged.
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[19.b] Each must help the other against anyone at war with the parties to this deed {ahi hadhihi
al-sahifa).
[19.c] Let there be goodwill and counseling between them.60
[19.d] Let there be observance [of this pact] and not treachery.
(CM.53-64)
[24. Preamble] (CM.53)
God is surety for the truest and most righteous observance of what is in this deed.
[Article 29. Protection of the Medina Sanctuary and Exclusion of Criminals] (CM.61-62)
[29.a] This document {kitb) offers no protection to the wrongdoer and the criminal.
[29.b] Whoever leaves the precinct of the [Medina] sanctuary and whoever remains within it is
covered by its security, except for the wrongdoer and the criminal.
SOCIOLEGAL COMMENTARY
Article 1
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Muhammad at this stage of his career is evident in the reference to him as "Muhammad
the Prophet" here, and simply as Muhammad in the concluding Article 13. Because only
the Muslims fully accepted his charismatic authority, Muhammad predominantly relied
on his traditional authority as the invited judge-arbiter (hakam) of the Arab clans of
Yathrib. This traditional authority was greatly enhanced by his holy status as "prophet"
(however the term was understood by the Jewish and polytheist confederates) and by the
very act of writing the covenant, which made him a unifier (mujammic) like his ancestor,
Qusayy, the unifier of the Quraysh.63
Article 2
This is singly the most important article of unification, creating a single community. As
had emigrated with Muhammad, their Arab hosts who had become Muslims, and the
polytheists in their federated clans and their Jewish client clans and allies. "The Muslims
from the Quraysh and Yathrib" (CM. 1 ) were thus the soul of the community and destined
to turn it into a community of believers. It was not only that the pact extended the
legal protection enjoyed by clan members to tribally unattached Arab (Article 4.a) and
Jewish (Article 8.b) individuals who joined the community by converting to Islam. More
fundamentally, as Wellhausen put it,
By keeping the believers within the organization of their clans, they became not only the bond
which united the clans, but also the leaven which in time was to influence the rest of them. In
the beginning, the umma was a rather heterogeneous political entity; but since the Muslims were
its soul, this entity naturally tended to create a unity of faith and was strengthened on account of
this.64
The Qur'an fostered this tendency by affirming the constitution of the community no
less than nine times with the very same wording,65 most notably, "This community of
yours is a single community {umma whida), and I am your Lord, so worship me"
(Q. 21:92).
Article 3
The umma was organized as a community of clans, not individuals. It was a confederation
of clans, eight existing ones and one newly constituted, "the emigrants of Quraysh." The
provision of ransom for its members and of blood money for their victims remained a
primary obligation according to pagan customary law, except for the newly constituted
clan of emigrants, which did not exist under paganism (3.a). Custom (al-ma'mf) and
Articles 4 and 8
Articles 4 and 8 created a new contractual solidarity among the faithful covenanters and
superimposed it on their existing clan solidarity and its extension through clienthood.
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beyond it. I take Clause 4.a (CM. 12) to refer to individuals in financial need who
cannot draw on their clan for customary assistance, and Clause 8.b (CM. 18) to include
Jewish individuals who joined the community. As Lecker argues, the Jews of the named
Arab clans must also have included individual Jewish clients and converts to Judaism.66
Any tribally unattached Arab and Jewish individual who accepted Islam, and to whom
customary tribal protection was thus extended, was in effect partaking of a contractual,
Articles 5 and 6
Article 5 draws the moral boundaries of the new community and requires its enforcement
against internal enemies while Article 6 draws the legal boundaries of the new community
to exclude infidels as the external enemy. The counterpart of "the faithful covenanter"
(mu^min) in Article 6 is the infidel {kafir, the denier). The latter term, pregnant with
meaning, was used or coined at this stage because there were polytheists among the
confederates of the umma. Much later, partly for reasons discussed in the commentary on
Article 1 1 and in the conclusion, the term came to mean the denier of Islam, comprising
Article 7
Article 7 is a critical affirmation of general security and peace within the community.
The protection of God is declared one and indivisible. At the same time, every faithful
covenanter as a member of the community under God's protection is entitled to extend
it to others through the customary institution of ijra (making one into a neighbor).
Covenantal solidarity is given a powerful new dimension as a result of the protection of
God over the community and its individual members. The condition of the emigrants
from the Quraysh who had followed Muhammad is generalized to all faithful covenanters, thereby tending toward displacing, desacralizing, and subordinating the old ties of
kinship: "Verily, they who have believed and fled their homes and spent their substance
for the cause of God, and they who have taken in the Prophet and been helpful to him,
shall be near of kin to the other" (Q. 8:73).
Article 9
Article 9 combines two very important objectives. First, parallel to the affirmation of
the generality and indivisibility of internal peace and security in Article 7, it declares
external peacemaking by the united faithful covenanters indivisible. Second, it endows
the new community with a divine purpose: revolutionary struggle and warfare in the
path of God. Warfare against the Quraysh of Mecca, hitherto the emigrants' duty,
becomes, as fighting in the path of God, the obligation of all the faithful covenanters in
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Article 11
Article 1 1 completes the drawing of the legal boundaries of the community in Article
6 by excluding the Quraysh of Mecca, whom Muhammad and the emigrants had fled
and were fighting, from the divine protection of the community and assistance from any
of its members. What is particularly significant about Article 1 1 is that it forbids the
confederate polytheists among the covenanters of the unified community from extending
that there were confederate pagan members in the first umma, a fact anachronistically
even more disconcerting than the inclusion of the Jews.68
Article 12
This article largely removes blood revenge from the customary jurisdiction of the clan
and converts it into capital punishment whose execution is entrusted to the faithful
covenanters as a collective body (12.a-b). The last clause (12.c) is significant for
explicitly requiring loyalty to the constitutional deed and, even more so, for implying that the belief in the Last Day and the Day of Resurrection, invoked in sanction
against disloyalty, was commonly shared by the three groups of faithful covenanters.
This required a religious concession from the polytheist confederates. According to Ibn
Ishaq, some of them (the so-called "hypocrites") continued to deny resurrection even
later, when they had accepted Islam. 69
Article 13
Article 13 establishes the judicial authority of Muhammad on behalf of God. There is,
needless to say, no differentiation between ordinary legal and constitutional disputes,
but coming immediately after the requirement of constitutional loyalty, the latter are
Article 14
The imposition of the war levy (nafaqa) upon the Jews for the duration of warfare
against the Quraysh of Mecca must have been Muhammad's condition for assuring Jews
of protection of the law and tolerance of their religion in ensuing articles. As we would
expect, its imposition met with some opposition. Serjeant suggests that the group that
became an organized opposition to Muhammad in Medina and was called the munfiqn
("hypocrites") initially earned this appellation as a result of their opposition to the nafaqa
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Article 15
This article forms the core of the pact as a coherent legal deed. It is also of critical
importance for the integration of the Jewish clients of the confederates from the Aws
and Khazraj and had far-reaching consequences. It granted the named Jewish clans
protection of the law and religious tolerance (extended by Article 16 to the Jewish clan
of Thaclaba and its dependents). The unified umma was now a confederation of the
clans of the covenant that added explicit recognition of religious tolerance for the Jewish
clans to their internal autonomy.
The article marks the institution of religious pluralism in Islam, which later developed
into the recognition of "those to whom we have given the book" (Q. 2:121; 6:21, 1 14;
13:36, etc.), or more frequently, the "peoples of the book" (Q. 2:63, 65; 5:69-70; 22:18,
etc.) under the protection (dhimma) of God. Religious pluralism in Medina was endorsed
627, makes the terrible vengeance he exacted against them easier to explain: "And [God]
brought down those of the people of the book who supported [the polytheists] from their
fortresses and cast terror in their hearts; some you slew, some you made captives. And
he bequeathed upon you their lands, their habitations, and their possessions, and a land
you never trod"73 (Q. 33:27-28).
Article 17
Article 17 contains two of the most obscure lines of the pact. It allows retaliation for
wounds but forbids murder, unless the obscurity is the result of reference to particular
instances unknown to us.
Article 19
Article 19 reaffirms the war levy as a public contribution by all the faithful covenanters to
achieve the general goal of the new community, payable by Muslims and Jews separately.
The article also seeks to strengthen contractual solidarity among the faithful covenanters
by emphasizing the need for good relations and mutual aid and assistance.
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Article 20 makes each individual member of the community responsible for his/her own
actions only and entitled to protection against violation of his/her rights.
Article 21
enemies, the best Muhammad could do was to declare Medina a sacred enclave, just as
Abraham had purportedly declared Mecca a sacred enclave. According to a 14th-century
Article 22
In Article 22, the protection offered the Medinan by the institution of the sanctuary
could be extended by each of them according to the custom of ijra (making one a
Article 23
This article reaffirms and elaborates the judiciary authority of Muhammad on behalf of
God.
Article 25
Article 25 is the core of the short supplement to the pact and is what gives it coherence.
The deed identifies the enemy, the Quraysh, and singles out the defense of Medina as
the purpose.
Article 26
Article 26 assigns the war tasks and gives each of the parties the right to sue for peace but
with each other's consent. War for religion, however, is the very significant exception to
Taken together, Articles 5, 6, 9, 12, 17, 19, 25, and 26 amount to a decisive move
toward transforming the pagan cult of vengeance into holy warfare. The covenanters
become "each other's avengers of blood in the war path of God."76
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Article 27 introduces the Jews of the Aws as the new ally of the parties to the pact.
Article 29
Article 29 affirms that the protection of the Medina sanctuary is extended to those leaving
Medina, presumably for military sorties (Clause 29.b) but excludes criminals.
Article 30
This benediction concluding the supplement differs significantly from the concluding
articles of the first two deeds by referring to its executor not simply as "Muhammad" but
rather as "Muhammad, the messenger of God" - and even more significantly by making
him the guarantor of the pact alongside God. He was no longer the newcomer to the
city of Medina who had executed the Covenant of Unity but now her undisputed master,
signing a pact with the holders of the last bastion of autonomy on its edge, the Qurayza.
Summary
To summarize, the tribal organization of Medina formed the basis for the construction of
Muhammad's umma. Each clan kept "its leadership and organization," joint payment of
blood monies, and collective responsibility for ransoming its prisoners. The emigrants of
Quraysh were constituted into a clan alongside those of the Aws and Khazraj. Individuals
who lost the protection of their tribes by joining the united community were beneficiaries
of the entirely novel contractual solidarity, protected by its security under God but
compensated according to the customary blood money and ransom rates; the Jews
joining it were assured parity in this universalist respect. All the faithful covenanters with
Muhammad (mu^minm) were thus declared to be under the security (dhimma) of God,
which the least of them could extend on behalf of all. In contrast, a faithful covenanter
was forbidden to kill another in retaliation for an infidel (among his kinsmen), and
the united community was given collective responsibility for the punishment of crimes
against its members and for treason. The inner part of Medina was declared the sacred
enclave of the faithful covenanter's sanctuary, on the Abrahamic precedent, and a pact
of tolerance allowed Jewish covenanters of the united umma to have their religion, as the
Muslims had theirs, as long as they paid the war levy and refrained from treason.77 Last
but not least, Muhammad made constitutional provisions for the revolutionary struggle
in the path of God.
As the founder of a world religion, Muhammad did not neglect the ritual reinf
his constitutional settlement in Medina. He used the Abrahamic annual ritual of sacrifice
as an occasion to celebrate the unity of the umma. Muhammad offered God in sacrifice
one ram for himself and his family and a separate one in the name "of my community
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In this way, Muhammad created an intertribal security system, a Pax Islamica, around
the growing polity in Medina. Pax Islamica had a religious kernel: it was a system
based on "the security of God and his messenger." As Muhammad grew stronger, he
demanded Islam from prospective allies brought under God's protection but continued
to make purely political alliances with distant and powerful tribes, which submitted to
Pax Islamica based on Arab norms of tribal alliance.79 The umma was not a suitable
term to apply to this confederate polity, and as Watt points out, it no longer appears
in the Qur'an or Muhammad's treaties.80 Nevertheless, the CM shaped constitutional
developments in the Islamic polity of unified Arabia in the last years of Muhammad's
life, and it shaped the polity of the Muslim empire of conquest after his death. Religious
After the conquest of Mecca in 630, Muhammad could dispense with this flexible
tribal policy and made the proscription of polytheism and destruction of idols his fore-
most objective. For the Arabs, submission to Muhammad's authority came to mean
Islam (submission to the one God). Muhammad, however, not only continued but also
further constitutionalized the religious pluralism of the second part of the CM in a
series of pacts with autonomous Christian and Jewish polities brought to submission
by his growing military force. In the year 630-31, combining the Qur'anic status of
"the people of the book" with the fundamental constitutional principle of "protection
[dhimma] of God and his messenger, Muhammad," he set up one Christian and a few
small Jewish protectorates with pacts similar to the prototypical one with the Jews of
Medina.81
CONCLUSION
of Muhammad was thus brought fully in line with its earliest concept
Islam. When the term umma regained currency after the death of the P
who had brought it divine guidance. The Jews and Christians were th
and Jesus, respectively, and were now excluded from the umma of
unified community (umma whida) of the faithful covenanters was
history.
The general peace and security of God, as stipulated in the CM, eliminated the
legitimacy of violence by politically autonomous segments of Arabian tribal society. The
near monopoly of the legitimate internal and external use of violence was in principle
invested in the united community, thereby laying the foundation for a unified structure
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the CM, it is striking that the constitution begins with "Muhammad the Prophet" as the
executor of the covenant of foundation of the umma, then invests him with authority to
interpret its constitution and to settle all disputes, and finally makes him its guarantor,
which is dated to the 622-25 period,82 probably addressed the faithful covenanters,
using the equivalent phrase "O, you who trust/believe/are made sure [manu]"*3 This
would make its injunction, "Obey God and obey the messenger and those in authority
among you, and if you dispute over something, refer it back to God and the messenger"
(Q. 4:59-60), the reiteration and confirmation of the final article (Article 13) of the
Covenant of Unity.84 That Muhammad's authority, thus instituted, was never developed
by him or in the Qur'an to provide constitutional foundations for the state is the greatest
NOTES
]R. Stephen Humphreys, Islamic History: A Framework of Enquiry (Princeton, N.J.: Prince
Press, 1991), 65-83; Michael Lecker, The "Constitution of Medina": Muhammad's First L
(Princeton, N.J.: Darwin Press, 2004).
mads Gemeindeordnung von Medina," in Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, 4 vols. (Berlin: Reim
83; W. Behn, ed. and trans., "Muhammad's Constitution of Medina," published as an ex
Wensinck, Muhammad and the Jews of Medina (Freiburg, Germany: Klaus Schwarz Verl
38.
3 Patricia Crone, Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1980), 7.
4Reinhart Koselleck, Futures Past: On the Semantics of Historical Time, trans. Keith Tribe (Cambridge,
6Muhammad Hamidullah, "Aqdam Dustur Musajjal fi-l-cAlam," Islamic Scholars Conference 1 (1937):
98-123; idem, The First Written Constitution in the World, 2nd ed. (Lahore, Pakistan: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf,
7R. B. Serjeant, "The 'Constitution of Medina,'" Islamic Quarterly 8 (1964): 3-16; idem, "The Sunnah
Jmica, Pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: Analysis and Translation of the Documents
Comprised in the So-called 'Constitution of Medina,'" Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
41 (1978): 1-41.
8 Lecker, Constitution of Medina, 185.
9Ibid., 183-85.
10Ibid., 3, 186-90; Moshe Gil, "The Constitution of Medina: A Reconsideration," Israeli Oriental Studies
4 (1974): 44-66.
11 Lecker, Constitution of Medina, 3.
12Estelle Whelan, "Forgotten Witness: Evidence for the Early Codification of the Qur5an," Journal of
the American Oriental Society 118 (1998): 1-14. The "revisionist" argument that the Qur3an is a later
plagiarized composition is, by contrast, unconvincing. See Angelika Neuwirth, "Qur'an and History - A
Disputed Relation: Some Reflections on Qur3anic History and History in the Qur5an," Journal of Quranic
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N.J.: Darwin Press, 1998); idem, "The Qur3an in Recent Scholarship: Challenges and Desiderata," in The
Qur^an in Its Historical Context, ed. Gabriel S. Reynolds (London: Routledge, 2008), 42^3.
14A notable exception is the Indonesian reformist Nurcholish Madjid (d. 2005), who found in the CM
the source of inspiration for his Paramadina Foundation and advocacy of religious pluralism and democracy.
See Andi Faisal Bakti, "Islam and Modernity: Nurcholish Madjid's Interpretation of Civil Society, Pluralism,
Secularization, and Democracy," Asian Journal of Social Science 33 (2005): 492-95.
15 See Said Amir Arjomand, "Islamic Constitutionalism," Annual Review of Law and Social Science 3
(2007): 115-40.
16 See Chapter 1 of my forthcoming Constitutional History of the Islamic Middle East (University of
California Press).
17 Some verses of the Qur3an can be taken as references to and confirmation of its provisions, however, and
18F. M. Denny, "Umma in the Constitution of Medina," Journal of Near Eastern Studies 36 (1977): 44, 52.
19 Said Amir Arjomand, "Revolution in Early Islam: The Rise of Islam as a Constitutive Revolution,"
Yearbook of the Sociology of Islam 1 (2006): 125-57.
20 Although the Meccan converts had been individuals, Medina witnessed the phenomenon of acceptance
of Islam by whole clans. See W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad at Medina (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1956), 170-71.
21 The text continues: "One man could be a Muslim and his father a polytheist, another, a Muslim and
his brother a polytheist." Report from Bayhaqi reproduced in M. Lecker, "Waqid's Account of the Status
of the Jews of Medina: A Study of a Combined Report," Journal of Near Eastern Studies 54 (1995): 31.
This report is quoted in preference to that of Muhammad bin cUmar al-Waqidi, The Kitab al-Maghaza, ed.
Marsden Jones (London: Oxford University Press, 1966), 1:184, which is cited by Wellhausen, "Muhammads
Gemeindeordnung von Medina" (1975 translation), 128; and Serjeant, "The Sunnah Jmica" 2.
22My references are to CM, the Constitution of Medina, Ibn Ishaq's text, as edited and line numbered by
Lecker in Constitution of Medina, 7-9, with emendations, where indicated, on the basis of Abu cUbayd's text
23 Muhammad ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, ed. Ferdinand Wstenfeld (Gttingen, Dieterich, 1858-60),
341; A. Guillaume, trans., The Life of Muhammad (London: Oxford University Press, 1955), 231, slightly
modified.
^Pace Lecker who argues (Constitution of Medina, Chapter 3) that none of these three was party to the
constitutional deeds on the somewhat flimsy distinction between references to the Jewish clans as hulafa*
(allies) rather than mawl (clients). I am inclined to think the clan of Qaynuqa3 were a party to the pact, which
would explain why the leader of the Arab patron clan of c Awf , c Abdallah bin Ubayy, dared grab Muhammad
by the scruff of the neck and demand their safe conduct into exile. See Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 546; The
Life of Muhammad, 363. Lecker similarly makes too much of the distinction between muwdaca (truce), ^ahd
(pact), and caqd (contract). Because Muhammad's acts of settlement were something new, they were all of
the above and yet none of them exactly, so our sources use various terms to refer to them. I argue that the clan
of Qurayza was not originally included but was the new party added by the supplement.
26This early timing, implicit in Ibn Ishaq, is made explicit in the introductory opening of Abu cUbayd
al-Oasim bin Sallam's version in his Kitab al-Amwl. See Lecker, Constitution of Medina, 19.
27 Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 344-45; The Life of Muhammad, 234-35.
28Elias Giannakis, "The Concept of Ummah," Graeco-Arabica 2 (1982): 103; Mohammad Ali AmirMoezzi, La religion discrte. Croyances et pratiques spirituelles dans l'islam shicite (Paris: Vrin, 2006),
39-40.
29The rule of inheritance was later abrogated by the Qur3an (Q.8.75 and/or Q.4.33, and/or Q.33.6). See
W. M. Watt, "Mu'akhat," in Encyclopedia of Islam (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1993), 7:254.
30 Amir Moezzi plausibly argues that the institution of brotherhood was embarrassing for the orthodoxy and
was systematically ignored in the Sunni sources because Muhammad chose cAli as his own brother, thus also
making him his heir. Moezzi, La religion discrte, 40.
31 Ibn Sacd claims there were forty-five helpers, matching the number of emigrants, although he must have
included later brothers. Even this number is quite small. Muhammad ibn Sacd, Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir
(Biographien), ed. Eduard Sachau (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1917), 1.2:1.
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41Uri Rubin, "The 'Constitution of Medina.' Some Notes," Studia Islamica 52 (1985): 11.
46Ibn Sacd, Kitab al-Tabaqat, 2.1:56; J. M. Kister, "The Massacre of the Banu Qurayza," Jerusalem Studies
in Arabic and Islam 8 (1986): 69.
47 Serjeant argued for the immediate recognition by the Muslims of the part here entitled the Covenant of
Unity as a constitutional act, identifying it as al-sunna al-jmica (taken to mean the "Uniting Precedent"),
which was accepted, alongside the Qur5an, as the basis of binding arbitration in the treaty of Siffin between
cAli and Mu'awiya in 656-57. The Siffin reference is probably anachronistic. More plausible and intriguing,
however, is his identification of the deed with "the pact of God" {habl Allah) in Qur5an 3:101-04. Serjeant,
"The Sunnah Jmica," 5-8, 16; idem, "Sunna, Qur3an, cUrf," in Christian Toll and Jakob Skovgaard-Petersen,
eds., Law and the Islamic World Past and Present (Copenhagen: Historisk-filosofiske Meddelelser 68, 1995),
34-41. Whatever the merits of Serjeant's arguments, the first section of the document is the act of foundation
of the umma in Medina.
48 Serjeant's most ingenious finding is that the word mu^mimn in the document does not have the common
meaning of "believers" and derives not from imn (faith) but rather from aman (security), citing, inter alia, the
evidence of the Qur5an (6:82). See Serjeant, "The 'Constitution of Medina,' " 3-16; and "The Sunnah Jmica,"
12-15. The connotation of imn is there, but Serjeant shows convincingly that the term mu^minm cannot be
taken to mean "believers" in our document and must mean those who subscribe to and are beneficiaries of
the pact of security with Muhammad as the Prophet of God. It can therefore not be a synonym for Muslim
and does not function as such in the text. The word "covenanter" conveys the legal aspect of the status of
members of the new community constructed by a pact of security with God. It does not, however, convey the
inner dimension of faith in God as the surety to the pact, which was undoubtedly a double entendre intended
by Muhammad (Q. 13:28, 16:108). See M. M. Bravmann, The Spiritual Background of Early Islam (Leiden:
E. J. Brill, 1972), 26-31. I am therefore translating mu^minn by two words: "faithful covenanters." This
seems preferable, despite the loss in parsimony, to leaving the term in Arabic, as Serjeant and Lecker do, or
to translating it anachronistically as "believers," as do most other interpreters.
49The emendation "reside with them" is added from Abu cUbayd's text, following the suggestion by Rubin,
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57Lines 34-36 are made into one clause and translated in light of Lecker's explanation that the Banu
Thaclaba was an Arab clan converted to Judaism, lines 35 and 36 being read as one line in the light of the
identification of Banu Shutayba as a subclan of the Thaclaba in Abu cUbayd's text. Lecker, Constitution of
Medina, 20,31,75-80.
58See Serjeant, "The Sunnah Jmila" 27, translation: "Observance of one's undertaking eliminates treachery/breaking of treaties."
59See Hamidullah, The First Written Constitution, 50, translation: "None of them shall go out (on military
67Waqidi, Kitab al-Maghaza, 1:19. When the title was later assumed by the second Caliph, cUmar (r. 63444), the distinction between mu^minn and muslimn had faded, and it came to mean, simply, the "Commander
of the Faithful."
to accept poll tax from the Magians (Zoroastrians) rather than requiring their forced conversion. See Meir
Jacob Kister, "Social and Religious Concepts of Authority in Islam," Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam
18 (1984): 89-91.
73I follow Ibn Sacd {Kitab al-Tabaqat, 2.1 :51) in considering the Qurayza as the subject of these verses.
74Giannakis, "The Concept of Ummah," 108.
75 Muhammad Hamidullah, "The Earliest Written Constitution of a State in the World: A Document of the
Time of the Prophet," Majallat al-Azhar (September 1969): 13.
76Eric R. Wolf, "The Social Organization of Mecca and the Origins of Islam," Southwestern Journal of
Anthropology 7, no. 4 (1951): 147.
77 This qualification was used to nullify their rights in practice, fatally in the case of the clan of Qurayza.
(1986): 231-32.
80Watt, Muhammad, 247.
translated as "deposits" but more likely means pledges, because amn can mean a pledge of security. Serjeant,
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