Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
THE
R AD I 0
HANDBOOK
Fifteenth Edition
SUMMERLAND,
CALIFORNIA,
U.S.A.
(Distributed to the Book and News Trades and Libraries by the Baker & Taylor Co., Hillside, N. J.)
THE
RADIO
HANDBOOK
FIFTEENTH EDITION
Copyright, 1959, by
Printed in U.S.A.
11
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5-5
5-6
Transistor Circuits
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1 92
Digital Computers ---------------------------Binary Notation --------------------------------------------Analog Computers -------------------------------------------The Operational Amplifier -------------------------------Solving Analog Problems --------------------------Non-linear Functions ---------------------------------------
Digital Circuitry ----------------------------
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15-7
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509
21-6
21-7
21-8
21-9
21-10
21-11
21-12
25-10
25-11
513
514
514
Indication of Direction
"Three-Bands" Beams
530
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662
Chapter Thirty-Five.
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction to Radio
to the teaching of the principles of equipment
design and signal propagation. It is in response
to requests from schools and agencies of the
Department of Defense, in addition to persistent requests from the amateur radio fraternity,
that coverage of these principles has been expanded.
1-1
Amateur Radio
11
12
Introduction
to
1-2
"Classes of Amateur
Operator Licenses
THE
Radio
R AD I 0
1-3
160 Meters
(1800 Kc.-2000 Kc.)
HANDBOOK
year solar sunspot cycle. The Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) even during the years
of decreased sunspot activity does not usually
drop below 4 Me., therefore this band is not
subject to the violent fluctuations found on
the higher frequency bands. DX contacts on
on this band are limited by the ionospheric
absorption of radio signals, which is quite
high. During winter nighttime hours the absorption is often of a low enough value to permit trans-oceanic contacts on this band. On
rare occasions, contacts up to 10,000 miles
have been made. As a usual rule, however,
160-meter amateur operation is confined to
ground-wave contacts or single-skip contacts
of 1000 miles or less. Popular before World
War II, the 160-meter band is now only sparsely occupied since many areas of the country
are blanketed by the megawatt pulses of the
Loran chains.
80 Meters
40 Meters
The 40-meter band is high
(7000 Kc.-7300 Kc.) enough in frequency to be
Amateur
Bands
13
IS Meters
(21,000 Kc.-21,450 Kc.)
This is a relatively
new b and for radio
amateurs since it has
only been available for amateur operation
since 1952. Not too much is known about the
characteristics of this band, since it has not
been occupied for a full cycle of solar activity. However, it is reasonable to assume that
it will have characteristics similar to both the
20 and 10-meter amateur bands. It should have
a longer skip distance than 20 meters for a
given time, and sporadic-E (short-skip) should
be apparent during the winter months. During
a period of low sunspot activity, the AIUF will
rarely rise as high as 15 meters, so this band
will be "dead" for a large part of the year.
During the next few years, 15-meter activity
14
Introduction
to
Six Meters
(SO Mc . S4 Me.)
THE
Radio
R AD I 0
bands are sparsely occupied in the rural sections of the United States, but are quite heavily congested in the urban areas of high population.
In recent years it has been found that v-h-f
signals are propagated by other means than by
line-of-sight transmission. "Scatter signals,"
Aurora reflection, and air-mass boundary bending are responsible for v-h-f communication up
to 1200 miles or so. Weather conditions will
often affect long distance communication on
the 2-meter band, and all the v-h-f bands are
particularly sensitive to this condition.
The other v-h-f bands have had insufficient
occupancy to provide a clear picture of their
characteristics. In general, they behave much
as does the 2-meter band, with the weather
effects becoming more pronounced on the higher frequency bands.
1-4
The applicant for any class of amateur operator license must be able
to send and r e c e i v e the Continental Code
(sometimes called the International Morse
Code). The speed required for the sending and
receiving test may be either 5, 13, or 20 words
per minute, depending upon the class of license, assuming an average of five characters
to the word in each case. The sending and re-
HANDBOOK
A
c
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
--
--
-
-
--
Learning
p
Q
R
---.....
--
PERIOD(,)
COMMA(,)
INTERROGATION (7l
QUOTATION MARK (")
COLON (: J
SEMICOLON (;)
PARENTHESIS ( >
-
----
2
3
---
5
6
7
8
9
---
s
T
-----
-------
--
---
---
---X
I2J
the
Code
15
-----.......
......
--
---
----
----0
-
-
--
--
----
Figure 1
The Contin&ntol (or International Morse) Cocle is usee/ for substontiollr. all non-automatic roclio
communication. DO NOT memorize from the printecl page; cocle is a onguoge of SOUND, one/
must not be leornecl visually; learn by listening as exploinecl In the text.
Memorizing
the Code
16
Introduction
a
3inra
ch
f1
0
ii
to
------..----
---
-Figure 2
Practice
THE
Radio
R AD I 0
Skill
HANDBOOK
When transmitting on the
code practice set to your
partner, concentrate on the
quality of your sending, not on your speed.
Your partner will appreciate it and he could
not copy you if you speeded up anyhow.
If you want to get a reputation as having an
excellent "fist" on the air, just remember that
speed alone won't do the trick. Proper execution of your letters and spacing will make
much more of an impression. Fortunately, as
you get so that you can send evenly and accurately, your sending speed will automatically
increase. Remember to try to see how evenly
you can send, and how fast you can receive.
Concentrate on making signals properly with
your key. Perfect formation of characters is
paramount to everything else. Make every signal right no matter if you have to practice it
hundreds or thousands of times. Never allow
yourself to vary the slightest from perfect formation once you have learned it.
If possible, get a good operator to listen to
your sending for a short time, asking him to
criticize even the slightest imperfections.
Learning
~.
P.erfect Formation
of Characters
the
17
b:::xX:i.b::il
,
r:::
:
--~-~
c
~ ~ ~ ~
B
~ ~
Code
~~ ~
--~~
N
E
0
::
Figure 3
Sending vs.
Receiving
18
Introduction
to
THE
Radio
R AD I 0
Figure 4
HANDBOOK
Learning
the
19
Code
Figure 5
BUZZER
,...----,
..---------;;-<>--,
or BATTERY
KEY
Copying Behind
1 =COLLECTOR
2= BASE
3= EMITTER
2000
n.
PHONES
10 K
0.5W
1, 51/.
Figure 6
~~~pp~~~~~~g~~TER
I
-----J;ow~~j;'
o
:
L____ j
L____.,.?i_ __._- - -- - - -
CK-722
PHONES.
~.:~R 4
punctuate copy as he goes along. It is not recommended that the beginner attempt to do this
until he can send and receive accurately and
with ease at a speed of at least 12 words a
minute.
It requires a considerable amount of training to dissociate the action of the subconscious mind from the direction of the conscious
mind. It may help some in obtaining this training to write down two columns of short words.
Spell the first word in the first column out loud
while writing down the first word in the second
column. At first this will be a bit awkward,
but you will rapidly gain facility with practice.
Do the same with all the words, and then reverse columns.
Next try speaking aloud the words in the one
column while writing those in the other column;
then reverse columns.
After the foregoing can be done easily, try
sending with your key the words in one column while spelling those in the other. It won't
be easy at first, but it is well worth keeping
after if you intend to develop any real code
proficiency. Do not attempt to catch up. There
is a natural tendency to close up the gap, and
you must train yourself to overcome this.
Next have your code companion send you a
word either from a list or from straight text;
do not write it down yet. Now have him send
the next word; after receiving this second
word, write down the first word. After receiving the third word, write the second word; and
so on. Never mind how slowly you must go,
even if it is only two or three words per minute.
Stay behind.
It will probably take quite a number of practice sessions before you can do this with any
facility. After it is relatively easy, then try
staying two words behind; keep this up until
it is easy. Then try three words, four words,
and five words. The more you practice keeping received material in mind, the easier it
will be to stay behind. It will be found easier
at first to copy material with which one is
fairly familiar, then gradually switch to less
familiar material.
20
Introduction
to
Radio
Code Practice
Sets
Figure 7
The circuit of Figure 6 is used in this
miniature transistorized code Practice
oscillator. Components are mounted in a
small plastic case. The transistor is
attached to a three terminal phenolic
mounting strip. Sub-miniature jacks are
used for the key and phones connections.
A hearing aid earphone may also be used,
as shown. The phone is stored in the
plastic case when not in use.
CHAPTER TWO
2-1
The Atom
21
22
Direct
Current
THE
Circuits
R AD I 0
2-2
Fundamental Electrical
Units and Relationships
Electromotive Force:
Potential Difference
The Electric
Current
Ampere and
Coulomb
HANDBOOK
Resistance
23
TABLE OF RESISTIVITY
Kes st vlty 1n
Ohms per
Material
Aluminum
Brass
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Iron
Silver
Zinc
Nichrome
Constantan
Manganin
Monel
Circular
Mil-Foot
Temp. Coeff. of
resistance per cc
at 20 C.
17
45
46
16
10.4
59
9.8
36
650
295
290
255
0.0049
0.003 to 0.007
0.0038
0.00
0.0039
0.006
0.004
0.0035
0.0002
0.00001
0.00001
0.0019
FIGURE 1
Resistance
rI
R=A
Where
R = resistance in ohms
r = resistivity in Ohms per mil- foot
l = length of conductor in feet
A = cross-sectional area in circular mils
The resistance also depends upon temperature, increasing with increases in temperature
for most substances (including most metals),
due to increased electron acceleration and
hence a greater number of impacts between
electrons and atoms. However, in the case of
some substances such as carbon and glass the
temperature coefficient is negative and the
resistance decreases as the temperature increases. This is also true of electrolytes. The
temperature may be raised by the external application of heat, or by the flow of the current
itself. In the latter case, the temperarure is
raised by the heat generated when the electrons
and atoms collide.
In the molecular structure of
many materials such as glass,
porcelain, and mica all electrons are tightly held within their orbits and
there are comparatively few free electrons.
This type of substance will conduct an electric current only with great difficulty and is
known as an insulator. An insulator is said to
have a high electrical resistance.
On the other hand, materials that have a
large number of free electrons are known as
conductors. Most metals, those elements which
have only one or two electrons in their outer
ring, are good conductors. Silver, copper, and
aluminum, in that order, are the best of the
common metals u sed as conductors and are
said to have the greatest conductivity, or low
est r e s i stance to the flow of an electric
current.
Conductors ond
Insulators
24
Direct
Current
THE
Circuits
R AD I 0
figure 2
TYPICAL RESISTORS
Shown above are various types of resistors used In electronic circuits. The larger units are
power resistors. On the left is a variable power resistor. Three preclsiontype resistors are
shown in the center with two small composition resistors beneath them. At the right Is a
RESISTANCE
'
Figure 3
E
R=I
IR
HANDBOOK
Resistive
Circuits
25
Figure 4
SIMPLE PARALLEL
CIRCUIT
cons/clerecl,
through
FigureS
SERIES-PARALLEL
CIRCUIT
In this type ol circuit the resistors are arranged In series groups, one/ these ser/esed
groups are then placed In paro//e/.
Rtotal = R, + R + R, + + RN
Of course, if the resistances happened to be
all the same value, the total resistance would
be the resistance of one multiplied by the
number of resistors in the circuit.
Consider two resistors, one of
100 ohms and one of 10 ohms,
connected in parallel as in figure 4, with a voltage of 10 volts applied
across each resistor, so the current through
each can be easily calculated.
Resi,stonces
in Parallel
E
I=R
10
E = 10 volts
R = 100 ohms
I,
E = 10 volts
R = 10 ohms
10
I 2 = - = 1.0 ampere
10
= -- = 0.1
100
= 1.1
ampere
ampere
26
Direct
Current
THE
Circuits
R AD I 0
R~
I
R1
E
I
~
~
10 volts
1.1 amperes
R2
R, R,
_x_
R, +R 2
where R is the unknown resistance,
R 1 is the resistance of the first resistor,
R2 is the resistance of the second resistor.
If the effective value required is known,
and it is desired to connect one unknown resistor in parallel with one of known value,
the following transposition of the above formula will simplify the problem of obtaining
the unknown value:
R, xR
R,- R
R --2-
1
1
Rz
10
_ , 9.09 ohms
1.1
-+-+-+
R, R2 R,
Figure 6
OTHER COMMON SERIES-PARALLEL
CIRCUITS
Resistors In
Series Parallel
Rn
R ~ ------------
- - - + -----1------R, + R 2 R, + R4 R5 + R6 + R7
A voltage divider is exactly what its name implies: a resistor or a series of resistors connected across a source of voltage from which
various lesser values of voltage may be obtained by connection to various points along
the resistor.
A voltage divider serves a most useful purpose in a radio receiver, transmitter or amplifier, because it offers a simple means of
obtaining plate, screen, and bias voltages of
different values from a common power supply
Voltage Dividers
HANDBOOK
Voltage
R5
Rs
R7
Divider
27
Figure 7
ANOTHER TYPE OF
SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Figure 8
R,
75
.01
~- ~- ~
25
.012
7,500 ohms.
R2
~- ~--~
R3
~ -~
150
--
.017
8,823 ohms.
R4
~-~- ~
1,351 ohms.
RTota/ ~
50
.037
2,083 ohms.
28
Direct
Current
10+2+5+20 MA.
R4
50 VOL.TS DROP
t
10+2+ 5 MA.
150 VOLTS DROP
10+ 2 MA.
25 VOLTS DROP
I
R3
{t
~----POWER
SUPPLY
,-
I 250V. 20MA.
300 VOLTS
I
THE
Circuits
I
I
-+-R~
R1
~
~
I
1001/. SMA.
l 1 f_j
-2 AMPS
_j
---t-~--LOAD ~
Figure 9
MORE COMPLEX VOLTAGE DIVIDER
The method for computing the values of the
resistors Is cliscussecl In the accompanying text.
_,._
-2 AMPS
,\
CMP5
R1
R2
bu
75 v., 2 MA.
R AD I 0
1111,
20 vnLTS
Figure 10
ILLUSTRATING KIRCHHOFF'S
FIRST LAW
The current flowing toward point "A" Is equal
to the current flowing away lrom point "A ...
------=0
R R 1 R 2 + R,
20 20
20
------=0
5
10 5 + 5
4-2-2=0
Kirchhoff's second law is concerned with
net voltage drop around a closed loop in a
circuit and states that:
Kirchoff's
HANDBOOK
20H~
30HMS
2 OHMS
" '. / T~
1.
3 VOLTS/
+~
-=- 3 VOLTS
2.
SIMPLIFY
2!1+211 -212+3=0
41~+3 =!2
3.
212-2!1+312-6=0
5 l2- 2 I 1 -6 =0
21~+6=12
411+3
--24.
211+6
--5-
SIMPLIFY
II
=--ft
I2= -
T- =
E 2 /R,
AMPERE
RE-SUBSTITUTE
-_g_+3
2011+15= 411+12
5.
EQUATE
29
Laws
= 1 i-
AMPERE
Figure 11
ILLUSTRATING KIRCHHOFF'S
SECOND LAW
The voltage c/rop around any closed loop In a
network Is equal to Z'ero.
two batteries. First assume an arbitrary direction of current flow in each closed loop of the
circuit, drawing an arrow to indicate the assumed direction of current flow. Then equate
the sum of all IR drops plus battery drops
around each loop to zero. You will need one
equation for each unknown to be determined.
Then solve the equations for the unknown currents in the general manner indicated in figure
11. If the answer comes out positive the direction of current flow you originally assumed
was correct. If the answer comes out negative,
the current flow is in the opposite direction to
the arrow which was drawn originally. This is
illustrated in the example of figure 11 where
the direction of flow of I, is opposite to the
direction assumed in the sketch.
and Work
Power in
In order to cause electrons
Resistive Circuits to flow through a conductor,
Figure 12
MATCHING OF
RESISTANCES
30
Direct
Current
THE
Circuits
R AD I 0
Figure 13
TYPICAL CAPACITORS
The two large units are high value filter capac/.
tors. Shown beneath these are various types of
by-pass capacitors for rf anJ auclio application.
2-3
Electrostatics -
Capacitors
HANDBOOK
Capacitance
31
,..-~ LeECJROSTATIC
w-
.IV"~~~L~~~RONS
CHARGING CURRENT
Figure 14
SIMPLE CAPACITOR
Illustrating the Imaginary lines of Ioree repre~
sentln!l the paths along whic:h the repelling lorc:e
.000001 farad, or
w-
of
farads.
a farad,
c X E2
------2 X 1,000,000
1 microfarad~ 1/1,000,000
or
FACTOR
IOMC.
IANILINE-FORMALDEHYDE
RESIN
BARIUY TITANATE
3.4
1200
4.67
3. 7
6-6
4.5
2.5
CASTOR OIL
CELLULOSE ACETATE
GLASS, WINDOW
GLASS, PYREX
KEL-F
SOFTENING
POINT
DIELE:CTRIJ POWER
MATERIAL
FLUOROTHENE
10 MC.
FAHRENHEIT
0.004
260
1.0
0.04
180
2000
POOR
0.02
0.6
---
-~
METHYL- METHACRYLATE
LUCITE
2.6
0.007
5.4
7.0
0.0003
0.002
650
5.0
0.015
270
PHENOL- FORMALDEHYDE
BLACK BAKELITE
5.5
0.03
PORCELAIN
7.0
o.oos
MICA
MYCALEX MYKROY
PHENOL- FORMALDEHYDE,
LOW-LOSS YELLOW
POLYETHYLENE
POLYSTYRENE
QUARTZ, FUSED
RUBBER, HARD-EBONITE
STEATITE
SULFUR
TEFLON
TITANIUM DIOXIDE
TRANSFORMER OIL
UREA -F0Rt4ALDEHYDE
\IINYL RESINS
WOOD, MAPLE
2~_2.55 -4.2
2.8
6.1
3.8
2. I
100- t75
2.2
5.0
4.0
4.4
FIGURE 15
160
350
-~~
r-o*}r--o.ooo2- I
0.007
0.003
0.003
0.02
0.0006
0.003
0.05
0.02
POOR
220
1750
2eoOo150
2700"'
23&
r-27oo-;260"'
200"'
32
Direct
Current
THE
Circuits
R AD I 0
1. 1
1. 0
_\
<I)
w
I
z
z
C)
~
<I)
\1\
1\
1'---.
\ '\
:--.....
1 r--~~~IA.
'A.t-- .H
3"D~
- t---
t---
10
f1
12
13
CAPACITANCE IN MICRO-MICROFARADS
Figure 16
Through the use of this chart It Is possible to
determine tbe required plate diameter (with the
the necessary spacing established by peak
voltage considerations} for a clrcular ..plate
neutralizing capacitor. The capacitance given
Is for a dielectric of air and the spacing given
is between ad/acent faces of the two plates.
14
HANDBOOK
Capacitive
r
PARALLEL CAPACITORS
SERIES CAPACITORS
Circuits
I
CAPACITORS IN SERIES-PARALLEL
Figure 17
C~0.2248xKx-,
t
where C
K
0.2248
t~-------
Capacitors in
Parallel and
in Series
Equations for calculating capacitances of capacitors in parallel connections are the same
as those for resistors in series.
C ~ C 1 + C2 + ... + Cn
Capacitors in series connection ~re ca_lculated in the same manner as are resistors m
parallel connection.
The formulas are repeated: (I) For two or
more capacitors of unequal capacitance in
series:
c~----
-+-+-
c, c. c,
1
or-~-+-+
C,
C2
C,
c, +c.
c,
~-
3
( 4) Three or more capacitors of equal capacitance in series.
x r2
~
~
capacitance in micro-microfarads,
dielectric constant of spacing
material,
A ~ area of dielectric in square inches,
t ~ thickness of dielectric in inches.
33
34
Direct
Current
Circuits
THE
RA0 I 0
c~---+---+---
-+- -+-
c, c2 c, c. c,
+-
c.
EQUAL
/ . :;:.!_
CAPACITANCE~
r:
~EQUAL
~/ RESISTANCE
~-~
::
By connecting a half
megohm 1-watt carbon re
sistor across each capacitor, the voltage will be equalized because the
resistors act as a voltage divider, and the
internal resistances of the capacitors are so
much higher {many megohms) that they have
but little effect in disturbing the voltage divider balance.
Carbon resistors of the inexpensive type
are not particularly accurate {not being designed for precision service); therefore it is
Voltage Equalizing
Resistors
T-
Figure 18
SHOWING THE USE OF VOLTAGE EQUALIZING RESISTORS ACROSS CAPACITORS
CONNECTED IN SERIES
HANDBOOK
the capacitor connects to the positive terminal
of the next capacitor in the series combination.
The method of connection for electrolytic capacitors in series is shown in figure 18. Electrolytic capacitors have very low cost per
microfarad of capacity, but also have a large
power factor and high leakage; both dependent
upon applied voltage, temperature and the age
of the capacitor. The modern electrolytic capacitor uses a dry paste electrolyte embedded
in a gauze or paper dielectric. Aluminium foil
and the dielectric are wrapped in a circular
bundle and are mounted in a cardboard or metal
box. Etched electrodes may be employed to
increase the effective anode area, and the
total capacity of the unit.
The capacity of an electrolytic capacitor is
affected by the applied voltage, the usage of
the capacitor, and the temperature and humidity
of the environment. The capacity usually drops
with the aging of the unit. The leakage current
and power factor increase with age. At high
frequencies the power factor becomes so poor
that the electrolytic capacitor acts as a series
resistance rather than as a capacity.
2-4
Magnetism
and Electromagnetism
Magnetism
35
ELECTRON OR I FT
--._SWITCH
Figure 19
I.EFTHAND RULE
Showing the direction of the magnetic lines of
Ioree produced around a conrluctor carrying an
electric current.
Flux, Flux
Density
36
Direct
Current
Circuits
The unit of flux is the maxwell, and the symbol is the Greek letter cp (phi).
Flux density is the number of lines of force
per unit area. It is expressed in gauss if the
unit of area is the square centimeter (1 gauss
= 1 line of force per square centimeter), or
in lines per square inch. The symbol for flux
density is B if it is expressed in gausses, or
B if expressed in lines per square inch.
The force which produces a
flux in a magnetic circuit
is called magnetomotive force.
It is abbreviated m.m.f. and is designated by
the letter F. The unit of magnetomotive force
is the gilbert, which is equivalent to 1.26 x NI,
where N is the number of turns and I is the
current flowing in the circuit in amperes.
The m.m.f. necessary to produce a given
flux density is stated in gilberts per centimeter (oersteds) (H), or in ampere-turns per
inch (H).
Magnetomotive
Force
Reluctance
<P
where
F
=-
F
R=-
cp
THE
R AD I 0
p. = H
or
p.
B
=-
p.
= ..:_,
p.
and B = Hp.
or
It can be seen from the foregoing that permeability is inversely proportional to the
specific reluctance of a material.
Permeability is similar to electric
conductivity. There is, however,
one important difference: the permeability of
magnetic materials is not independent of the
magnetic current (flux) flowing through it,
although electrical conductivity is substantially independent of the electric current in a
wire. When the flux density of a magnetic
conductor has been increased to the saturation
point, a further increase in the magnetizing
force will not produce a corresponding increase in flux density.
Saturation
Calculations
F = cpR
----/-+.-/----MAGNETIZING FORCE
H~
Permeability
Figure 20
TYPICAL HYSTERESIS LOOP
(BH CURVE =A-B)
Showing relationship between the current in the
winding of an Iron core Inductor and the core
flux. A cllrect current flowing through the lncluctance &rings the magnetic state of the core to
some point on the hysteresis loop, such as C.
HANDBOOK
original direction, the flux passes through a
typical hysteresis loop as shown.
The magnetism remaining
in a material after the
magnetizing force is removed is called residual magnetism. Retentivity is the property which causes a magnetic
material to have residual magnetism after
having been magnetized.
Residual Magnetism;
Retentivity
Hysteresis;
Coercive Force
Self-inductance
37
Inductance
the current. Thus, it can be seen that selfinduction tends to prevent any change in the
current in the circuit.
The storage of energy in a magnetic field
is expressed in joules and is equal to (LI 2 )/2.
(A joule is equal to 1 watt-second. L is defined immediately following.)
Inductance is usually denoted by
the letter L, and is expressed in
henrys. A coil has an inductance
of 1 henry when a voltage of 1
volt is induced by a current change of 1 ampere per second. The henry, while commonly
used in audio frequency circuits, is too large
for reference to inductance coils, such as
those used in radio frequency circuits; millihenry or microhenry is more commonly used,
in the following manner:
The Unit of
Inductance;
The Henry
1 henry = 1,000
henrys.
millihenrys,
or
10 3
milli-
or
=1
millihenry.
Figure 21
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
The quantity M represents the mutual inductance
between the two coifs L1 and L2.
38
Direct
Current
INDUCTANCE OF
SINGLE- LAYER
SOLENOID COILS
L =
WHERE
R2 N2
gR+ 10 L
MICROHENFUES
N=
NUMBER OF TURNS
Figure 22
FORMULA FOR
CALCULATING INDUCTANCE
Through the use ol the equation and the sketch
shown above the Inductance of single-layer
solenoid coils can be calcufatecl with an accuracy of about one per cent for the types of
Inductors in
L = L, + L 2 + etc.
Where mutual inductance does exist:
L
THE
Circuits
R AD I 0
L, + L 2 +2M,
2-5
L = L1 + L2
2M,
Core Material
RC and RL Transients
Time Constant
RC and RL
Circuits
HANDBOOK
Time
Constant
39
Voltage Gradient
80
<
f==---f---..,..~--'"'+----1---1
I
~LU60,---~7
--
~-~
w<
i-f-- --1---+-+--+-----i
u~J 201
a:
wO
a.>
oY-
a:
w~
~~
<<
cl~P'I
z
aU2
BO
>~
w<~
60
40
uzo
"- 01- 20
o~e
~z~
~,--
'
E-=- -
~~ ~ ~I
ww-
~(f)
RC
r-____:-,=-
~~-
i~2
100
...........
~-
ME
IN
TE~MS
OF TIME
~ONSTANT R~
Figure 23
TIME CONSTANT OF AN R-C CIRCUIT
Shown at (A) Is the circuit upon which Is baseJ
the curves of (B) anti (C). (B) shows the rate at
which capacitor C will charge from the Instant
at which switch S Is placet/ In position l. (C)
shows the c/ischarge curve ol capacitor C from
the Instant at which switch S Is placecl in
position 3.
A mathematical analysis of
the charging of a capacitor in
this manner would show that the relationship
between the battery voltage E and the voltage
across the capacitor e could be expressed in
the following manner:
Time Constant
e = E (1 _
- t!RC)
Figure 24
TYPICAL INDUCTANCES
The large inductance Is a 1000-watt transmitting coil. To the right ancl left of this coil are small r-f
chokes. Several varieties of low power capability coils are shown below, along with various types of r-f
chokes intenclecl for high-frequency operation.
40
Direct
Current
Circuits
'0
5
c" '""'"'" c:
w[a:
~
~
a:
a:
100
..-
80
::>
<J
063.2
/'
60
40
."'
----
L.
RL Circuit
"'<J
a:
~
20
0
TIMEt, IN TERMS OF TIME CONSTANT
it
Figure 25
TIME CONSTANT OF AN R-L CIRCUIT
Note that the time constant for the Increase in
current through an R-L circuit Is identical to
the rate of increase in voltage across the
capacitor In an R-C circuit.
E
i = - (1 _
R
f-t
R/L)
mitters and audio equipment. At the center is a hermetically sealed inductance for use
under poor environmental conditions. To the left is an inexpensive receiving-type choke,
CHAPTER THREE
At present the usable frequency range for alternating electrical currents extends over the enormous frequency range from about 15 cycles per
second to perhaps 30,000,000,000 cycles per
second. It is obviously cumbersome to use a
frequency designation in c.p.s. for enormously
high frequencies, so three common units which
are multiples of one cycle per second have
been established.
Frequency Spectrum
~l+r---------------------------------
::!1
C(
(31 0 ~---------------TIME~
3-1
Alternating Current
DIRECT CURRENT
I
An alternating current is
one whose amplitude of
current flow periodically
rises from zero to a maximum in one direction,
decreases to zero, changes its direction,
rises to maximum in the opposite direction,
and decreases to zero again, This complete
process, starting from zero, passing through
two maximums in opposite directions, and returning to zero again, is called a cycle. The
number of times per second that a current
passes through the complete cycle is called
the frequency of the current. One and one
quarter cycles of an alternating current wave
are illustrated diagrammatically in figure I.
Frequency of an
Alternating Current
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Figure I
ALTERNATING CURRENT
AND DIRECT CURRENT
Graphical comparison between un/Jrectlonal
( clirect} current and alternating current as plotted
against time.
41
42
Alternating
Current
Circuits
THE
R AD I 0
Frequency
Classification
10 to 30 kc.
30 to 300 kc.
300 to 3000 kc.
3 to 30 Me.
30 to 300 Me.
300 to 3000 Me.
3 to 30 kMc.
30 to 300 kMc.
Very-low frequencies
Low frequencies
Medium frequencies
High frequencies
Very-high frequencies
Ultra-high frequencies
Super-high frequencies
Extremely-high
frequencies
Abbrev.
v.l.f
1..
m.f.
h. f.
v.h.f.
u.h.f.
s.h.f.
e.h.f.
Figure 2
THE ALTERNATOR
Semlschematlc representation of the simplest
form of the alternator.
The
HANDBOOK
Sine
Wave
43
LINES Of FORCE
i+-----1 CYCLE------I
+
w
:::>
f..
...J
LINES OF FORCE
(UNIFORM DENSITY)
Figure 3
OUTPUT OF THE ALTERNATOR
Graph showing sine-wave output cu,ent ol the
alternator olligure 2.
a.
::li
<
1 CYCLE=+-
C.YCLE=ir
Figure 4
THE SINE WAVE
/1/ustrot/ng one cycle of a sine wove. One
complete cycle of alternation Is broken up
Into 360 degrees. Then one-half cycle Is 180
degrees, one-quarter cycle Is 90 degrees, one/
so on down to the smallest clivislon ol the
wave. A cosine wove has a shape identical to
o sine wave but Is shiltetl 90 degrees In phase
In other words the wave begin at lull am
pllturle, the 90-degree point come at zero am
plitude, the JBO.Jegree point comes at full
amplitude In the oppolte direction ol current
flow, etc.
angular rotation. Points A, B, C, etc., represent the same units of time as before. When
the voltage corresponding to each point is
projected to the corresponding time unit, the
familiar sine curve is the result.
The frequency of the generated voltage is
proportional to the speed of rotation of the
alternator, and to the number of magnetic poles
in the field. Alternators may be built to produce
radio frequencies up to 30 kilocycles, and
some such machines are still used for low
frequency communication purposes. By means
of multiple windings, three-phase output may
be obtained from large industrial alternators.
From figure 1 we see that the
value of an a-c wave varies
continuously. It is often of importance to know
the amplitude of the wave in terms of the
total amplitude at any instant or at any time
within the cycle. To be able to establish the
instant in question we must be able to divide
the cycle into patts. We could divide the cycle
into eighths, hundredths, or any other ratio that
suited our fancy. However, it is much more
convenient mathematically to divide the cycle
either into electrical degrees (360 represent
one cycle) or into radians. A radian is an arc
of a circle equal to the radius of the circle;
hence there are 217 radians per cycle- or per
circle (since there are 1T diameters per circumference, there are 217 radii).
Radian Notation
44
Alternating
Current
THE
Circuits
WHERE:
9 (THE.TA):: PHASE ANGLE= 2 TT FT
A=~
++-J'----'--4"-"-.LlL.!...Ll-
=TT
C=
= 'l,
cycle = 180
Y.
cycle = 90
1T
- radians =
2
= 2 TT
RADIANS OR 270"
RADIANS OR 360"
1T
-radians =
1 radian
RADIANS OR 90
RADIANS 0 R 180 o
Figure 5
1T
R AD I 0
'1.
cycle = 45
1
=-cycle= 57.3
2TT
When the conductor in the simple alternator of figure 2 has made one complete revolution it has generated one cycle and has rotated through 2rr radians. The expression 2rrf
then represents the number of radians in one
cycle multiplied by the number of cycles per
second (the frequency) of the alternating
voltage or current. The expression then represents the number of radians per second through
which the conductor has rotated. Hence 2rrf
represents the angular velocity of the rotating
conductor, or of the rotating vector which
represents any alternating current or voltage,
expressed in radians per second.
In technical literature the expression 2rr f
is often replaced by w, the lower-case Greek
letter omega. Velocity multiplied by time
gives the distance travelled. so 2rrft (or wt)
represents the angular distance through which
the rotating conductor or the rotating vector
has travelled since the reference time t = 0.
In the case of a sine wave the reference time
t = 0 represents that instant when the voltage
or the current, whichever is under discussion,
also is equal to zero.
The instantaneous voltage or current is proporCurrent
tional to the sine of the
angle through which the
rotating vector has travelled since reference
time t = 0. Hence, when the peak value of the
a-c wave amplitude (either voltage or curren.t amplitude) i~ known, and the angle through
whrch the rotatrng vector has travelled is
established, the amplitude of the wave at
this instant can be determined through use
of the following expression:
Instantaneous Value
of Voltage or
where e
maximum
Emax sine
where
represents the angle through which
the vector has rotated since time (and amplitude) were zero. As examples:
e
e
when = 30
sin = 0.5
so e = 0.5 Emax
when = 60
sine= 0.866
so e = 0.866 Emax
e
e
when = 90
sin = 1.0
so e = Emax
e
e
when = 1 radian
sin = 0.8415
so e = 0.8415 Emax
HANDBOOK
A-C
Relationships
45
Effective Value
of an
AI ternating Current
Eeff. or Er.m.s.
0.707
Emax or
leff. or lr.m.s.
0.707
lmax.
Er.m.s.
= 0.707
Emax, and
Emax
1.414
Er.m.s.
If an alternating current
Rectified Alternating
Current or Pulsating Direct Current
Eavg
0.636
Emax
Figure 6
FULL-WAVE RECTIFIED
SINE WAVE
Waveform obtained at the output of a lui/wave
rectifier being feel with a sine wave one/ having
100 per cent rectilication efficiency. Each
pulse has the same shape as one-half cycle of
a sine wave. This type of current Is known as
pulsating direct current.
0. 707 x Peak
0.636 x Peak
R.M.S.
Average
=
=
Average
R.M.S.
= 0.9
= 1.11
x R.M.S.
x Average
Peak
Peak
= 1.414
1.57
R.M.S.
Average
Ohm's
law
applies
equally to direct or alternating current, provided the circuits under consideration are
purely resistive, that is: circuits which_ have
neither inductance (coils) nor capacitance
(capacitors). Problems which involve tube
filaments, drop resistors, electric lamps,
heaters or similar resistive devices can be
solved from Ohm's law, regardless of whether
the current is direct or alternating. When a
capacitor or coil is made a part of the circuit,
a property common to either, called reactance,
must be taken into consideration. Ohm's law
still applies to a-c circuits containing reactance, but additional considerations are involved; these will be discussed in a later
paragraph.
Applying Ohm's Law
to Alternating Current
46
Alternating
Current
THE
Circuits
R AD I 0
1+-o-j
CURRENT~
VOLTAGE BY 90
Figure 7
Figure 8
XL = 217fL,
rr
f = frequency in cycles,
L = inductance in henrys.
It is very often necessary to compute inductive reactance at radio
frequencies. The same formula may be used,
but to make it less cumbersome the inductance
is expressed in millihenrys and the frequency
in kilocycles. For higher frequencies and
smaller values of inductance, frequency is
expressed in megacycles and inductance in
microhenrys. The basic equation need not be
changed, since the multiplying factors for
inductance and frequency appear in numerator
and denominator, and hence are cancelled out.
However, it is not possible in the same equation to express Lin millihenrys and f in cycles
without conversion factors.
Inductive Reactance
at Radio Frequencies
3.1416
f = frequency in cycles,
C = capacitance in farads.
Here again, as in the case
of inductive reactance, the
units of capacitance and
frequency can be converted
into smaller units for practical problems encountered in radio work. The equation may
be written:
Capacitive Reactance at
Radio Frequencies
1,000,000
Xc
217fC
HANDBOOK
wave (either peak or r.m.s.) for both voltage
and current are used in the calculations.
However, in calculations involving alternating currents the voltage and current are not
necessarily in phase. The current through the
circuit may lag behind the voltage, in which
case the current is said to have lagging phase.
Lagging phase is caused by inducuve reactance. If the current reaches its maximum value
ahead of the voltage (figure 8) the current is
said to have a leading phase. A leading phase
angle is caused by capacitive reactance.
In an electrical circuit containing reactance
only, the current will either lead or lag the
voltage by 90. If the circuit contains inductive reactance only, the current will lag the
voltage by 90. If only capacitive reactance is
in the circuit, the current will lead the voltage
by 90.
Inductive and capaC!tl ve reactance have exactly opposite
effects on the phase relation
between current and voltage in a circuit.
Hence when they are used in combination
their effects tend to neutralize. The combined
effect of a capacitive and an inductive reactance is often called the net reactance of a
circuit. The net reactance (X) is found by subtracting the capacitive reactance from the inductive reactance, X= XL - Xc.
The result of such a combination of pure
reactances may be either positive, in which
case the positive reactance is greater so that
the net reactance is inductive, or it may be
negative in which case the capacitive reactance is greater so that the net reactance is
capacitive. The net reactance may also be
zero in which case the circuit is said to be
resonant. The condition of resonance will be
discussed in a later section. Note that inductive reactance is always taken as being positive while capacitive reactance is always
taken as being negative.
Reactances
in Combination
Reactance
47
Y-AXIS
Figure 9
Operation on the vector (+A) by the quantity (-1)
causes vector
R>. the
48
Alternating
Current
THE
Circuits
R AD I 0
Y-AXIS
--
_r-(+A) X
'
+jA
(-v::i J
ROTATES
VECTOR THROUGH 90
""<
go
Figure 10
Operation on the vector (+A) by the quantity (/)
causes vector to rotate through 90 degrees.
z = R + x
IZI = y'R + X
2
or
X
sin()=-
IZI
R
cos 0=-
IZI
tan()=
X
R
Figure II
THE IMPEDANCE TRIANGLE
Showing the graphical construction of a triangle
for obtaining the net (scalar) impedance re
suiting from the connection of a resistance and
a reactance in series. Shown also alongside Is
the alternative mathematical procedure lor
obtaining the values associated with the triangle.
IZI
y'R 2 + X2
IZI
IZl
R =
jX
cos()
j sin ()
IZI
In the case of impedance, resistance, or reactance, the unit of measurement is the ohm;
hence, the ohm may be thought of as a unit of
opposition to current flow, without reference
to the relative phase angle between the applied voltage and the current which flows.
Further, since both capacitive and inductive
reactance are functions of frequency, impedance will vary with frequency. Figure 12
shows the manner in which IZ\ will vary with
frequency in an RL series circuit and in an
RC series circuit.
Series RLC Circuits
Impedance
HANDBOOK
49
pedance is determined as discussed before except that the reactive component in the expressions becomes: (The net reactance- the
difference between XL and Xc-) Hence (XL Xc) may be substituted for X in the equations.
Thus:
JZI = y'R 2 +(XL- Xc) 2
(XLXc)
e = tan_,_....:._
__
_
R
A series RLC circuit thus may present an
impedance which is capacitively reactive if
the net reactance is capacitive, inductively
reactive if the net reactance is inductive, or
resistive if the capacitive and inductive reactances are equal.
The addition of complex
quantities (for example,
impedances in series) is
quite simple if the quantities are in the rectangular form. If they are in the polar form
they only can be added graphically, unless
they are converted to the rectangular form by
the relationships previously given. As an example of the addition of complex quantities
in the rectangular form, the equation for the
addition of impedances is:
Addition of
Complex Quantities
= 640
Figure 12
IMPEDANCE AGAINST FRE.QUENCY
FOR R-L AND R-C CIRCUITS
The Impedance of an R-C circuit approaches
infinity as the frequency approaches zero (d. c.},
while the impedance of a series R-L circuit
approaches Infinity as the frequency approaches
Infinity. The impedance of an R-C circuit approaches the lmpec/once of the series resistor
as the Frequency approaches Infinity, while the
/mpec/once of a series R-L circuit approaches
the lmpeclonce of the resistor as the frequency
approaches zero.
\Z,I Le,
~ (LO
-l. e)
1
2
\Z2\ L 02 IZll
For example, suppose that an impedance of
ISO I L 67 is to be divided by an impedance
of \101 L45. Then:
\50\L67
\50\
~--= -(L67-L45)
\10 I L 45 \10 I
= I5ICL22)
E
1=-
50
Alternating
Current
11200~
+j
10r0LTS
100
_j 300
I=
Figure 13
R AD I 0
\Z\
THE
Circuits
y 200 2 + ( -200) 2
100 LO 0
282 L-45
0
=0.354LO 0 -(-45)
L 135 volts
v 40,000 + 40,000
E =I Xc
y80,000
= 106.2
= 282 n
_, -200
_,
e = tan _,X
- = tan - - = tan -1
R
200
= -45,
Therefore Z
282 L-45
Note that in a series circuit the resulting impedance takes the sign of the largest react
ance in the series combination.
Where a slide-rule is being used to make
the computations, the impedance may be found
without any addition or subtraction operations
by finding the angle
first, and then using
the trigonometric equation below for obtain
ing the impedance. Thus:
-200
e = tan-' -X = tan-'-= tan- -1
R
Then \Z\
\Z\
200
-45
=- cos
e cos -45
200
- - = 2820
0.707
= 0. 707
L-45
Note that the voltage drop across the capacitive reactance is greater than the supply
voltage. This condition often occurs in a
series RLC circuit, and is explained by the
fact that the drop across the capacitive react
ance is cancelled to a lesser or greater extent by the drop across the inductive reactance.
It is often desirable in a problem such as
the above to check the validity of the answer
by adding vectorially the voltage drops across
the components of the series circuit to make
sure that they add up to the supply voltageor to use the terminology of Kirchhoff's Second
Law, to make sure that the voltage drops
across all elements of the circuit, including
the source taken as negative, is equal to zero.
In the general case of the addition of a
number of voltage vectors in series it is best
to resolve the voltages into their in-phase
and out-of-phase components with respect to
the supply voltage. Then these components
may be added directly. Hence:
ER = 70.8 L 45
= 70.8 (cos 45 + j sin 45)
= 70.8
(0.707 + j0.707)
=50+ j50
HANDBOOK
Vector
Algebra
~'::':,.
90"
Xt.
35.4~"
70.8~
~INE
1BQO
VOLTAGE=1QO
&_
------<k---~-+ 0"
/
s1
0,___ _- - J
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
/D~PACROSS XC 0 f06.2~
oo
Figure 15
THE EQUIVALENT SERIES CIRCUIT
Showing a parallel R-C circuit and the equlv
alent series R-C circuit which represents the
same net fmpec:lonce crs the parallel circuit.
Figure 14
Graphical
figure 13.
EL = 35.4 L 135
106.2 L45
106.2 ( cos-45 + j sin-45)
106.2 (6.707 -j0.707)
75 -j75
+ (75-j75)
= (50 - 2 5 + 75) + j (50 + 2 5 - 75 )
= 100 + jO
= 100 L0, which is equal to the
supply voltage.
It is frequently desirable
to check computations involving complex quantities
by constructing vectors
representing the quantities on the complex
plane. Figure 14 shows such a construction
for the quantities of the problem just completed. Note that the answer to the problem
may be checked by constructing a parallelogram with the voltage drop across the resistor as one side and the net voltage drop
across the capacitor plus the inductor (these
may be added algrebraically as they are 180
out of phase} as the adjacent side. The vector
sum of these two voltages, which is represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram,
is equal to the supply voltage of 100 volts at
zero phase angle.
Checking by
Construction on the
Complex Plane
actance in Parallel
1
1
1
--=-+-+-+.
Zrot
Z,
Z2
Z3
.'
z,z.
Zrot= - - Z, + Z 2
As an example, using the two-impedance
relation, take the simple case, illustrated in
figure 15, of a resistance of 6 ohms in parallel with a capacitive reactance of 4 ohms. To
simplify the first step in the computation it is
best to put the impedances in the polar form
for the numerator, since multiplication is in
volved, and in the rectangular form for the
addition in the denominator.
24 L-~ 0
6- j4
Then the denominator is changed to the polar
form for the division operation:
-4
(} = tan-- = tan-
6
- 0.667 = - 33.7
52
Alternating
[z[
cos- 33.7
Current
--~
0.832
7.21 ohms
1.85- j 2.77
THE
Circuits
Th
I
p&
E1
Ic !'a
2
Ez.=E1~
Ez=E1~
R1+Rz
XC1 +XC2
R AD I 0
Ih
I
E2 = E1 ____h:_L__
L1+L2
Ca
Ez=E1 ~
Figure 16
SIMPLE AC VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
--~-+-+-
Z, 0 ,
Z,
Z2
Z,
HANDBOOK
Resonant
Circuits
53
Figure 18
Ez= E1 _ _x_c_
XL-XC
E3=E1 v.;:o~Xc~";;='C:
Y'R+(Xc Xc)2
E4 =E!
XL-XC
Figure 17
3-2
Resonant Circuits
XL
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
1,000,000
Xc
26.5
2.65
.265
.0265
.00265
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
1,000,000
1_
f: __
21r y'LC
where f: frequency in cycles,
L : inductance in henrys,
C : capacitance in farads.
It is more convenient to express L and C
in smaller units, especially in making radiofrequency calculations; f can also be ex
pressed in megacycles or kilocycles. A very
useful group of such formulas is:
25,330
25,330
f 2 :---or L :---or C
LC
f 2C
25,330
=---
f'L
54
Alternating
Current
w+
z
THE
Circuits
RESONANCE
"':::;;
0..
I
"'z
~
R AD I 0
I!
a:
1- -
<)
:01<J z
c
z
<(
<)
1- 0
z"'
<"'
z a:
J.,
"'"'
"'~
a:~
<
"'a:
"'<
~
iii
w-
e::
"'I
"'"'z
'<)
Figure 19
IMPEDANCE OF A
SERIES-RESONANT CIRCUIT
1-
z <
"'0
a:"'
a: ..
:0 ~
<)
FREQUENCY
Figure 20
RESONANCE CURVE
Showing the Increase In Impedance at resonance for a parallel-resonant circuit, and simi-
Impedance of Series
Resonant Circuits
series-resonant
circuit.
The
sharpness
of
B, and C.
18) is:
Z =
where Z
= impedance in ohms,
= resistance in ohms,
Xc =capacitive reactance in ohms,
XL =inductive reactance in ohms.
From this equation, it can be seen that the
impedance is equal to the vector sum of the
circuit resistance and the difference between
the two reactances. Since at the resonant fre
quency XL equals Xc, the difference between
them (figure 19) is zero, so that at resonance
the impedance is simply equal to the resist
ance of the circuit; therefore, because the
resistance of most normal radio-frequency
circuits is of a very low order, the impedance
is also low.
At frequencies higher and lower than the
resonant frequency, the difference between
the reactances will be a definite quantity and
will add with the resistance to make the im
pedance higher and higher as the circuit is
tuned off the resonant frequency.
If Xc should be greater than XL, then the
term (XL - Xc) will give a negative number.
However, when the difference is squared the
product is always positive. This means that
the smaller reactance is subtracted from the
larger, regardless of whether it be capacitive
or inductive, and the difference squared.
Circuits
Ohm's law.
E
I=-
= IZ
= -;::;;:::::;;:::=;~
E =I
HANDBOOK
Circuit
An extremely important
property of a capacitor or
an inductor is its factorof-merit, more generally called its Q. It is this
factor, Q, which primarily determines the
sharpness of resonance of a tuned circuit.
This factor can be expressed as the ratio of
the reactance to the resistance, as follows:
Circuit Q- Sharp
ness of Resonance
2nfL
Q=R,
where R
= total
resistance.
Skin Effect
55
In radio circuits, parallel resonance (more correctly termed antiresonance) is more frequently
encountered than series resonance; in fact, it
is the basic foundation of receiver and transmitter circuit operation. A circuit is shown in
figure 21.
Parallel
Resonance
56
Alternating
Current
r-----------~~~M~'----------~
L
Figure 21
PARALLEL-RESONANT CIRCUIT
The inductance L ancl capacitance C comprise
the reactive elements of the parallel-resonant
(anti-reso11ant) tank circuit, and the resistance
R indicates the sum of the r-f resistance of the
coil and capacitor, plus the resistance coupled
into the circuit from the external load. In most
cases the tuning capacitor has much lower r-f
resistance than the coil and con therefore be
ignored in comparison with the coil resistance
and the coupled-In res/stance. The Instrument
M1 indicates the "line current" which keeps
the circuit in a state of oscillation- this current Is
where Z
L
f
R
THE
Circuits
impedance in ohms,
inductance in henrys,
= frequency in cycles,
= resistance in ohms.
RA0 I 0
Effect of Coupling
on Impedance
HANDBOOK
ffi
LOOSE COUPLING
HIGHQ
Circuit
Impedance
ill D ill 0
MEDIUM COUPLING
MEDIUMQ
CRITICAL COUPLING
LOWQ
57
ffiO
OVERCOUPLI NG
LOWQ
1'-
f--
Figure 22
EFFECT OF COUPLING ON CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE AND Q
inertia, and continue to oscillate with decreasing amplitude for a time after being given
a "kick." With such a circuit, almost pure
sine-wave voltage will be developed across
the tank circuit even though power is supplied
to the tank in short pulses or spurts, so long
as the spurts are evenly spaced with respect
to time and have a frequency that is the same
as the resonant frequency of the tank.
Another way to visualize the action of the
tank is to recall that a resonant tank with
moderate Q will discriminate strongly against
harmonics of the resonant frequency. The distorted plate current pulse in a Class C amplifier contains not only the fundamental frequency (that of the grid excitation voltage)
but also higher harmonics. As the tank offers
low impedance to the harmonics and high impedance to the fundamental (being resonant to
the latter), only the fundamental - a sinewave voltage- appears across the tank circuit
in substantial magnitude.
Tonk Circuit
Flywheel Effect
Loaded and
Unloaded Q
58
Alternating
Current
Circuits
THE
R AD I 0
Tank efficiency =
1 _
Ql
Figure 23
COMPOSITE WAVE-FUNDAMENTAL
PLUS THIRD HARMONIC
100
Qu
Qu = unloaded Q of the tank circuit
Q 1 = loaded Q of the tank circuit
As an example, if the unloaded Q of the
tank circuit for a class C r-f power amplifier
is 400, and the external load is coupled to the
tank circuit by an amount such that the loaded
Q is 20, the tank circuit efficiency will be:
eff. = (1 - 20/400) x 100, or (1 - 0.05) x 100,
or 95 per cent. Hence 5 per cent of the power
output of the Class C amplifier will be lost
as heat in the tank circuit and the remaining
95 per cent will be delivered to the load.
where
3-3
Figure 24
Nonsinusoidal Waves
and Transients
Wave Composition
Figure 25
HANDBOOK
Nonsinusoidal
Waves
59
Figure 26
COMPOSITION OF A SAWTOOTH WAVE
Figure 27
COMPOSITION OF A PEAKED WAVE
Other Waveforms
If an a-c voltage is substituted for the d-e input voltage in the RC Transient circuits discussed in Chapter 2, the same principles may
be applied in the analysi~ of the transient
behavior. An RC coupling circuit is designed
to have a long time constant with respect to
the lowest frequency it must pass. Such a
circuit is shown in figure 28. If a nonsinusoidal voltage is to be passed unchanged
through the coupling circuit, the time constant
AC Transient Circuits
60
Alternating
IOOV.
IOOC' C.P.S.
Current
E=O.I.UF
L--------.1~-_
~M
THE
Circuits
OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
RA0 I 0
e = IOOV.
(--)
1000 C.P.S.
R xC= 50000
PERIOD OF
.l.ISECONOS
e = 1000 ..USECONOS
Figure 28
R-C COUPLING CIRCUIT WITH
LONG TIME CONSTANT
e0
LEI
-OU:~:TVWAVE FORM
OF GENERATOR
- - -IOOV.
- +IZ'V.
-
+75V.
E=10ov.
(PEAK)
OUTPUT OF
;~F~I::.:;IATOR (eR)
1000'\..
eo
Figure 29
R-C DIFFERENTIATOR AND
INTEGRATOR ACTION ON
A SINE WAVE
Figure 30
RC DIFFERENTIATOR AND
INTEGRATOR ACTION ON
A SQUARE WAVE
Various
voltage waveforms
other than those represented
here may be applied to short
RC circuits for the purpose of producing
across the resistor an output voltage with an
amplitude proportional to the rate of change of
the input signal. The shorter the RC time con
stant is made with respect to the period of the
input wave, the more nearly the voltage across
Miscellaneous
Inputs
HANDBOOK
61
Transformers
e =1oo v.
(PEAK)
"'"
1000 c.P.s.
- - - - - - - +100
eouT
e'"
- - -100
eo
~Yr--II-
v~
t--
,...-
r-
e<.ouT
1--
r-r-
-+90
e'"
OUTPUT OF
~ ~T~:ATOR
Figure 31
R-C DIFFERENTIATOR AND
INTEGRATOR ACTION ON
A SAWTOOTH WAVE
Figure 32
3-4
Transformers
62
Alternating
Current
R AD I 0
THE
Circuits
Figure 33
Amplifier Jeflclent In low frequency response will distort square wave applied to the Input circuit, as
A:
8:
C:
D:
Transformers are used in alternating-current circuits to transfer power at one voltage and impedance to another circuit at another voltage
and impedance. There are three main classifications of transformers: those made for use
in power-frequency circuits, those made for
audio-frequency applications, and those made
for radio frequencies.
Types af
Transformers
Ns
Es
where Np = number of turns in the primary
winding
Ns = number of turns in the secondary
winding
Ep = voltage across the primary winding
E s = voltage
winding
square wave.
the
secondary
Np Is
or--=Ns lp
Npxlp=Nsxls,
'
Figure 34
Output waveshape of amp/Iller having deficiency
In .high-frequency respon ... Tested with 10-kc.
across
Figure 35
Output waveshape of amplifier having limited
low-frequency
Tested
and
high-frequency
with l-lc:c.
response.
square wave.
HANDBOOK
Electric
Filters
OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
INPUT
VOLTAGE
Figure 36
Figure 37
IMPEDANCE-MATCHING TRANSFORMER
Tire reflected Impedance ZP varies directly In
to the secondary /ooJ Z L, anJ
In proportion to tire square ol tire
proportion
directly
Impedance
Transformation
Zp ~ N2 Zs, or N ~ .jZp/Zs
where Zp =reflected primary impedance
N
Zs
63
age. In effect, it is merely ~ contin~ous winding with taps taken at vartous P<;>tnts al~ng
the winding, the input voltage betng app~ted
to the bottom and also to one tap on the wmding. If the output is taken from this same
tap, the voltage ratio will be 1-to-1; i.e., the
input voltage will be the same as the output
voltage. On the other hand, if the outpu~ tap
is moved down toward the common termtnal,
there will be a step-down in the turns ratio
with a consequent step-down in voltage. The
initial setting of the middle input tap is chosen
so that the number of turns will have sufficient reactance to keep the no-load primary
current at a reasonably low value.
3-5
Electric Filters
T-NETWORK
~--F
---YL
_L_
IT
li
Figure 38
Complex 1//ters may be made up lrom these basic
11/ter sect/on.
64
Alternating
Current
THE
Circuits
(S!iUNT-ARM RESONATED)
(sERIES-ARM RESONATED)
l..L
R AD I 0
C1
r~
r2
"z
"'
"z
~
~
<
F'2
F'<t:.
i"<t:.
R=
LOAD RESISTANCE
R =LOAD
L1
= M LK
c,=~K
C2= ~~~ 2 X CK
4_t-t2
C1 = 1
X CK
RESISTANCE
L2=~
C2= M CK
LK=b,
F',
FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY
M=-Ji-(f::Y
CK=
rrhrs:--
LK = 4~f'l
f" 1=CuT-OFF
M:"l/i -(.!)f)2
CK=
4/T~, R
Figure 39
HANDBOOK
Filter
Design
65
R =LOAD
TERMINATING HALF-SECTIONS
M-0.6
~
2C2I
rz-C2
RESISTANCE
HIGH ATTENUATION
L1=o.6LK=MLK
2
c, = 0.207 CK= '4~
LK=-R-
TTf'2
LOWPAS5
CK
C2=o.e CK=MCK
CK= - -1- -
TTf'2R
IlL_ ILf
,,
-f'a:
FREQUENCY
R=
f1
FREQUENCY
LOAD RESISTANCE
=CUT-OFF FREQUENCY
L!=3.7~
C1 = CK
HIGH PASS
L2
=LK
LK =
1~~ 2 X. LK
c.=~
=!i..
0.6
M
Lz= ..!.JL=
o.e ..!.JL
M
il~!<__
FREQUENCY
ID~FREQUENCY
Figure 40
Through the use of the curves and equations which accompany the diagrams In the illustration above it is
possible to determine the correct values of inductance and capacitance for the usual types of pi-section
filters.
66
Alternating
Current
Circuits
CHAPTER FOUR
4-1
Thermionic Emission
Electron
Emission
emitters or cathodes as
used in present-day thermionic electron tubes may be classified into
two groups: the directly-heated or filament
type and the indirectly-heated or heater-cathode
type. Directly-heated emitters may be further
subdivided into three important groups, all
of which are commonly used in modern vacuum
tubes. These classifications are: the puretungsten filament, the thoriated-tungsten
filament, and the oxide-coated filament.
The Pure Tung Pure tungsten wire was used
sten Filament
as the filament in nearly all
the
67
earlier
transmitting
and
68
Vacuum
Tube
THE
Principles
R AD I 0
Figure 1
receiving tubes. However, the thermionic efficiency of tungsten wire as an emitter (the
number of milliamperes emission per watt of
filament heating power) is quite low, the filaments become fragile after use, their life is
rather short, and they are susceptible to burnout at any time. Pure tungsten filaments must
be run at bright white heat (about 2500 Kelvin). For these reasons, tungsten filaments
have been replaced in all applications where
another type of filament could be used. They
are, however, still universally employed in
large water-cooled tubes and in certain large,
high-power air-cooled triodes where another
filament type would be unsuitable. Tungsten
filaments are the most satisfactory for highpower, high-voltage tubes where the emitter
is subjected to positive ion bombardment
caused by the residual gas content of the
tubes. Tungsten is not adversely affected by
such bombardment.
In the course of experiments made upon tungsten
emitters, it was found that
filaments made from tungsten having a small
amount of thoria (thorium oxide) as an impurity had much greater emission than those
made from the pure metal. Subsequent development has resulted in the highly efficient carburized thoriated-tungsten filament as used in
virtually all medium-power transmitting tubes
today.
Thoriated-tungsten emitters consist of a
tungsten wire containing from 1% to 2% thoria.
The activation process varies between different manufacturers of vacuum tubes, but
it is essentially as follows: (l) the tube is
evacuated; (2) the filament is burned for a
short period at about 2800 Kelvin to clean
the surface and reduce some of the thoria
within the filament to metallic thorium; (3)
The ThoriatedTungsten Filament
Reactivating
Thoriated- Tungsten
Filaments
Types
HANDBOOK
of
Emitters
69
Figure 2
V-H-F and U-H-F TUBE TYPES
The tube to the left In this photograph Is a 955 "acorn" triode. The 6F4 acorn triode Is very similar In
appearance to the 955 but has two leads brought out each for the grid and for the plate connection. The
second tube Is a 446A "lighthouse" triode. The 2C40, 2C43, and 2C44 ore more recent examples of the
same type tube and are essentially the some In external appearance. The third tube from the left Is a
2C39 ''oil can tube. This tube type is essentially the Inverse of the lighthouse variety since the cathode
and heater connections come out the small end and the plate Is the large finned radiator on the large encl.
The use of the finned plate radiator makes the oilcan tube capable of approximately 10 times as much
plate dissipation as the lighthouse type. The tube to the right is the 4Xl50A beam tetroc/e. This tube, a
comparatively recent release, Is capable ol somewhat greater power output than any of the other tube
types shown, one/ is ratec/ lor lu/1 output at 500 Me. one/ at rec/ucec/ output at frequencies greater than
1000 Me.
70
Vacuum
Tube
THE
Principles
R AD I 0
Figure 3
CUT-AWAY DRAWING OF A 6C4 TRIODE
The Heater
Cathode
HANDBOOK
Thermionic
Emission
71
BOO
TYPE
6CB6
6W4-GT
EF= 6.3VOLTS
600
fl)
w
a:
w
a..
::;
<
_tiL~lL =-=---~J
HEATER
400
/
.J
.J
f-- 200
<
.J
a.
Figure 4
CUT-AWAY DRAWING OF A 6CB6 PENTODE
/."
v
10
20
30
40
50
Figure 5
AVERAGE PLATE CHARACTERISTICS
OF A POWER DIODE
4-2
The Diode
Space-Charge Limited
Current
At moderate values of
plate voltage the cur-
72
Vacuum
Tube
THE
Principles
R AD I 0
OXIDE COATED
f-
TUNGSTEN FILAMENT
tt
tt
::>
"
w
f-
<(
_j
(l_
Figure 7
PLATE VOLTAGE
Figure 6
MAXIMUM SPACE-CHARGE-LIMITED
EMISSION FOR DIFFERENT
TYPES OF EMITTERS
Plate Current
Saturation
4-3
The Triode
HANDBOOK
Triode
~~ L _L I
~ 4~ri-t.H-7-tl/+r~+i~++.r~~~
1/
v
100
73
1/
Characteristics
200
300
400
500
Figure 8
NEGATIVE-GRID CHARACTERISTICS Op
VS. Ep CURVES) OF A TYPICAL
TRIODE
Average plate characteristics of this type
are most commonly usee/ in determining the
Class A operating characteristics of a
triode amp/ ifier stage.
L\Eg
+-;-)
L\Ep
Rp=--
Mp
Eg
constant, L\
small
increment
Transconductance
74
Vacuum
Tube
THE
Principles
R AD I 0
6J5
Er= e.3
Ebb"'IOO
(lp)
...
..:z
30 0
w
~
-'
~ ~~r----i--~~\+---t~-+---+----0\-4-~
!;(
20 0
<)
!;(
-'
0.
::>
~200~--~--~~-+~~--~--~"~~---~~
::l;
-'
0.
-zo
I
0
--::
-15
-10
-s
GRID VOLTS
VJ
-6 4-20
10
30
$0
eo
eo
oao
100
Figure 10
Figure 9
POSITIVE-GRID CHARACTERISTICS
(lp VS. E9 ) OF A TYPICAL TRIODE
Plate characteristics of this type are most
commonly used In determining the pulse.. slgnal
operating character#sflcs of a triode amplifier
stage. Note the large emission capability of
the oxide-coated heater cathode in tubes of the
general type of the 6J5.
---- =
100 - 200
-.0001
1
= ---
10,000
HANDBOOK
Triode
!P(MA.)
Load
Line
75
E_l'__
300
5
10
250
200
15
150
20
25
30
100
50
Figure 12
Figure II
The static loacl line for a typical triode
tube with a plate loacl resistance of 10,000
ohms.
Application of Tube
Characteristics
31.5
Figure 13
APPLICATION OF lp VS. Ep
CHARACTERISTICS OF
VACUUM TUBE
PLATE VOLTS
1;;
~
t--------1
(EP)
76
Vacuum
Tube
THE
Principles
r--1
:;f:::CG-P
----,
I
I
I
-;f:::
I
I
T~
CP-K
;t:::cc.-1\
L __ _
R AD I 0
- - __ j
Figure 15
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION
OFINTERELECTRODE
CAPACITANCE
T-
EP
T-
Figure 14
POLARITY REVERSAL BETWEEN GRID
AND PLATE VOLTAGES
lnterelectrode
Capacitance
HANDBOOK
Tetrodes
10
(/
eG-O
<f)
(1_
::;;
<(
_j
_j
"'w
2
~
0
!
:/;
b'
100
(1_
::;; 4
o=
200
300
ed"
l
l l
eo"
TYPE 6SK7
esc=ioov.
esu =o v.
<(
400
500
Figure 16
Many desirable characteristics can be obtained in a vacuum tube by the use of more
than one grid. The most common multi-element
tube is the tetrode (four electrodes). Other
tubes containing as many as eight electrodes
are available for special applications.
The quest for a simple and easily
usable method of eliminating the
effects of the grid-to-plate capacitance of the
triode led to the development of the screengrid tube or tetrode. When another grid is
added between the grid and plate of a vacuum
tube the tube is called a tetrode, and because
the new grid is called a screen, as a result of
its screening or shielding action, the tube is
often called a screen-grid tube. The interposed screen grid acts as an electrostatic
shield between the grid and plate, with the
consequence that the grid-to-plate capacitance
is reduced. Although the screen grid is maintained at a positive voltage with respect to
the cathode of the tube, it is maintained at
ground potential with respect to r.f. by means
of a by-pass capacitor of very low reactance
at the frequency of operation.
In addition to the shielding effect, the
screen grid serves another very useful purpose.
Since the screen is maintained at a positive;,
potential, it serves to increase or accelerate
the flow of electrons to the plate. There being
large openings in the screen mesh, most of
The Tetrode
"'w
VOLTS (EP)
4-4
77
Pentodes
10
TYPE 24-A
esc=gov.
and
lc
v
0
100
15
I
200
300
400
500
VOLTS (EP)
Figure 17
TYPICAL lp VS. Ep PENTODE
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
78
Vacuum
Tube
GRIO
Principles
R AD I 0
CoRIO
A THODE
REMOTE CUT-OFF
GRID
C ...THODE
SHARP CUT-OFF
GRID
Figure 18
REMOTE CUTOFF GRID STRUCTURE
tive wtth respect to the mm1mum plate voltage. The secondary electrons that would travel
to the screen if there were no suppressor are
diverted back to the plate. The plate current
is, therefore, not reduced and the amplification possibilities are increased (figure 17).
Pentodes for audio applications are designed so that the suppressor increases the
limits to which the plate voltage may swing;
therefore the consequent power output and
gain can be very great. Pentodes for radiofr~:quency service function in such a manner
that the suppressor allows high voltage gain,
at the same time permitting fairly high gain
at low plate voltage. This holds true even if
the plate voltage is the same or slightly lower
than the screen voltage.
Beam Power
Tubes
THE
GRID VOLTS
Figure 19
ACTION OF A REMOTE CUTOFF
GRID STRUCTURE
HANDBOOK
Mixer
= constant,
11 = small
increment
12
and
Converter
Tubes
79
The Effect of
Grid Current
MP
-<'1Eg
m-
Rp = - -
MP
4-5
80
Vacuum
Tube
THE
Principles
R AD I 0
OSCILLATOR GRID
rl
D
~.SCREEN GRID
J)
CATHODE
PLATE
-1
Es
METAL SHELL
FILAME~: l':
Figure 21
SHOWING THE EFFECT OF CATHODE
LEAD INDUCTANCE
SIGNAL GRtD
Figure 20
GRID STRUCTURE OF 6SA7
CONVERTER TUBE
Conversion
Conductance
low, the local oscillator must furnish cons~derabl~ power to the diode mixer. A good
diode m1xer has an overall gain of about 0. 5.
A triode mixer has better
gain and a better noise figure
than the diode mixer. At low frequencies, the
gain and noise figure of a triode mixer closely
approaches those figures obtained when the
tube is used as an amplifier. In the u-h-f and
v-h-f range, the efficiency of the triode mixer
deteriorates rapidly. The optimum local oscillator voltage for a triode mixer is about 0. 7 as
large as the cutoff bias of the triode. Very
little local oscillator power is required by a
triode mixer.
The Triode Mixer
4-6
HANDBOOK
transit time no longer may be ignored; an
appreciable fraction of a cycle of input signal
may be required for an electron to leave the
cathode space charge, pass through the grid
wires, and travel through the space between
grid and plate.
Effects of
Lead Inductance
The
Klystron
81
4-7
Special Microwave
Electron Tubes
82
Vacuum
Tube
Principles
THE
R AD I 0
600-2~\1.
f!I00-2!>00V.
f1
11.5 VAC
Figure 22
Figure 23
HANDBOOK
The
Magnetron
83
ANODE
-;- MAGNET
:
BATTERY
Figure 25
SIMPLE MAGNETRON OSCILLATOR
EYElET
TUBUlATION
Figure 24
CUTAWAY VIEW OF
WESTERN ELECTRIC 416-B/6280
VHF PLANAR TRIODE TUBE
The 416-B, clesignecl by the Bell
Telephone Laboratories is intenclecl
for amplifier or frequency multiplier
service in the 4000 me region. Employing gricl wires having a diameter
equal to fifteen wavelengths of light,
the 416-B has a tronsconc/uctonce of
50,000.
Spacing between gricl one/
cathode is .0005, to reduce transit
time effects. Entire tube is gofc/ p/atecl.
Vacuum
84
Tube
THE
Principles
R AD I 0
--CATHODE LEADS
"H00E
ANODE STR ... PS
,.t,NOOE SLOCK
"
Figure 26
MODERN MULTI-CAVITY MAGNETRON
lllustratec:l Is an external-anode strapped mag
netron of the type commonly usee/ in radar equip
ment for the 10-cm, range. A permanent magnet
of the general type used with such a magnetron
is shown in the right-hand portion of the drawing,
with the magnetron in place between the pole
pieces of the magnet.
4-8
Figure 27
THE TRAVELLING WAVE TUBE
Operation ol this tube is the result of interaction between the electron beam and wave
travelling along the helix.
electron tube which permits the visual observation of electrical signals. It may be incorporated into an oscilloscope for use as a test
instrument or it may be the display device for
radar equipment or a television receiver.
A cathode-ray tube always ineludes an electron gun for producing a stream of electrons, a
grid for controlling the intensity of the electron beam, and a luminescent screen for converting the impinging electron beam into visible light. Such a tube always operates in conjunction with either a built-in or an external
means for focussing the electron stream into a
narrow beam, and a means for deflecting the
electron beam in accordance with an electrical
signal.
The main electrical difference between
types of cathode-ray tubes lies in the means
employed for focussing and deflecting the
electron beam. The beam may be focussed
and/ or deflected either electrostatically or
magnetically, since a stream of electrons can
be acted upon either by an electrostatic or a
magnetic field. In an electrostatic field the
electron beam tends to be deflected toward the
positive termination of the field (figure 28).
In a magnetic field the stream tends to be
deflected at right angles to the field. Further,
an electron beam tends to be deflected so that
it is normal (perpendicular) to the equipotential
lines of an electrostatic field- and it tends to
be deflected so that it is parallel to the lines
of force in a magnetic field.
Large cathode-ray tubes used as kinescopes
in television receivers usually are both focused
and deflected magnetically. On the other hand,
the medium-size CR tubes used in oscilloscopes and small television receivers usually
are both focused and deflected electrostatically. But CR tubes for special applications
may be focused magnetically and deflected
electrostatically or vice versa.
There are advantages and disadvantages to
Operation of
the CRT
HANDBOOK
Figure 28
TYPICAL ELECTROSTATIC
CATHODE-RAY TUBE
static-deflection cathode-ray
tube is illustrated in the pictorial diagram of
figure 28. The indirectly heated cathode K releases free electrons when heated by the
enclosed filament. The cathode is surrounded
by a cylinder G, which has a small hole in its
front for the passage of the electron stream.
Although this element is not a wire mesh as
is the usual grid, it is known by the same
name because its action is similar: it controls
the electron stream when its negative potential
is varied.
Next in order, is found the first accelerating
anode, H, which resembles another disk or
cylinder with a small hole in its center. This
electrode is run at a high or moderately high
positive voltage, to accelerate the electrons
towards the far end of the tube.
The focussing electrode, F, is a sleeve
which usually contains two small disks, each
with a small hole.
After leaving the focussing electrode, the
electrons pass through another accelerating
The
Cathode
Ray
Tube
85
After the spot is once centered, It IS necessary only to apply a positive or negative voltage (with respect to ground) to one of the
ungrounded or "free" deflector plates in order
to move the spot. If the voltage is positive
with respect to ground, the beam will be
attracted toward that deflector plate, while if
negative the beam and spot will be repulsed.
The amount of deflection is directly propor
tiona! to the voltage (with respect to ground)
that is applied to the free electrode.
With the larger-screen higher-voltage tubes
it becomes necessary to place deflecting voltage on both horizontal and both vertical plates.
This is done for two reasons: First, the amount
of deflection voltage required by the high-
86
Vacuum
Tube
Principles
THE
R AD I 0
Figure 29
TYPICAL ELECTROMAGNETIC
CATHODE-RAY TUBE
Figure 30
Two pairs of coils arranged for electro
magnetic deflection in two directions.
The Trace
HANDBOOK
long as the electron beam strikes in a given
place at least sixteen times a second, the
spot will appear to the human eye as a source
of continuous light with very little flicker.
At least five types of luminescent screen materials
are commonly available on
the various types of CR tubes commercially
available. These screen materials are called
phosphors; each of the five phosphors is best
suited to a particular type of application. The
P-1 phosphor, which has a green flourescence
with medium persistence, is almost invariably
used for oscilloscope tubes for visual observation. The P-4 phosphor, with white fluorescence and medium persistence, is used on
television viewing tubes ("Kinescopes"). The
P-5 and P-ll phosphors, with blue fluorescence and very short persistence, are used
primarily in oscilloscopes where photographic
recording of the trace is to be obtained. The
P-7 phosphor, which has a blue flash and a
long-persistence greenish-yellow persistence,
is used primarily for radar displays where
retention of the image for several seconds
after the initial signal display is required.
Screen Materials"Phasphars"
4-9
Gas Tubes
Gas
Tubes
87
88
Vacuum
Tube
THE
Principles
100
R AD I 0
IP= 2..5MA.
60
_,--
60
.l.J
40
20
10
2.0
30
40
50
60
EP (VOLTS)
TRIODE PLA~E
FLUORESCENT ANODE
TRIODE CRIO
--
RAY CONTROL
ELECTRODE
CATHODES
Figure 31
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION
OF "MAGIC EYE" TUBE
Figure 32
AMPLIFICATION FACTOR 0 F TYPICAL MODE
TUBE DROPS RAPIDLY AS PLATE VOLTAGE
IS DECREASED BELOW 20 VOLTS
4-10
HANDBOOK
Miscellaneous
50
r:=~:
40
/i
1/
30
(MA.
89
I
20
vv
10
-10
-8
-2
EG2 (VOLTS)
EG1:::12.6V
Figure 33
erratic.
By employing special processing techniques
CHAPTER FIVE
Transistors and
Semi-Conductors
5-1
}_
CRYISTAL DIIOE
40
TYPICAL
en
UJ
f5
It has been previously stated that the electrons in an element having a large atomic
number are grouped into rings, each ring having a definite number of electrons. Atoms in
which these rings are completely filled are
called inert gases, of which helium and argon
are examples. All other elements have one or
more incomplete rings of electrons. If the incomplete ring is loosely bound, the electrons
may be easily removed, the element is called
metallic, and is a conductor of electric current.
If the incomplete ring is tightly bound, with
only a few missing electrons, the element is
called non-metallic and is an insulator of electric current. Germanium and silicon fall between these two sharply defined groups, and
exhibit both metallic and non-metallic characteristics. Pure germanium or silicon may be
considered to be a good insulator. The addition
of certain impurities in carefully controlled
amounts to the pure germanium will alter the
conductivity of the material. In addition, the
choice of the impurity can change the direction
of conductivity through the crystal, some impurities increasing conductivity to positive voltages, and others increasing conductivity to negative voltages.
I 1 N34
~TATIC \CHARACTERISTICS
1/
30
a.
:l!
~
.J 2 0
.J
:l!
0
5-2
-o. 1
-o.2
-o .
-0 .
,/
-so
-4o
30
20
- 10
Atomic Structure of
Germanium and Silicon
Mechanism of
Conduction
VOLTS
Figure lA
TYPICAL CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
OF SEMI-CONDUCTOR DIODE
90
Transistors
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION
vd.
where
CATHODES
---c::J>=.
==-==IQF==~
r
Color Band8
Gluo
----ic::::Jif----
.......
TUBE, GERMANIUM, SILICON
AND SELtNIUM DIODES
Figure 1-B
= p.E
E
p.
ANODES
91
= mobility of hole
ll
.a&~"
Figure 2A
Figure 2B
PICTORIAL EQUIVALENT OF
92
THE RADIO
E~ITTER~COLLECTOR
~CONNECTIO
BASE~
~BASE
8A.5E. CONNECTION
SUPPORT
P-N-P TRANSISTOR OR
POINT CONTACT TRANSISTOR
N-P-N TRANSISTOR
Figure 4
ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS
FOR TRANSISTORS
Figure 3
CONSTRUCTION DETAIL OF A
POINT CONTACT TRANSISTOR
5-3
The Transistor
In the past few years an entire new technology has been developed for the application
of certain semiconducting materials in production of devices having gain properties. These
gain properties were previously found only in
vacuum tubes. The elements germanium and
silicon are the principal materials which exhibit the proper semiconducting properties permitting their application in the new amplifying devices called transistors. However,
other semiconducting materials, including the
compounds indium antimonide and lead sulfide
have been used experimentally in the production of transistors.
Transistor Action
HANDBOOK
collective action. The P-N-P transistor consists of a piece of N-type germanium on opposite sides of which a layer of P-type material has been grown by the fusion process.
Terminals are connected to the two P-sections
and to the N-type base. The transistor may be
considered as two P-N junction rectifiers
placed in close juxaposition with a semiconduction crystal coupling the two rectifiers
together. The left-hand terminal is biased in
the forward (or conducting) direction and is
called the emitter. The right-hand terminal is
biased in the back (or reverse) direction and
is called the collector The operating potentials
are chosen with respect to the base terminal,
which may or may not be grounded. If an
N-P-N transistor is used in place of the P-N-P,
the operating potentials are reversed.
The P. - Nb junction on the left is biased
in the forward direction and holes from the
P region are injected into the Nb region, producing therein a concentration of holes substantially greater than normally present in the
material. These holes travel across the base
region towards the collector, attracting neighboring electrons, finally increasing the available supply of conducting electrons in the
collector loop. As a result, the collector loop
possesses lower resistance whenever the emitter circuit is in operation. In junction transistors this charge transport is by means of
diffusion wherein the charges move from a
region of high concentration to a region of
lower concentration at the collector. The collector, biased in the opposite direction, acts
as a sink for these holes, and is said to collect them.
It is known that any rectifier biased in the
forward direction has a very low internal impedance, whereas one biased in the back direction has a very high internal impedance. Thus,
current flows into the transistor in a low impedance circuit, and appears at the output as
current flowing in a high impedance circuit.
The ratio of a change in collector current to
a change in emitter current is called the current
amplification, or alpha:
lc
a=-
ie
Transistors
93
Alpha Cutoff
Frequency
94
THE RADIO
POTENTIAL ENERGY
OF MAJORITY CARRIER
~
~
fv
.,-:6'"
/
2
BASE
REGION
I
I
DEPL.ETION
j COLLECTOR
RECION
1-tr
\0
~~
!---",.....
p.
f--
rs: ~ ...-
T-"0
EMITTER
-- ------ .u,l.
f--"
1--" ~ ~
1--"
~~
1-- ~
!------
1--" ~
,...- f-20
30
l'\
so
40
eo
70
COLLECTOR VOLTS
DISTANCE
Figure 5
5-4
Transistor
Characteristics
100,---.----.---,----,---.----.---.---.
<
~ 40~--+---~~~~~~~4---~+--4--~
...:
~ ~---r~~--~~~~~-+--~----+-=-~
a:
a:
32o~--+-f--r~~---..f-~~~~---47L~
"'
f~ I0~-,~--~---4~--r-~~--~c-.~--~
Q.
7~
100
125
150
200
PLATE VOLTS
Figure 6
COMPARISON OF POINT-CONTACT
TRANSISTOR AND VACUUM TUBE
CHARACTERISTICS
HANDBOOK
+
~+
a:
:::!i
II
<(
:J
EM TTE
hAl .......
PS.
II
_J
~+ 4
t-L ~ ~
a:
1'--
M+ 2
::l
t--
"
BASE
r- 1-
0
-t.O
POINT-CONTACT
-0.~
+~
+1.0
+1~
+20
+25
COLLECTOR VOLTS
PARAMETER
te
The output characteristics of a typical pointcontact transistor are shown in figure 6. The
pentode characteristics are less evident, 'lnd the
output impedance is much lower, with the
range of linear operation extending down to
a collector voltage of 2 or 3. Of greater practical interest, however, is the input characteristic curve with short-circuited, or nearly shortcircuited input, as shown in figure 8. It is
this point-contact transistor characteristic of
having a region of negative impedance that
lends the unit to use in switching circuits. The
transistor circuit may be made to have two
one or zero stabl!' operating points, dependin~
upon the bias voltages and the load impedance
used.
Equivalent Circuit
of a Transistor
Cl)
~
>
a:
~:
~~
....
:::!i
Figure 8
EMITTER CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
FOR TYPICAL POINT CONTACT
TRANSISTOR
JUNCTION
I Ue~~~~~~~~~~v.) I {j.e:~~~~.~~~~3v.)
-UUTTER
toon.
30A
~f5,~1~c
300I\
300A
RESISTANCE
Figure 7
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF
TYPICAL JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
95
c( le
Cl)
Transistor Characteristics
tc.
COLLECTOR
20000
~.::.;~~~~f:JION
2.0
RESISTANCE
n.
t MEGOHM
0.97
Figure 9
LOW FREQUENCY EQUIVALENT
<Common Basel CIRCUIT FOR POINT
CONTACT AND JUNCTION
TRANSISTOR
convenient equivalent circuit for the low frequency small signal performance of both pointcontact and junction transistors is shown in
figure 9. r., rb, and r,, are dynamic resistances
whi<;h can be associated with the emitter base
and collector regions of the transistor: The
current generator ai., represents the transport
of charge from emitter to collector. Typical
values of the equivalent circuit are shown in
figure 9.
There are three basic transistor configurations: grounded
base connection, grounded
emitter connection, and grounded collector
connection. These correspond r o u g h 1 y to
grounded grid, grounded cathode, and grounded plate circuits in vacuum tube terminology
(figure 10) .
. The grounded base circuit has a low input
Impedance and high output impedance, and no
p_has~ reversal of signal from input to output
orcu1t. The grounded emitter circuit has a
?igher input impedance and a lower output
Impedance than the grounded base circuit, and
a reversal of phase between the input and output signal occurs. This circuit usually provides
maximum voltage gain from a transistor. The
?roun~ed collector circuit has relatively high
1nput Impedance, low output impedance, and
no phase reversal of signal from input to output circuit. Power and voltage gain are both
Transistor
Configurations
low.
Figure 11 illustrates some practical vacuum
tube circuits, as applied to transistors.
96
GROUNDED EMITTER
CONNECTION
GROUNDED BASE
CONNECTION
THE RADIO
GROUNDED COLLECTOR
CONNECTION
Figure 10
5-5
Transistor Circuitry
FLIP-FLOP COUNTER
R.F. OSCILLATOR
ONE-STAGE RECEIVER
~~
t---1-f~
BLOCKING OSCILLATOR
CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
DIRECT-COUPLED AMPLIFIER
Figure 11
AUDIO AMPLIFIER
HANDBOOK
Transistor Circuitry
97
-E
-E
LOAD
;:Nv;;....~-4_:.R:_:E.;_S t S TOR
R2=1oRe
Re
=soo-1ooo .n.
50 ..UF
'----.--.--1----.J
-::-
+ (%~~~~~
;:AL:::;;OR)
Figure 12
The voltage divider system of Cis recommended for general transistor use. Ratio of R1/Rz
establishes base bias, and emitter bias is provided by voltage drop across Re.
-12 v.
+12 v
-9 V.
~1]11
"'::'
500K.10K
Figure 13
a high impedance crystal microphone, a step~down translormer matches the low input impedance of the
98
THE RADIO
0.1M
0.1 M
.tj -
CK 722
10JJF
0
10 K
_B~
L---V'RNI'--'....
4.7K
GAIN'V
Figure 14
lO.UF
47K
10JJF
10K
The feedback loop of B may be added to the r-c amplifier to reduce distortion, or to control the
audio response. A direct coupled amplifier is shown in C.
figure 15B. This circuit may be used to directly drive a high impedance loudspeaker,
eliminating the output transformer. A direct
coupled three stage amplifier having a gain
figure of 80 db is shown in figure 15C.
The transistor may also be used as a class
A power amplifier, as shown in figure 16A.
Commercial transistors are available that will
provide five or six watts of audio power when
operating from a 12 volt supply. The smaller
units provide power levels of a few milliwatts. The correct operating point is chosen so
that the output signal can swing equally in the
positive and negative directions, as shown in
the collector curves of figure 16B.
The proper primary impedance of the ourput transformer depends upon the amount of
power to be delivered to the load:
E,'
2P.
R.=--
2P.
Ee
Ic-=--
NPN
PNP
2N78
2N78
NPN
NPN
2N77
PNP
Figure 15
HANDBOOK
Transistor Circuitry
99
2N 187A
Figure 16
TYPICAL CLASS-A
AUDIO POWER
TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT.
0
The operating point of the class B amplifier is set on the I,=O axis at the point where
the collector voltage equals the supply voltage.
The collector to collector impedance of the
output transformer is:
2E, 2
Rc-c=-Po
In the class B circuit, the maximum a-c
power input is approximately equal to five
times the allowable collector dissipation of
each transistor. Power transistors, such as the
2N301 have collector dissipation ratings of
5.5 watts and operate with class B efficiency
of about 67%. To achieve this level of operation the heavy duty transistor relies upon efficient heat transfer from the transistor case
to the chassis, using the large thermal capacity
of the chassis as a heat sink. An infinite heat
sink may be approximated by mounting the
transistor in the center of a 6" x 6" copper or
aluminum sheet. This area may be part of a
larger chassis.
The collector of most power transistors is
electrically connected to the case. For applications where the collector is not grounded a
thin sheet of mica may be used between the
case of the transistor and the chassis.
Power transistors such as the Phi/co T-1041
may be used in the common collector class B
ADJUST R_ 1<..:FO:..R.=..;;c;;.-w1Kl/'--:!;-c-c_.=-o.3 ~~ ~:
0.4 II. BAS BIAS
[CC (MAX.)=t.3!:>A.
Po=
Figure 17
CLASS-B AUDIO AMPLIFIER CIRCUITRY.
10 WATTS
The common collector circuit ol C permits the transistor to be bolte<t directly to the chassis for efficient
heat transfer from the transistor case to the chassis.
100
THE RADIO
10 K
82. K
-:+9V.
Figure 18
TRANSISTORIZED 1-F AMPLIFIERS.
Rate
Figure 19
AUTOMATIC VOLUME
CONTROL CIRCUIT
FOR TRANSISTORIZED
1-F AMPLIFIER.
A.V.C. LINE
0.1 M
-9 v.
transistors are used, It 1s necessary to neutralize the circuit to obtain stability (figure 18Bl.
The gain of a transistor i-f amplifier will
decrease as the emitter current is decreased.
This transistor property can be used to control
the gain of an i-f amplifier so that weak and
strong signals will produce the same audio
output. A typical i-f strip incorporating this
automatic volume control action is shown in
figure 19.
R-f transistors may be used as mixers or
autodyne converters much in the same manner
as vacuum tubes The autodyne circuit is shown
m figure 20. Transformer T, feeds back a
C2
r
I
T3
L
Figure 20
THE AUTODYNE CONVERTER CIRCUIT
USING A 2N168A AS A MIXER.
+:J
10.UF
signal from the collector to the emitter causing oscillation. Capacitor C tunes the oscillator
circuit to a frequency 4 55 kc. higher than that
of the incoming signal. The local oscillator
signal is inductively coupled into the emitter
circuit of the transistor. The incoming signal
is resonated in T, and coupled via a low impedance winding to the base circuit. Notice
that the base is biased by a voltage divider
circuit much the same as is used in audio frequency operation. The two signals are mixed
in this stage and the desired beat frequency of
455 kc. is selected by i-f transformer T, and
passed to the next stage. Collector currents of
0.6 rna. to 0.8 rna. are common, and the local
oscillator injection voltage at the emitter is m
the range of 0.15 to 0.25 volts, r.m.s.
A complete receiver "front end" capable of
operation up to 23 Me. is shown in figure 21.
The RCA 2N24 7 drift transistor is used for
the r-f amplifier (TR1), mixer (TR2), and
high frequency oscillator (TR3). The 2N247
incorporates an interlead shield, cutting the
interlead capacitance to .003 fLpJd. If proper
shielding is employed between the tuned circuits of the r-f stage, no neutralization of the
stage is required. The complete assembly obtains power from a 9-volt transistor battery.
Note that input and output circuits of the transistors are tapped at low impedance points on
the r-f coils to achieve proper impedance match.
HANDBOOK
Transistor Circuitry
101
r-------~------~~~------4r------9
Figure 21
RF AMPLIFIER, MIXE.R,
AND OSCILLATOR
STAGES FOR
TRANSISTORIZED
HIGH FREQUENCY
RECEIVER. THE RCA
2N247 DRIFT
TRANSISTOR IS
CAPABLE OF
EFFICIENT OPERATION
UP TO 23 Me.
39 K
470
39K
470
,001
I
I
I=
I
I
L -
----'- -
-- I
I
39 K
.05
~-t--,~~~~~------+1~
- Q05 O.IM
PNP
_ 2N247
1N81-
1N81
=
Figure 23
COMPLEMENTARY HARTLEY
OSCILLATOR
P-N-P and N-P-N transistors form high stability oscillator. Feedback between P-N-P
emitter and N-P-N collector is controlled by
R,. INBI diodes are used as amplitude limiters. Frequency of oscillation is determined
by L, c,-c,.
RFC
-E
RFC
PNP
-E
Figure 22
TYPICAL TRANSISTOR OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS
A-Grounded Emitter Hartley
B-Grounded Base Hartley
C-2N247 Oscillator Suitable lor 50 Me. operation.
102
THE RADIO
P01Nf-CONTACT
TRANSISTOR
C1
IC1
EE
R2
--t
CHARGING
PERIOD
----t--~IE
0
Figure 25
Figure 24
NEGATIVE RESISTANCE OF
POINT-CONTACT TRANSISTOR
PERMITS HIGH FREQUENCY
OSCILLATION (50 Mel WITHOUT
WITHOUT NECESSITY OF
EXTERNAL FEEDBACK PATH.
Transistors have almost unlimited use in relaxation and R-C oscillator service. The negative resistance characteristic of the point contact transistor make it well suited to such application.
Surface barrier transistors are also widely used
in this service, as they have the highest alpha
cutoff frequency among the group of "alphaless-than-unity'" transistors. Relaxation oscillators used for high speed counting require transistors capable of operation at repetition rates
of 5 Me. to 10 Me.
A simple emitter controlled relaxation oscillator is shown in figure 25, together with
its operating characteristic. The emitter of the
transistor is biased to cutoff at the start of the
cycle (point 1 ) . The charge on the emitter capacitor slowly leaks to ground through the
emitter resistor, R,. Discharge time is determined by the time constant of R.C. When the
emitter voltage drops sufficiently low to permit
the transistor to reach the negative resistance
region (point 2) the emitter and collector resistances drop to a low value, and the collector
Relaxation
Oscillators
-E
+E
8.2 K
10 K
0
Figure 26
HANDBOOK
Transistor Circuitry
103
<OK
PHONES
Ct-
Figure 28
SCHEMATIC, TRANSISTORIZED BROADCAST BAND (500- 1600 KC.l SUPERHETER'ODYNE RECEIVER.
Figure 27
"WRIST RADIO" CAN BE MADE
WITH LOOPSTICK, DIODE, AND
INEXPENSIVE CK-722 TRANSISTOR.
A TWENTY FOOT ANTENNA WIRE
WILL PROVIDE GOOD RECEPTION
IN STRONG SIGNAL AREAS.
state, since a time lapse occurs before the output waveform starts to decrease. This storage
time is caused by the transit lag of the minority
carriers in the base of the transistor. Proper circuit design and the use of high-alpha transistors can reduce the effects of storage time to a
minimum. Driving pulses may be coupled to
the multivibrator through steering diodes as
shown in the illustration.
S-6
Transistor Circuits
With the introduction of the dollar transistor, many interesting and unusual experiments and circuits may be built up by the beginner in the transistor field. One of the most
interesting is the "wrist watch" receiver, illustrated in figure 2 7. A diode and a transistor
amplifier form a miniature broadcast receiver,
which may be built in a small box and carried
on the person. A single 1.5-volt penlite cell
provides power for the transistor, and a short
length of antenna wire will suffice in the vicinity of a local broadcasting station.
A transistorized superhetrodyne for broadcast reception is shown in figure 28. No antenna is required, as a ferrite "loop-stick" is
used for the r-f input circuit of the 2NI36
mixer transistor. A miniature magnetic "hearing aid" type earphone may be employed with
this receiver.
A simple phonograph amplifier designed
for use with a high impedance crystal pickup
is shown in figure 29. Two stages of amplifi-
104
ZP
22.0 K
CRYSTcl-0
K !J -
.05
PICKUP
-b-
= 300
4 7
4.7
2JJF
1K
100..UF~
~100.UF
-12.
v.
4-50 MA
Figure 29
HIGH GAIN, LOW DISTORTION AUDI'O AMPLIFIER, SUITABLE FOR USE
WITH A CRYSTAL PICKUP. POWER OUTPUT IS 250 MILLIWATTS.
E&E TECHNI-SHEET
TABLE OF WROUGHT STEEL STANDARD PIPE
(BLACK OR GALVANIZED) RANDOM LENGTHS. 20-21 FEET
NOMINAL SIZE
O.D.
I. D.
POUNDS
INCHES
1/8 11
1/4 11
3/8"
1/2 11
3/4 11
1 II
INCHES
.405
.540
.675
.840
1.050
1 .31 5
1 .660
1 .900
2.375
2.875
3.500
4.000
4.500
INCHES
.269
.364
.493
.622
.824
1 .049
1 .380
1. 610
2.067
2.469
3.068
3.548
4.026
PER FOOT
.244
.424
.567
.850
1.130
1 .678
2.272
2.717
3.652
5.793
7.575
9 .1 09
10.790
1 1/4"
1 1/2"
211
2 1/2"
311
3 1/2"
411
NOMINAL SIZE
O.D.
INCHES
3/8"
1/2 II
3/4 11
1 II
INCHES
.577
.706
.922
1.16 3
1.508
1. 738
2.195
1/4 11
1/2"
1
1
2"
I. D.
INCHES
.493
.622
.824
1.049
1.308
1 .61 0
2.067
POUNDS
PER FOOT
.250
.321
.488
. 711
1.000
1.180
1.500
WT. #/FT.
1 /8
.o 1 5
II
3/16"
1/4 II
.033
.059
CHAPTER SIX
6-1
Electrode Potentials
Ebb -d-e plate supply voltage (a positive
quantity)
Ecc- d-e grid supply voltage (a negative
quantity)
Egm -peak grid excitation voltage (~ total
peak-to-peak grid swing)
Epm -peak plate voltage (~ total peak-to-peak
plate swing)
ep -instantaneous plate potential
eg -instantaneous grid potential
epmin -minimum instantaneous plate voltage
egmp -maximum positive instantaneous grid
voltage
EP- static plate voltage
Eg- static grid voltage
eco - cutoff bias
Tube Constants
f-L- amplification factor
Electrode Currents
lb- average plate current
I c - average grid current
Ipm- peak fundamental plate current
ipmax -maximum instantaneous plate current
igmax.- maximum instantaneous grid current
lp -static plate current
I g - static grid current
lnterelectrode Capacitances
Other Symbols
106
Classes
r---.
r-~-r--
CCP;f:
I
c1N
;.r::
;h:CoUT
I
... ---"'
I
TRIODE
PENTODE OR TETRODE
Figure 1
STATIC
INTER ELECTRODE
CAPACITANCES WITHIN A TRIODE, PENTODE,
OR TETRODE
of
Amplifiers
= Cgk + ( 1 + A cos
Input resistance =
P 8 - grid dissipation
Np -plate efficiency( expressed as a decimal)
ep -one-half angle of plate current flow
eg -one-half angle of grid current flow
R L -load resistance
ZL -load impedance
107
e) Cgp
-~)
w Cgp
A sine
Where: Cgk = grid-to-cathode capacitance
cgp = grid-to-plate capacitance
A = voltage amplification of the tube
alone
= phase angle of the plate load impedance, positive for inductive
loads, negative for capacitive
Vacuum- Tube
Constants
lnterelectrode
The values of interelectrode
Capacitances and capacitance published in
Miller Effect
vacuum-tube tables are the
Neutralization
af lnterelectrade
Capacitance
6-2
108
Vacuum
Tube
THE
Amplifiers
R AD I 0
Class A2
Amplifier
Figure 2
TYPES OF BIAS SYSTEMS
A- Grid bias
B - Cathode bias
less than one-half the time. Actually, the conventional operating conditions for a Class C
amplifier are such that plate current flows for
120 to 150 of the exciting voltage waveshape.
Types of
Amplifiers
6-3
Biasing Methods
Amplifier
HANDBOOK
cathode of the tube is held at a positive potential with respect to ground by the amount of
the IR drop because the grid is at ground potential. Since the biasing voltage depends
upon the flow of plate current the tube cannot
be held in a cutoff condition by means of the
cathode bias voltage developed across the
cathode resistor. The value of this resistor is
determined by the bias required and the plate
current which flows at this value of bias, as
found from the tube characteristic curves.
A capacitor is shunted across the bias resistor
to provide a low impedance path to ground for
the a-c component of the plate current which
results from an a-c input signal on the grid.
The third method of providing a biasing
voltage is shown in figure 2C.' and is c~lled
grid-leak bias. During the portion of the I_n~mt
cycle which causes the grid. to be positive
with respect to the cathode, gnd current flows
from cathode to grid, charging capacitor C~.
When the grid draws current, the grid-to-~at?o.de
resistance of the tube drops from an mflmte
value to a very low value, on the order of
1,000 ohms or so, making the chargin~ time
constant of the capacitor very short. This enables Cg to charge up to essentially the full
value of the positive input voltage and results
in the grid (which is connected to the low potential plate of the capacitor) being held essentially at ground potent~al. During _the negative swing of the input signal no gr_Id current
flows and the discharge path of Cg Is through
the grid resistance which has a value of
500 000 ohms or so. The discharge time consta~t for C 8 is, therefore, v~ry lon~ in comparison to the period of the mput signal and
only a small part of the charge on C 8 is lo~t.
Thus, the bias voltage developed by the discharge of C 8 is substantially constant an~ ~he
grid is not permitted to follow the posltive
portions of the input signal.
6-4
Distortion in Amplifiers
INPUT
SIGNAL
Distortion
1 09
1~1
1
I
I~I
OUTPUT
SIGNAL
'"'J
I
1
I
Figure 3
Frequency
Distortion
Phase
Di stortio'h
6-5
ResistanceCapacitance Coupled
Audio-Frequency Amp I ifiers
11 0
Vacuum
Tube
Figure 4
STANDARD CIRCUIT FOR RESISTANCE
CAPACITANCE COUPLED TRIODE AM
PLIFIER STAGE
R-C Coupled
Triode Stages
E =-.U EG
THE
Amplifiers
rn
RG
R AD I 0
A=
.U RL RG
RP (RL +Rc;)+RL RG
RG
CGK
(DYNAMIC~
NEXT STAGE)
r=7.:"=1==:;;::==;:;=
V1 +
(REQ/Xs) 2
REQ=--~~R~~-1+B.k_+.B.!,_
RG
Xs =
ITJ
p
E=-.U Ec;
Rc;
A LOW FREQ.
A MID FREQ.
RP
2TTF (CPK+CGK
(OVN.O.MIC)
V1+(Xc/R)
1
""""'2""rr"""'c"'c=---------
Xc
= Rc; +
RL RP
.....,R.f.L'";:+-jR~P;:--
Figure 5
Equivalent circuits and gain equations for a triode R-C coupled amplifier stage. In using these
equations, be sure to select the values of mu and Rp which ore proper for the static current and
voltages with which the tube will operate. These values may be obtained from curves published
in the RCA Tube Handbook RC- 76.
HANDBOOK
R-C
Figure 6
Figure 7
Equivalent circuits and
gain equations for a pen-
Amplifiers
111
Cc
R-C Coupled
Pentode Stages
Coupled
]]~}
A= GM REQ
REQ =
RL
1+~+~~
__tlDCK(OYNAMIC)
A Htc;H FREQ.
A MID
FREQ.
V1+ (REQ/Xs)
~~
__L_JRG
A LOW FREO.
A MID FREQ.
Xc =
R= RG
2 TTF Cc
+
~~+ ~:
1 12
Vacuum
Tube
Amplifiers
1.
100
1000
100
THE
R AD I 0
1 0000
100000
000
MID-FREQUENCY GAIN
GMV1 RL
HIGH-FREQUENCY G.4.1N
GM V1
CouT V1
i! COUPLING
+ (
INV2
NETWORK
+C
DISTRIBUTED
FREQUENCY (c.P.S)
FOR COMPROMISE HIGH FREQUENCY EQUALIZATION.
Figure 8
The variation of stage gain with frequency
in an r-c coupled pentode amplifier for vari
ous values of plate load resistance
XLL = 0.!1 Xc AT fc
RL = Xc AT f'c
WHERE f C::: CUTOFF FREQUENCY OF AMPLIFIER
LL
PEAKING INDUCTOR
Rs = RK (GM V1 RL)
ReCs=RKCK
Crc.
001 MICA
Figure 9
SIMPLE COMPENSATED VIDEO
AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
Resistor RL in conjunction with coil L
serves to flatten the high-frequency respons~
of the stage, while C and R serve to equal8
ize the low-frequency respo~se of this sim
pie video amplifier stage.
HANDBOOK
6-6
Video-Frequency
Amplifiers
11 3
resistance-capacitance coupling is most commonly used, there are certain circuit condi
tions wherein coupling methods other than
resistance capacitance are more effective.
Transformer coupling, as illus
trated in figure lOB, is seldom
used at the present time between
two successive single-ended stages of an
audio amplifier. There are several reasons why
resistance coupling is favored over transformer
coupling between two successive single-ended
stages. These are: ( 1) a transformer having
frequency characteristics comparable with a
properly designed R-C stage is very expensive;
(2) transformers, unless they are very well
shielded, will pick up inductive hum from
nearby power and filament transformers; (3)
the phase characteristics of step-up interstage
transformers are poor, making very difficult
the inclusion of a transformer of this type
within a feedback loop; and (4) transformers
are heavy.
However, there is one circuit application
where a step-up interstage transformer is of
considerable assistance to the designer; this
is the case where it is desired to obtain a
large amount of voltage to excite the grid of a
cathode follower or of a high-power Class A
amplifier from a tube operating at a moderate
plate voltage. Under these conditions it is pos
sible to obtain a peak voltage on the secondary
of the transformer of a value somewhat greater
than the d-e plate supply voltage of the tube
supplying the primary of the transformer.
Transformer
Coupling
Push-pull transformer
coupling between two
stages is illustrated in
figure lOC. This interstage coupling arrang~
ment is fairly commonly used. The system 1s
particularly effective when it is desired, as in
the system just described, to obtain a fairly
high voltage to excite the grids of ~ highpower audio stage. The arrangement 1s also
very good when it is desired to apply feedback to the grids of the push-pull stage by
applying the feedback voltage to the lowpotential sides of the two push-pull second
aries.
Push-Pull Transformer
lnterstage Coupling
Impedance
Coupling
6-7
Other lnterstage
Coupling Methods
114
Vacuum
Tube
THE
Amplifiers
RESISTANCE-CAPACITANCE COUPLING
@TRANSFORMER COUPLING
IMPEDANCE-TRANSFORMER COUPLING
+B
=
@
CATHODE COUPLING
R AD I 0
IMPEDANCE COUPLING
RESISTANCE-TRANSFORMER COUPLING
DIRECT COUPLING
Figure 10
Impedance- Transformer
and Resistance Transformer Coup I in g
stage be isolated from the primary of the coupling transformer. With most types of highpermeability wide-response transformers it is
necessary that there be no direct-current flow
through the windings of the transformer. The
impedance-transformer arrangement of figure
IOE will give a higher voltage output from
the stage but is not often used since the plate
coupling impedance (choke) must have very
high inductance and very low distributed capacitance in order not to restrict the range of
HANDBOOK
Phase
G = RK G" (1
+~ )
RK =CATHODE RESISTOR
JJ' = -JJ
G~1
lJ = J.J
RP
OF EACH TUBE
= RP OF EACH TUB
Figure 11
Inverters
11 5
same type tubes with the values of plate voltage and load resistance to be used for the
cathode-coupled stage.
Inspection of the equations in figure 11
shows that as the cathode resistor is made
smaller, to approach zero, the Gm approaches
zero, the plate resistance approaches the Rp
of one tube, and the mu approaches zero. As
the cathode resistor is made very large the Gm
approaches one half that of a single tube of
the same type, the plate resistance approaches
twice that of one tube, and the mu approaches
the same value as one tube. But since the Gm
of each tube decreases as the cathode resistor
is made larger (since the plate current will
decrease on each tube) the optimum value of
cathode resistor will be found to be in the
vicinity of the value mentioned in the previous
paragraph.
Direct coupling between successive amplifier stages (plate
of first stage connected directly to the grid of
the succeeding stage) is complicated by the
fact that the grid of an amplifier stage must
be operated at an average negative potential with respect to the cathode of that stage.
However, if the cathode of the second amplifier stage can be operated at a potential more
positive than the plate of the preceding stage
by the amount of the grid bias on the second
amplifier stage, this direct connection between
the plate of one stage and the grid of the succeeding stage can be used. Figure IOH illustrates an application of this principle in
the coupling of a pentode amplifier stage to
the grid of a "hot-cathode" phase inverter. In
this arrangement the values of cathode, screen,
and plate resistor in the pentode stage are
chosen such that the plate of the pentode is at
approximately 0. 3 times the plate supply potential. The succeeding phase-inverter stage
then operates with conventional values of
cathode and plate resistor (same value of resistance) in its normal manner. This type of
phase inverter is described in more detail in
the section to follow.
Direct Coupling
6-8
Phase Inverters
116
Vacuum
Tube
THE
Amplifiers
phase through the use of a so-called phaseinverter stage. There are a large number of
phase inversion circuits which have been developed and applied b.ut the three shown in
figure 12 have been found over a period of
time to be the most satisfactory from the point
of view of the number of components required
and from the standpoint of the accuracy with
which the two out-of-phase voltages are held
to the same amplitude with changes in supply
voltage and changes in tubes.
All of these vacuum tube phase inverters
are based upon the fact that a 180 phase
shift occurs within a vacuum tube between the
grid input voltage and the plate output voltage.
In certain circuits, the fact that the grid input
voltage and the voltage appearing across the
cathode bias resistor are in phase is used for
phase inversion purposes.
@)
R AD I 0
Figure 12A illustrates the hotcathode type of phase inverter. This type of phase inverter is the simplest of the three types since
it requires only one tube and a minimum of
circuit components. It is particularly simple
when directly coupled from the plate of a
pentode amplifier stage as shown in figure
lOH. The circuit does, however, possess the
following two disadvantages: ( 1) the cathode
of the tube must run at a potential of approximately 0.3 times the plate supply voltage
above the heater when a grounded common
heater winding is used for this tube as well
as the other heater-cathode tubes in a receiver
or amplifier: (2) the circuit actually has a
loss in voltage from its input to either of the
output grids- about 0. 9 times the input voltage will be applied to each of these grids.
This does represent a voltage gain of about
1.8 in total voltage output with respect to input (grid-to-grid output voltage) but it is still
small with respect to the other two phase
inverter circuits shown.
Recommended component values for use
with a 6]5 tube in this circuit are shown in
figure 12A. If it is desired to use another tube
in this circuit, appropriate values for the operation of that tube as a conventional amplifier
can be obtained from manufacturer's tube data.
The value of RL obtained should be divided by
two, and this new value of resistance placed
in the circuit as RL. The value of Rk from
tube manual tables should then be used as
Rkl in this circuit, and then the total of Rkl
and Rk 2 should be equal to RL.
"Hot-Cathode"
Phase Inverter
An alternate type of
phase inverter sometimes called the "floating paraphase" is illustrated in figure 12B.
This circuit is quite often used with a 6N7
"Floating Paraphase"
Phase Inverter
+B300V.
Figure 12
THREE POPULAR PHASE-INVERTER CIRCUITS WITH RECOMMENDED VALUES FOR
CIRCUIT COMPONENTS
HANDBOOK
Vacuum
.01
Rs
Tube
Voltmeter
117
Rs
RP2
D.C.
INPUT
Ec
- llf:.:+-+--------+----.::r
EP
Figure 14
DIRECT COUPLED
D-C AMPLIFIER
+6,3001/,
Figure 13
VOLTAGE DIVIDER PHASE
INVERTER
6-9
118
Vacuum
Tube
THE
Amplifiers
R AD I 0
Figure 15
LOFTIN-WHITE
D-C AMPLIFIER
Figure 16
PUSH-PULL D-C AMPLIFIER
WITH EITHER SINGLE-ENDED
OR PUSH-PULL INPUT
6-10
Single-ended Triode
Amplifiers
Extended Class A
Operation
(and
grid
grid
This
HANDBOOK
Triode
Amplifier
Characteristics
-(0. 68
-ll
11 9
Ebb)
ll
IMPEDANCE COUPLING
TRANSFORMER COUPLING
IMPEDANCE-TRANSFORMER COUPLING
RL
=.
lmax -
lmin
9- Check:
AUTOTRANSfORMER
-BIAS
+B
TO CLASS C
LOAD
Figure 17
Output coupling arrangements for slng/e .. ended
Closs A triode aud/o .. frequency power amplifiers.
(emax- em in)
8
where i is in amperes and e is in volts.
11- The second harmonic distortion generated
12 0
Vacuum
25 0
Tube
THE
Amplifiers
R AD I 0
Tl
0
"
g"'
Vl
W200
a:
"'
II-
;,.
'I
Q_
:;
ii
'
"
<(
~150
!MAX
I
0
-t+--7-
I HI
~0
.~:I
lMIN.
,.
~.-"'""
'
It Iilii'
...r
1~0
'!II"
EIG
,._
~0
1/1
'-1
71'
200
m=
00"'
&
-~ fA'- wV
i2
'
:"1:1;,
Figure 19
12"
/!;)
J{
1/T
......400
'
ri
H'J
500
EMIN.
PLATE VOLTS
EMAX.
AVERAGE PLATE CHARACTERISTICS- 2A3
Jl =4.2
Rp = 800 OHMS
PLATE DISSIPATION= 15 WATTS
LOAD RESISTANCE
POWER OUTPUT
IMIN,
02=----~2~--~--------
X 100 PERCENT
Figure 18
Formulas lor determining the operating conditions for a Class A triode single-ended audiofrequency power output stage. A typical load
line has been drawn on the average plate char ..
acteristics of a type 2A3 tube to illustrate
the procedure.
0. 9 Ep
% 2d harmonic =
lp
Ep
lp
2
Figure 18 illustrates the above steps as
applied to a single Class A 2A3 amplifier stage.
6-11
Single-ended Pentode
Amplifiers
Figure 19 illustrates the conventional circuit for a single-ended tetrode or pentode am-
HANDBOOK
Push-Pull
II
1 21
Amplifiers
e MAX
P(STATIC VALUE)
PLATE VOLTS
100
Figure 20
GRAPHIC DETERMINATION OF OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF A PENTODE
POWER AMPLIFIER
% 3d harmonic distortion
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __:__:.___ X
6-12
100
Ox- ly)
Push-Pull Audio
Amplifiers
+B PLATE
+BS.G.
FIGURE 21
+8 PLATE
122
Vacuum
Tube
300
=-i=
Amplifiers
THE
R AD I 0
tt
300
II
p\1/
UAAX
-~~rl~::::~
25 0
250
r-
-;;:
~20 0
200~
1/)
~IS 0
:J
_j
"'a.
I
I 50
tJ"
:::;:
UJ 10 0
<(
_j
_j
""
'lf'-t--
EG-lP
,,'ll
,,
.J..'l
..-!"'
'00 ~
UJ
A'
'
_j
a.
+r.?$T
VALUE OF
_ZERO Sl t;NAL
o..-r
:::;:
CURVE
a.
~'fllcfY -l~r
fi
.A.
A'
A'
so
'00PLATE 'VOLTS
'
Ht~~
7{
:::;:
<(
_j
,~
~I-
1-
so
Vl
UJ
r-
/1~6EP
"'a.w
200
~
2SO
50
TANGE._NT TO
CURVE
ijl'f\;
B
-eo
300
(EP)
-10
-eo
-5o
-40
-3o
-20
-10
Figure 22
Operating Characteristics
of Push-Pull Class A
Triode Power Amplifier
=4
-0.6 E
E
P
imax
"' 1.6 EP _
imax
HANDBOOK
where RL is expressed in ohms, EP in
volts, and imax in amperes.
Figure 22 illustrates the above steps applied to a push-pull Class A amplifier using
two 2A3 tubes.
4- The average plate current is 0.636 i mw"
and, multiplied by the plate voltage, Ep,
will give the average watts input to the
plates of the two tubes. The power output should be subtracted from this value
to obtain the total operating plate dissipation of the two tubes. If the plate
dissipation is excessive, a slightly
higher value of RL should be chosen to
limit the plate dissipation.
5- The correct value of operating bias, and
the static plate current for the push-pull
tubes may be determined from the E 8 vs.
lp curves, which are a derivation of the
Ep vs. lp curves for various values of
Eg.
6- The E 8 vs. lp curve may be ~ons_tructed
in this manner: Values of gnd b1as are
read from the intersection of each grid
bias curve with the load line. These
points are transferred to the E 8 vs. Ip
graph to produce a curved line, A-B. If
the grid bias curves of the Ep vs. Ip
graph were straight lines, the lines of
the E 8 vs. lp graph would also be straight
This is usually not the case. A tangent
to this curve is therefore drawn, starting
at point A 1 , and intersecting the grid
voltage abscissa (x-axis). This intersection (C) is the operating bias point
for fixed bias operation.
7- This operating bias point may now be
plotted on the original E 8 vs. lp family
of curves (C 1 ) , and the zero-signal current produced by this bias is determined.
This operating bias point (C 1 ) does not fall
on the operating load line, as in the case of a
single-ended amplifier.
8- Under conditions of maximum power output, the exciting signal voltage swings
from zero-bias voltage to zero-bias voltage for each of the tubes on each half
of the signal cycle. Second harmonic
distortion is largely cancelled out.
6-13
The Class B audio-frequency power amplifier (figure 23) operates at a higher platecircuit efficiency than any of the previously
described types of audio power amplifiers.
Full-signal plate-circuit efficiencies of 60 to
Class
Audio
B+ DRIVER
Amplifiers
-BIAS
(CROUND FOR
ZERO BIAS
OPERATING
CONDITION)
1 23
8+ MOO.
Figure 23
CLASS B AUDIO FREQUENCY
POWER AMPLIFIER
Disadvantages af
Class B Amplifier
Operation
124
Vacuum
Tube
THE
Amplifiers
2
RL
=4
(Ebb- e
=Power output
from 2 tubes
.)
pmm
lpmax
78.5
1 -epmin
-- )
Ebb
R AD I 0
HANDBOOK
80 0
..:
.!::!0
60 0
a:
<.!)
"
u
u
,t;;
0 40 0
amplifier
line has
overage
type 811
-----
.0
I"
1I
~ 200
u
ci
6. 3 VOLTS D.C.
1-- 1--
....- ~
~1!3o
~~~--
'-" E.c.s;_;:..2-
I
I
..J
EF
.ol/
Figure 24
....-
125
Parameters
l,oo :--
;:;
Class
I
I\
-+-- f-K ~
_Ic=+
+eo
'
---
~!L.-
f.- I-
+20
- --- -- -
~+~o~i400
--
--",
---
BOO
Ecc- o
1200
1600
2400
2000
SAMPLE CALCULATION
CONDITION: 2
TYPE
611
TUBES,
Ebb,= 1000
+ eo..b =
370 W.
= 11400Il.
IP MAX.= .410 A.
EP MIN.::::+ 100
lG MAX.= .tOO A.
EG
(tooo-100)
_:;>g
RL = 4 X
Np = 78.5
8800
1 6~~
(1-
MAX.::::
.n.
+ 80
Po(~EAK)=-t84.5W
= 1 ~ci.-: = 260 w.
(MAXIMUM WITH SINE WAVE)
WG PEAK
= . 100
= 260 MA
X 80 :::: 8 W.
W~ PK = 4
DRIVING POWER::::
W.
TRANSFORMER:
kZP -
11400
8800
TURNS RATIO::::
1. 29
~:::: {1:29 : :
ZP
f.14STEPUP
Figure 25
Typical calculation of operating conditions for
o Closs
126
Vacuum
Tube
As stated previously, a
Class B audio amplifier
requires the driving stage
to supply well-regulated audio power to the
grid circuit of the Class B stage. Since the
performance of a Class Bmodulator may easily
be impaired by an improperly designed driver
stage, it is well to study the problems incurred in the design of the driver stage.
The grid circuit of a Class B modulator may
be compared to a variable resistance which
decreases in value as the exciting grid voltage is increased. This variable resistance appears across the secondary terminals of the
driver transformer so that the driver stage is
Practical Aspects af
Class B Modulators
THE
Amplifiers
R AD I 0
);z
p.Eg
Peak Power (Pp) ~ 2RL (
(watts)
Rp + RL
where p. is the amplification factor of the
driver tubes (4.2 for 2A3). E 8 is the peak grid
swing of the driver stage (62 volts). RP is the
HANDBOOK
2RL
f1Eg
X---- ~
Rp + RL
493 volts
493
eg(max)
80
--~ -~
6-14
Cathode-Foil ower
Power Amplifiers
6.15:1
127
12 8
Vacuum
Tube
Amplifiers
THE
TRIODE:
JJcF
lJ
Ro(CA.THOOE)
-..,"'J..l'--"R'-"L_ __
RL(JJ+1) +Rp
= .UR+,
PENTODE: Ra(CATHODEF
JJ+1
R AD I 0
(RK1+RK2) R~
RKt
+ RK2.+
RL1
""""G;;"
GM ReQ
Figure 27
Equivalent
+B
+B
@
Zo OF CABLE
Figure 26
makes the cathode follower particularly effective as a driver for the grids of a Class B
modulator stage.
The circuit of figure 26A is the type of amplifier, either single-ended or push-pull, which
may be used as a driver for a Class B modulator or which may be used for other applications such as feeding a loudspeaker where unusually good damping of the speaker is desired. If the d-e resistance of the primary of
the transformer T 2 is approximately the correct
value for the cathode bias resistor for the am-
factors
HANDBOOK
characteristic impedance of the cable. If the
output impedance of the stage is higher than
the cable impedance a resistance of appropriate value is sometimes placed in parallel
with the input end of the cable. The values
of Cd and Rd should be chosen with the same
considerations in mind as mentioned in the
discussion of the circuit of figure 26C above.
Feedback
Amplifiers
129
_A_
1-AB
6-15
= FRACTION
(1
-A 8)
WI~H~Ir FEEDBACK
WHERE>
R 0 =OUTPUT IMPEDANCE OF AMPLIFIER WITH FEEDBACK
RN:: OUTPUT IMPEDANCE OF AMPLIFIER WITHOUT FEEDBACK
RL =LOAD IMPEDANCE INTO WHICH AMPLIFIER OPERATI:":S
Figure 28
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER RELATIONSHIPS
H. W. Bode, "Network Analysis and Feedback Amplifier Design," D. Van Nostrand Co., 250 Fourth Ave.,
New York 3, N.Y.
130
Vacuum
Tube
THE
Amplifiers
R AD I 0
IIE3
J~MVZ
2.0 LOG
Rc
:: zo LOG
Rz
08 FEEDBACK :
RA =
::
GMV1
RA
Ro)
(~)J
R +R,.,
(GMVZ Ro)
~ ::
Ra= _R_2_ _
GMVz Ro
Ro
= REFLECTED
LOAD IMPEDANCE ON Vz
OUTPUT IMPEDANCE ::
RN
Rz
(Rz+R...,(GMVzRo))X (1+
RN
~~)
6-16
Vacuum-Tube Voltmeters
PLATE IMPEDANCE OF Vz
figure 29
SHUNT FEEDBACK CIRCUIT
FOR PENTODES OR TETRODES
This circuit requires only the addition of
one resistor, R2, to the norma/ circuit for
such an application, The plate Impedance
and distortion Introduced by the output
stage are materially reduced.
A simple v.t.v.m. is
shown in figure 30.
The plate load may be
a mechanical device, such as a relay or a
meter, or the output voltage may be developed
across a resistor and used for various control purposes. The tube is biased by Ec and
a fixed value of plate current flows, causing
a fixed voltage drop across the plate load
resistor, Rp. When a positive d-e voltage is
applied to the input terminals it cancels part
of the negative grid bias, making the grid
more positive with respect to the cathode.
This grid voltage change permits a greater
amount of plate current to flow, and develops
a greater voltage drop across the plate load
resistor. A negative input voltage would decrease the plate current and decrease the
voltage drop across Rp. The varying voltage
drop across Rp may be employed as a control
voltage for relays or other devices. When it is
desired to measure various voltages, a voltage
Basic D-C VacuumTube Voltmeter
Figure 30
SIMPLE VACUUM TUBE
VOLTMETER
HANDBOOK
131
ZERO-ADJUST
'-------iilllllt------'
Figure 31
D-C VACUUM TUBE VOLTMETER
A Modern VTVM
Figure 32
BRIDGE-TYPE VACUUM TUBE
VOLTMETER
132
THE
,-- --- -
- - - - - - - ---
-- - - - -- - - - - - -
_;--
---- -- - -----
_,
i'1
(/)
o
I
r-
-0
L_~~~~~~~~
II~ 't-VMivVVVIMVV'f'N'v-+-WM~r>'0N'fv"NifN
I
Figure 33
R AD I 0
HANDBOOK
1 33
TO
VTVM
Figure 34
FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
FOR V.T.V.M.
Figure 35
triode. The meter scale is calibrated in resistance (ohms) for this function.
Test Probes
CHAPTER SEVEN
iII))) ) ) ))))))
) ) )~
TUNIN<; FORK
Figure 1
134
Nature of Sound
135
EQUALTEMPERED 2.61.6
293.7
C'
SCALE
Figure 2
THE EQUAL-TEMPERED SCALE CONTAINS TWELVE INTERVALS, EACH OF
WHICH IS 1.06 TIMES THE FREQUENCY OF THE NEXT LOWEST. THE HALFTONE
INTERVALS
INCLUDE
THE
ABOVE NOTES PLUS FIVE ADDITIONAL NOTES: 277.2, 311.1, 370, 415.3,
466.2 REPRESENTED BY THE BLACK
KEYS OF THE PIANO.
The Musical
Scale
Figure 3
THE COMPLEX SOUND OF A MUSICAL
INSTRUMENT IS A COMBINATION OF
SIMPLE SINE-WAVE SOUNDS, CALLED
HARMONICS. THE SOUND OF LOWEST
FREQUENCY IS TERMED THE FUNDAMENTAL. THE COMPLEX VIBRATION
OF A CLARINET REED PRODUCES A
SOUND SUCH AS SHOWN ABOVE.
Harmonics and
Overtones
136
THE
LIMIT
TYPE OF
DISTORTION
HI<;H FIDELITY
RESTR ICTEO
FREQUENCY
RAN<;E
20-15000 CPS
"~0
REPROOUC.TION
50-10000 CPS
INTER MODULATION
DISTORTION AT
FULL OUTPUT
4 /o
10 /o
HARMONIC
DISTORTION AT
FULL OUTPUT
2%
S o/o
0.1 "lo
1 "/o
''WOW"
-70 DB BELOW
FULL OUTPUT
RADIO
-50 DB BELOW
FULL OUTPUT
Figure 4
Recording
Techniques
HANDBOOK
137
/CRFORSEC:,g~~~C.Y
CONSTANT AMPL!TUD/
wt--------~-~,
100
50
200
1000
500
FREQUENCY
2000
j:
5000
50
CONSTANT VELOCITY
100
RECORDIN~
VELOCITY
500
200
FREQUENCY
(CPs)
CONSTANT
1000
2000
5000
(CPS)
::>
1-.J
::>
I-
a.
::;
<(
so
100
500
200
FREQUENCY
1000
2000
5000
FREQUENCY
(cpo)
+2 0
+1 5
+1 0
10
0 +s
~---
::>
a.
1--
~-1 0
<(
.J
w-2
0::
i
20
l"
t-
I
T~
I
-2o
Sf--+
-3 0
10
-.........b
w -1 0
>
::>- 5
0
(CPS)
40
'
l
II'
II IIIIi
70 100
300 500
1000
"
'\
Figure S
MODERN PHONOGRAPH RECORD EMPLOYS CONSTANT AMPLITUDE CUT
BELOW CROSSOVER POINT AND HIGH
FREQUENCY PRE-EMPHASIS (BOOST)
ABOVE CROSSOVER FREQUENCY
I
3000
10000 30000
FREQUENCY. CPS
The Phonograph
Pickup
138
Figure 6
NEW CRYSTAL "TRANSDUCER"
CARTRIDGE PROVIDES HIGHFIDELITY OUTPUT AT RELATIVELY
HIGH LEVEL
THE RADIO
Figure 8
"RELUCTANCE" CARTRIDGE IS
STANDARD PICK-UP FOR
MUSIC SYSTEM.
OUTPUT
rll::::::
141ZH==+t
-1-1
2.0
50
100
2.00
500
10000
FREQUENCY (cps)
Figure 1
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF HIGHQUALITY CRYSTAL PHONOGRAPH
CARTRIDGE. !ELECTROVOICE 56-DS
POWER POINT TRANSDUCER)
B+ 100 V.
Figure 9
PREAMPLIFIER SUITABLE FOR USE WITH
LOW LEVEL RELUCTANCE CARTRIDGE.
HANDBOOK
IPHONOGRAPH :-=t_
L__ _j I
-,
139
~.~
L'":__j~
PREAMPLIFIER..__ AMPLIFIER
r---~
Vl
Q_
~ -10f--t---+
a:
-~OL___L
115
10
v. '\...
20
_ _ j _ L _ L_
50
100
_t_ _ __J__ _ J __ _ _ L _ _
200
500
FREQUENCY
Figure 10
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF HIGH FIDELITY
MUSIC SYSTEM.
TREBLE BOOST
AND ATTENUATION
(cps)
Figure 12
FREQUENCY RESPONSE CURVES FOR
THE BASS AND TREBLE BOOST
AND ATTENUATION CIRCUITS
OF FIGURE 11.
INPUTl_
BOOSt-
OUTPUT
ATTENUATE
R3
EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
R1
ouT
R1
OUT.
R~
C~
R~
C1
our.
R>
R3
-=
}ouT
Figure 11
SIMPLE R-C CIRCUITS MAY BE
USED FOR BASS AND TREBLE
BOOST OR ATTENUATION.
Equalizer networks are employed in high fidelity equipment to ll-tailor the response curve of the system to obtain the correct
overall frequency response, 2) -to compensate
for inherent faults in the program material,
3 ) -or merely to satisfy the hearing preference
of the listener. The usual compensation networks are combinations of RC and RL networks that provide a gradual attenuation over
a given frequency range. The basic RC networks suitable for equlizer service are shown
in figure 11. Shunt capacitance is employed
for high frequency attenuation, and series
capacitance is used for low frequency attenuation. A combination of these simple a-c
voltage dividers may be used to provide almost
any response, as shown in figure 12. It is
common practice to place equalizers between
two vacuum tubes in the low level stages of
the preamplifier, as shown in figure 13. Bass
and treble boost and attenuation of the order
Tone
Compensaton
.04
r.--....--lf-220 K
Figure 13
BASS AND TREBLE LEVEL
CONTROLS, AS
EMPLOYED IN THE
HEATHKIT WA-P2
PREAMPLIFIER.
3.3K
B+
BASS CONTROL
TREBLE CONTROL
OUTPUT
140
THE RADIO
2N 190
-12.
18K
2N190
18K
t--"{\/1/'----t"---jh:-- 0 U T PUT
5
BASS
TREBLE
Figure 14
TRANSISTORIZED HIGH-FIDELITY PREAMPLIFIER FOR USE WITH
RELUCTANCE PHONOGRAPH CARTRIDGE.
+II 0
-.....
PAl N LEVEL
~ +9 0
:J
uJ
+-8 0
>
+7 0
_j
+6 0
+5 0
uJ
"
""
Vl +4 0
uJ +3 0
f.~ +2 0
:::J
1'-v,/~~~~~N~lMtT
OF
"'-....1
+I 0
_b,
1/
_/
!"-=:
Vl -1 0
2.0
50
100
2.00
500
FREQUENCY
1 00 2000 5000
(CPS)
./"
+100
10000
20000
Figure 15
THE "FLETCHER-MUNSON" CURVE
ILLUSTRATING THE INTENSITY
RESPONSE OF THE HUMAN EAR.
of 15 db may be obtained from such a circuit.
A simple transistorized preamplifier using
this type of equalizing network is shown in
figure 14.
The Power
Amplifier
~ + 5t---t-'+---+------t----t---t- ---t~-----t----r---J
V')
IN PUT
>----1
OUTPUT
~-1
0.2
/"-:' 11"+
alL :
~
:i!
I L':'::c
__j______J_
L"o.
~j.----,
_b
~~
~
,
RJESPONSJE
~--~--~--~--~--~--~--L---~
uJ
:.::
<!
R1
uJ
:E----<>--1'!'!'--'
500K
Q_
100K
Vl
R2.
IM
10 K
.03
"'J:
s"
uJ
v
R1-R2-R~~ THREE SECTION
POTENTIOMETER, IRC
<!
0
Rt-/RC PQn-133
uJ
Q_
::;;
FREQUENCY
Figure 16
VARIABLE LOUDNESS CONTROL FOR
USE IN LOW IMPEDANCE PLATE
CIRCUITS. MAY BE PURCHASED
AS IRC TYPE LC-1 LOUDNESS
CONTROL.
(cps)
Figure 17
IMPEDANCE AND FREQUENCY
RESPONSE OF "4-0HM" 12-INCH
SPEAKER PROPERLY MOUNTED IN
MATCHING BAFFLE.
HANDBOOK
141
FEEDBACK RESISTOR
Figure 18
TYPICAL TRIODE
AMPLIFIER WITH
FEEDBACK LOOP.
~~---,~O~K----~----~~K~------._--~~i~i:MA
:~~F~
~~~~~
FEEDBACK RESISTOR
5 K-15K
~a
807
+400 v.
AT 140 MA.
Figure 19
U. S. VERSION OF BRITISH "WILLIAMSON" AMPLIFIER PROVIDES 10 WATTS POWER
OUTPUT AT LESS THAN 2% INTERMODULATION DISTORTION. 6SN7 STAGE USES
DIRECT COUPLING.
142
THE RADIO
TO FEEDBACK
CIRCUIT
~0"""'
FROM
6SN7C.T
PHASE
INVERTER
~~._--~~~~~~
0.2.&
807/5881
NOTE: PIN CONNECTIONS ARE
FOR 807 ruBES
+400V.
Figure 20
"ULTRA-LINEAR" CONFIGURATION OF WILLIAMSON AMPLIFIER DOUBLES POWER OUTPUT, AND REDUCES IM LEVEL. SCREEN TAPS ON OUTPUT TRANSFORMER PERMIT
"SEMI-TETRODE" OPERATION.
Figure 21
"BABY HI-FI" AMPLIFIER IS DWARFED
BY 12-INCH SPEAKER ENCLOSURE
This miniature music system is capable of excellent performance in the small home or
apartment. Preamplifier, bass and treble controls, and volume control are all incorporated
in the unit. Amplifier provides 4 watts output
at 4% IM distortion.
HANDBOOK
.05
Amplifier Construction
12AU7
.01
220
VOLUME
CONTROL
10 K
BASE
143
TREBLE
5 s~v.~.-+~~~~+205V.
L-C~O~N~T~R~O~L___c~O~N~T~R~O~L~------~+~7 ~
4;gi
w
~
1. ALL RESISTORS 0.5 WATT
UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED
Figure 22
SCHEMATIC, "BABY HI-FI" AMPLIFIER
T,-260-0-260 volts at 90 ma., 6.3 volts at 4.0
amp., upright mounting. Chicago-Standatd
PC-8420.
T:-10 K, CT. to 8, 16 ohms. Peerless (A/tee)
S-510F.
Care should be taken to reduce the capacitance to the chassis of high impedance circuits,
or the high frequency response of the unit will
suffer. Shielded "bath-tub" type capacitors
should not be used for interstage coupling capacitors. Tubular paper capacitors are satisfactory. These should be spaced well away from
the chassis.
It is a poor idea to employ the chassis as a
common filament return, especially for low
level audio stages. The filament center-tap of
the power transformer should be grounded,
and twisted filament wires run to each tube
socket. High impedance audio components and
wiring should be kept clear of the filament
lines, which may even be shielded in the vicinity of the input stage. In some instances, the
filament center tap may be taken from the arm
of a low resistance, wirewound potentiometer
placed across the filament pins of the input
tube socket. The arm of this potentiometer is
grounded, and the setting of the control is adjusted for minimum speaker hum.
one watt in a high efficiency speaker will provide a comfortable listening level for a small
room, and levels in excess of two or three watts
are uncomfortably loud to the ear. The "Baby
Hi-Fi" amplifier has been designed for use
in the small home, and will provide excellent
quality at a level high enough to rattle the
windows.
Designed around the new Electro-Voice miniature ceramic cartridge, the amplifier will provide over 4 watts power, measured at the secondary of the output transformer. At this level,
the distortion figure is below 1%, and the IM
figure is 4%. At normal listening levels, the IM
is much lower, as shown in figure 24.
7-5 The
11
Baby Hi Fi11
The Amplifier
Circuit
144
THE RADIO
Figure 23
UNDER-CHASSIS
VIEW OF
"BABY HI-FI"
ates the necessity of high gain amplifiers required when low level magnetic pickup heads
are used. Problems of hum and distortion introduced by these extra stages are thereby
eliminated, greatly simplifying the amplifier.
The second section of the 12AU7 is used for
bass and treble boost. Simple R-C networks
are placed in the grid circuit permitting gain
boost of over 12 db at the extremities of the
response range of the amplifier.
A second 12AU7 is employed as a direct
coupled "hot-cathode" phase inverter, capacitively coupled to two 6AQ5 pentode connected
1
I/
0
j: 1
<(
...J
::>
::!!
0
0
I
/
a:
"'z --- -
1-
'v
---
./
I-"
I
I
l_/1""
I
2
Figure 24
INTERMODULATION CURVE FOR
"BABY HI-FI" AS MEASURED ON
HEATHKIT INTERMODULATION
ANALYZER.
11
HANDBOOK
8 a by H'1- F//
1
145
Figure 25
TYPICAL
INTERMODULATION
TEST OF AUDIO
AMPLIFIER.
Audio tones of two frequencies are applied to input of amplifier under test,
11
inter-modulation figure.
Amplifier
Wiring
Figure 26
20-WATT "WILLIAMSON-TYPE
AMPLIFIER PROVIDES ULTIMATE IN
LISTENING PLEASURE FOR THE
"GOLDEN EAR."
Amplifier chassis (left) employs two low level
stages driving push-pull 807 tubes in so-called
11
U/tra-linear
11
146
INPUT
PUT
470
BUS
NOTES'
1-
ARE
e- ~=~~~o:~~~Mrk~ STANCOR
2.
A-8072.
Figure 27
Figure 28
UNDER-CHASSIS VIEW
OF 20-WATT AMPLIFIER.
807 SOCKETS ARE AT
CENTER, WITH CATHODE
BALANCING
POTENTIOMETER AT
LOWER RIGHT.
Not!t ground bus, starting at
center, top filter capacitor, and
running in loop around under
side of chassis. Bus is grounded
to chassis at input plug (upper
left). Shielded leads run to volume control (center).
148
'~
i=
..:
.J
::J
0
::;
a:
,_
w 2
,
0
12
16
20
24
28
32
Amplifier
Operation
Figure 29
INTERMODULATION CURVE
OF 20-WATT AMPLIFIER.
The Power
Supply
SOCKET FOR
HEATH WA-P2
PREAMPL.IFIER
CHICAGO-STANDARD C-1411
Figure 30
CHAPTER EIGHT
Radio frequency
Vacuum Tube Amplifiers
8-1
Grid Circuit
Considerations
Since the full amplification of a receiver follows the first tuned circuit, the operating conditions existing in that circuit and in its coupling to the antenna on one side and to the
grid of the first amplifier stage on the other
are of greatest importance in determining the
signal-to-noise ratio of the receiver on weak
signals.
It is obvious that the highest
ratio of signal-to-noise be impressed on the grid of the first
r-f amplifier tube. Attaining the optimum ratio
is a complex problem since noise will be generated in the antenna due to its equivalent
radiation resistance (this noise is in addition
to any noise of atmospheric origin) and in the
First Tuned
Circuit
14 9
first tuned circuit due to its equivalent coupled resistance at resonance. The noise voltage generated due to antenna radiation resistance and to equivalent tuned circuit resistance
is similar to that generated in a resistor due
to thermal agitation and is expressed by the
following equation:
E02
= 4kTRM
150
R-F
Vacuum
Tube
Amplifiers
approximately 0.096 microvolts. Also, the thermal agitation voltage appearing across a 500,000-ohm grid resistor in the first stage of a
speech amplifier is approximately 8 microvolts
under the conditions cited above. Further, the
voltage due to the r m a 1 agitation being impressed on the grid of the first r-f stage in a
receiver by a first tuned circuit whose resonant resistance is 50,000 ohms is approximately
2.5 microvolts. Suffice to say, however, that
the value of thermal agitation voltage appearing across the first tuned circuit when the antenna is properly coupled to this circuit will
be very much less than this value.
It is common practice to match the impedance of the antenna transmission line to the
input impedance of the grid of the first r-f amplifier stage in a receiver. This is the condition of antenna coupling which gives maximum
gain in the receiver. However, when u-h-f tubes
such as acorns and miniatures are used at frequencies somewhat less than their maximum
capabilities, a significant improvement in signal-to-noise ratio can be attained by increasing the coupling between the antenna and first
tuned circuit to a value greater than that which
gives greatest signal amplitude out of the re
ceiver. In other words, in the 10, 6, and 2 me
ter bands it is possible to attain somewhat improved signal-to-noise ratio by increasing antenna coupling to the point where the gain of
the receiver is slightly reduced.
It is always possible, in addition, to obtain
improved signal-to-noise ratio in a v-h-f receiver through the use of tubes which have
improved input impedance characteristics at
the frequency in question over conventional
types.
The limiting condition for sensitivity in any receiver is the
thermal noise generated in the antenna and in
the first tuned circuit. However, with proper
coupling between the antenna and the grid of
the tube, through the first tuned circuit, the
noise contribution of the first tuned circuit
can be made quite small. Unfortunately, though,
the major noise contribution in a properly designed receiver is that of the first tube. The
noise contribution due to electron flow and
due to losses in the tube can be lumped into
an equivalent value of resistance which, if
placed in the grid circuit of a perfect tube having the same gain but no noise would give the
same noise voltage output in the plate load.
The equivalent noise resistance of tubes such
as the 6SK7, 6SG7, etc., runs from 5000 to
10,000 ohms. Very high Gm tubes such as the
6AC7 and 6AK5 have equivalent noise resistances as low as 700 to 1500 ohms. The lower
the value of equivalent noise resistance, the
Noise Factor
THE
R AD I 0
HANDBOOK
ance of a vacuum tube at higher frequencies
is brought about by a number of factors. The
first, and most obvious, is the fact that the
dielectric loss in the internal insulators, and
in the base and press of the tube increases
with frequency. The second factor is due to
the fact that a finite time is required for an
electron to move from the space charge in the
vicinity of the cathode, pass between the grid
wires, and travel on to the plate. The fact that
the electrostatic effect of the grid on the moving electron acts over an appreciable portion
of a cycle at these high frequencies causes a
current flow in the grid circuit which appears
to the input circuit feeding the grid as a resistance. The decrease in input resistance of
a tube due to electron transit time varies as
the square of the frequency. The undesirable
effects of transit time can be reduced in certain cases by the use of higher plate voltages.
Transit time varies inversely as the square
root of the applied plate voltage.
Cathode lead inductance is an additional
cause of reduced input resistance at high frequencies. This effect has been reduced in certain tubes such as the 6SH7 and the 6AK5 by
providing two cathode leads on the tube base.
One cathode lead should be connected to the
input circuit of the tube and the other lead
should be connected to the by-pass capacitor
for the plate return of the tube.
The reader is referred to the Radiation Laboratory Series, Volume 23: "Microwave Receivers" (McGraw-Hill, publishers) for additional
information on noise factor and input loading
of vacuum tubes.
R-F
@AMPLIFICATION AT RESONANCE(APPROX.)=GMWLQ
AMPLIFICATION AT RESONANCE(APPROil,Gt.tK
Plate-Circuit
Considerations
~~~P~s
QpQs
8-2
151
Amplifiers
~~~~~RB~~~;~~~~y
= 1. 2
WHENK= -
1
--
VQPQS
Figure 1
the amplifier tube, and L and Q are the inductance and Q of the inductor L. In figure lB the
notation is the same and M is the mutual inductance between the primary coil and the secondary coil. In figure lC the notation is again
the same and k is the coefficient of coupling
between the two tuned circuits. As the coefficient of coupling between the circuits is
increased the bandwidth becomes greater but
the response over the band becomes progressively more double-humped. The response over
the band is the most flat when the Q' s of primary and secondary are approximately the same
and the value of each Q is equal to 1. 75/ k.
152
R-F
Vacuum
Tube
Amplifiers
THE
R AD I 0
It is common practice to
Variable-Mu Tubes
in R- F Stages
8-3
Class C R-F
Power Amplifiers
HANDBOOK
Class
R-F
Amplifiers
1 53
Figure 2
Instantaneous electrode ancl tank circuit
voltages ancl currents for a Class C r-f power
amplifier
Calculation af Class
C Amp I ifier Operating
Characteristics
Although Class C op
erating conditions can
be determined with the
aid of the more conven-
154
R-F
Vacuum
Tube
THE
Amplifiers
R AD I 0
7. 0
J
0
_1
lL
0
. 0
a:
i=
<
a:
~
'\
"\
.0
"' "'
./.
f't...
3. 0
1.>
7. 0
1.6
1.&
1.0
.0
-1.0
- 2.0
-1.~
RATIO
2.>
r-t:-:
- 30
~~~
Figure 3
Figure 4
amount of artificial cooling required is frequendy less than for low-efficiency operation.
On the other hand, high-efficiency operation
usually requires more driving power and in
volves the use of higher plate voltages and
higher peak tube voltages. The better types
of triodes will ordinarily operate at a plate
efficiency of 75 to 85 per cent at the highest
rated plate voltage, and at a plate efficiency
of 65 to 75 per cent at intermediate values of
plate voltage.
The first determining factor in selecting a
tube or tubes for a particular application is
the amount of plate dissipation which will be
required of the stage. The total plate dissipa
tion rating for the tube or tubes to be used in
the stage must be equal to or greater than that
calculated from: P p = PIn - Pout
After selecting a tube or tubes to meet the
power output and plate dissipation requirements it becomes necessary to determine from
the tube characteristics whether the tube se
lected is capable of the desired operation and,
if so, to determine the driving power, grid
bias, and grid dissipation.
The complete procedure necessary to determine a set of Class C amplifier operating conditions is given in the following steps:
1. Select the plate voltage, power output,
and efficiency.
bias; as compared to the ratio between instantaneous peale gricl current and average
grid current
HANDBOOK
155
FINAL POINT
EIMAC 250TH
CONSTANT CURRENT
CHARACTERISTICS
a:
(!)
....
Ecc=-240
....
LOAD LINE
....
PLATE VOLTAGE-VOLTS
FIGURES
Active portion of the operating loaclline for an Eimac 2SOTH Class C r-f power amplifier,
showing first trial point ancl the final operating point
Ecc =
Ipm
--=
I - cos ep
2 Np Ebb
~OS {)p
Epm
( - - egmp)
ll
_ E;b
for triodes.
----x
I - cos ep
[ - egmp cos
Ec2]
e- -P.u
11. Read egmp and igmax from the constantcurrent characteristics for the values of
epmin and ip max determined in steps 6
and 10.
156
R-F
Vacuum
Tube
Sample
Calculation
(8p::: 08.3)
X
1 - 0.37
3240
['0.37 ( - - 240)
37
=- 240 volts
=37.
R AD I 0
1. 57)
= o. 37
13. Ecc:::
e =2.32 (1.73 -
12. cos p
THE
Amplifiers
- 3500]
37
18. P d 0.9X480X0.075
driving power
=32.5 watts
Epm
3240
Ipm
.495
=--= --=
6600 ohms
= 4.1
(from figure 3)
Q of Amplifier
Tank Circuit
HANDBOOK
Class
0.98
0.96
= 2 TT X operating frequency
= Tank inductance
= Required tube load impedance
Q = Effective tank circuit Q
A tank circuit Q of 12 to 20 is recommended
for all normal conditions. However, if a balanced push-pull amplifier is employed the tank
receives two impulses per cycle and the circuit Q may be 1 ower e d somewhat from the
above values.
0.94
w
L
RL
R-F
1.
RL
wL=-
~
~"'...
0.9 2
-"' 1'\
0.90
0.88
F2
0.88
L\.
0.84
0.8 2
l\.
0.80
0.78
0.7
('\,.
~
0.74
Quick Method of
Calculating Amp I ifier
Plate Efficiency
- 29 X 40
3. cos ()p =
0.7 2
0.70
29 X 120 - 1000
60
- - = 0.025
2480
1\
m m ~ ~ ~ ~ ro ~ ~ -m
"'.~ELEcTRICAL' DEGREES
I I
t-0
OtU
0.0.
O.IN 0.7. .
Oe4lO.~O.:MZO.t7"
lB
I I I
O.OO+O.H<IO.:MZ-0.~
COS 6P
Figure 6
8-4
+ I 100
157
Amplifiers
Closs B Radio
Frequency Power Amp I ifiers
158
R-F
Vacuum
Tube
Amplifiers
1.0
Ec~=
.9
"'a:w
w
a.
:::;;
4:
w
a:
"'a: s '
"'
.2
a.
...4:
:I
.J
KTrrc;;:
100
I Ec
= o&<L
f.-
!--""
~Eel= +"'c
!
I
Ec1=+20
I
Ec =+ 100
!c2. Ec.=+!.o
1//.' -~
o
a v.
~. ~ v
a.
II-v
\ v
vv
-
(.)
w
a:
w
f.--
RA0 I0
Ec2:: +400 v.
N'
u
THE
2.00
;tt"-
IEc)o
...E.<..J=-Z!!.
,~1-..::::-
Ec1-
1=.
40
I
300
400
soo
aoo
aoo
100
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
teoo
1100
PLATE VOLTS
Figure 7
AVERAGE PLATE CHARACTERISTICS OF 813 TUBE
Figure 7 illustrates
the
characteristic
curves for an 813
tube. Assume the
plate supply to be 2000 volts, and the screen
supply to be 400 volts. To determine the operating parameters of this tube as a Class B linear r-f amplifier, the following steps should
be taken:
1. The grid bias is chosen so that the resting plate current will produce approximately 1/3 of the maximum plate dissipauon of the tube. The maximum dissipation of the 813 is 125 watts, so the
bias is set to a 11 ow one-third of this
value, or 42 watts of resting dissipation.
At a plate potentia 1 of 2000 volts. a
Cql culation of
Operating
Characteristics
The "Class B
Linear"
HANDBOOK
159
100
80
40
~~2"+400 v.
c3=ov.
-"
__\.
eo
Ecr=+roov.
C I:::: +SO
v._""
~+eov.
Ec1+ ~t-
L~
"
Ecr:;:+zo .
0
100
200
.300
400
PLATE VOLTS EP
Figure 8
(wat~s)
-------=
125
x 100 = 379 watts
33
= --=
0.5ipm ax
WP
379
EP
2000
=- = --= 0.189
0.02 X 105
=---=0.53 watt
4
= 78.5
(Ep- epmin)
.189
Pp
0.5
= 6000 ohms
ampere
Pg
1580
Ep- epmin
RL
lp
106
c------6.28
4.0
500
= 80 !1/lfd.
L = - - - - = 19.9 microhenries
6.28
4.0
160
R-F
Vacuum
Tube
(eg) 2
Amplifiers
THE
8-5
105 2
Rg=
2XPg
2X0.53
2. As in the case of the Class B audio amplifier the grid resistance of the linear
amplifier varies from infinity to a low
value when maximum grid current is
drawn. To decrease the effect of this
resistance excursion, a swamping resistor should be placed across the grid tank
circuit. The value of the resistor should
be dropped until a shortage of driving
power begins to be noticed. For this example, a resistor of 3,000 ohms is used.
The grid circuit load for no grid current
is now 3,000 ohms instead of infinity,
and drops to 2 400 ohms when maximum
grid current is drawn.
3. A circuit Q of 15 is chosen for the grid
tank. The capacitive reactance required
is:
2400
Xc = --= 160 ohms
15
~!c.
= 248 pp.fd.
C=
6.28 X 4 X 154
5. The inductive reactance required ro re sonate the grid circuit at 4.0 Me. is:
L=
160
= 6.4 microhenries
6.28X4.0
6. By substituting the loaded grid resistance figure in the formula in the first
paragraph, the grid driving power is now
found to be approximately 2.3 watts.
By reference to the plate
characteristic curve of the
813 tube, it can be seen that
at a minimum plate potential of 500 volts, arid
a maximum plate current of 0.6 ampere, the
screen current will be approximately 30 milliamperes, dropping to one or two milliamperes
in the quiescent state. It is necessary to use
a well-regulated screen sup p 1 y to hold the
screen voltage at the correct potential over
this range of current excursion. The use of an
electronic regulated screen supply is recommended.
Screen Circuit
Considerations
Amplifier Circuits
10,400 ohms
4. At 4.0
R AD I 0
The r-f power amplifier discussions of Sections 8-4 and 8-5 have been based on the assump,tion that a conventional grounded-cathode
or cathode-return type of amplifier was in question. It is possible, however, as in the case of
a-f and low-level r-f amplifiers to use circuits
in which electrodes other than the cathode are
returned to ground insofar as the signal potential is concerned. Both the plate-return or
cathode-follower amplifier and the grid-return
or grounded- grid amplifier are effective in certain circuit applications as tuned r-f power
amplifiers.
An undesirable aspect of
the operation of cathodereturn r-f power amplifiers
using triode tubes is that
such amplifiers must be neutralized. Principles and methods of neutralizing r-f power amplifiers are discussed in the chapter Generation of R-F Energy. As the frequency of operation of an amplifier is increased the stage becomes more and more difficult to neutralize
due to inductance in the grid and plate leads
of the tubes and in the leads to the neutralizing capacitors. In other words the bandwidth
of neutralization decreases as the frequency
is increased. In addition the very presence of
the neutralizing capacitors adds additional
undesirable capacitive loading to the grid and
plate tank circuits of the tube or tubes. To
look at the problem in another way, an amplifier that may be perfectly neutralized at a frequency of 30 Me. may be completely out of
neutralization at a frequency of 120 Me. Therefore, if there are circuits in both the grid and
plate circuits which offer appreciable impedance at this high frequency it is quite possible that the stage may develop a "parasitic
oscillation" in the vicinity of 120 Me.
Disadvantages of
Grounded-Cathode
Amplifiers
1.
2.
'.
HANDBOOK
tween the filament and the plate is effective over a broad range of frequencies.
3. The feedback capacitance within the stage
is the plate-to-cathode capacitance which
is ordinarily very much less than the gridto-plate capacitance. Hence neutralization
is ordinarily not required. If neutralization
is required the neutralizing capacitors are
very small in value and are cross connected between plates and cathodes in a
push-pull stage, or between the opposite
end of a split plate tank and the cathode
in a single-ended stage.
The disadvantages of a grounded-grid amplifier are:
I. A large amount of excitation energy is required. However, only the normal amount
of energy is lost in the grid circuit of the
amplifier tube; all additional energy over
this amount is delivered to the load circuit as useful output.
2. The cathode of a grounded-grid amplifier
stage is "hot" to r.f. This means that the
cathode must be fed through a suitable impedance from the filament supply, or the
secondary of the filament transformer must
be of the low-capacitance type and adequately insulated for the r-f voltage which
will be present.
3. A grounded-grid r-f amplifier cannot be
plate modulated 100 per cent unless the
output of the exciting stage is modulated
also. Approximately 70 per cent modulation of the exciter stage as the final stage
is being modulated 100 per cent is recommended. However, the grounded-grid r-f
amplifier is quite satisfactory as a Class
B linear r-f amplifier for single sideband
or conventional amplitude modulated waves
or as an amplifier for a straight c-w or
FM signal.
Figure 9 shows a simplified representation
of a grounded-grid triode r-f power amplifier
stage. The relationships between input and
out put power and the peak fundamental components of electrode voltages and currents are
given below the drawing. The calculation of
the complete operating conditions for a
grounded-grid amplifier stage is somewhat more
complex than that for a conventional amplifier
because the input circuit of the tube is in
series with the output circuit as far as the
load is concerned. The primary result of this
effect is, as stated before, that considerably
more power is required from the driver stage.
The normal power gain for a g-g stage is from
3 to 15 depending upon the grid circuit conditions chosen for the output stage. The higher
the grid bias and grid swing required on the
16 l
~COAD
(Ec;M + E:M) ! PM
OR
~+ ~
[pM2. J PM
Ey.M lPM
2
(l:M+
EGM
lGt.d
EGMZ lpM
0 9 E<;M
!c
OR 0.9 EGM [c
lK"' (APPROXIMATELY)
~~.-."'E!'"'iL.e-of-c~
Figure 9
GROUNDED-GRID CLASS B OR CLASS C
AMPLIFIER
The equations in the above figure give the
relationships between the fundamental com
ponents of gricl ancl plate potential ancl current, ancl the power input ancl power output
of the stage. An expression for the approximate cathode impedance is given
output '>tage, the higher will be the requirement from the driver.
Calculation of Operating
Conditions of Grounded
Grid R F Ampl Hiers
It is most convenient
to determine the operating conditions for
a Class B or Class C
grounded-grid r-f power amplifier in a two-step
process. The first step is to determine the
plate-circuit and grid-circuit operating conditions of the tube as though it were to operate
as a conventional cathode-return amplifier
stage. The second step is then to add in the
additional conditions imposed upon the operating conditions by the fact that the stage is
to operate as a grounded-grid amplifier.
For the first step in the calculation the procedure given in Section 8-3 is quite satisfactory and will be used in the example to follow.
Suppose we take for our example the case of a
type 304TL tube operating at 2700 plate volts
at a kilowatt input. Following through the procedure previously given:
I.
162
R-F
Vacuum
= 850/0.85 = 1000
Tube
Amplifiers
2.
Pin
3.
THE
R AD I 0
F1 = Ep m/Eb b = 2560/2700 = 0. 95
watts
4.
5.
Approximate ipmax
ampere
6.
7.
8.
= 4.9
X 0.370 = 1.81
525 X 0.660
Total drive=
9.
= 172.5 watts
2
11.
12.
zk
= 525/(0.660
ohms.
+ 0.116)
= approximately 675
1
13.
Ecc = - - - X
1-0.51
2560
2700
ro.s1 ( - - 1 4 0 ) - - J
12
12
= -385 volts
L
14.
16.
17.
18.
19.
HANDBOOK
304TL
163
=~
EPM2.lGM
(EpM+6GMP) lGM
(EPM
= APPRQX.
+ c;Mp)
1.0 lc
ASSUMINI; lGM
~ 1.!
= APPROX.
0. 9
(Ecc + GMP) 1C
(EpM+ GMP)
1.e
8-6
A Grounded-Grid
304TL Amplifier
lc
Ic
Figure 10
CATHODE-FOLLOWER R-F POWER
AMPLIFIER
Showing the relationships between the tube
rotentials and currents and the input and
output power of the stage. The approximate
grid impeclance also is given.
Amplifier
G-G
Characteristics of
Grounded-Grid
Operation
164
R-F
Vacuum
Tube
THE
Amplifiers
R AD I 0
EXCITATION
~-BIAS
-H.V.+3000V.
10.5V. 1 13 A.
Figure 11
SCHEMATIC OF THE
304TL G-G AMPLIFIER
L1-None required for 3.5 Me., since cathode coli L2
tunes to 3.5 Me.
Class B Linear
Figure 12
REAR OF THE GROUNDED-GRID
AMPLIFIER
HANDBOOK
304 TL
8-7
Figure 13
Amplifier
165
G-G
166
MOSTL..INEAR
PORTION OF
~JR"JlT
rt-+
IP
t-
R AD I 0
.Q\!]"eyT_
SIC:.NAL
ll
.1-t
~--f t
THE
.-it'
R.F.
EOUT
INPUT
.)1
Sl~NAL
R.F. E
Figure 14
Eg-lp CURVE
Amplifier operation is eonfined to
most I inear portion of choracterist ic
curve.
IN
Figure 15
LINEARITY CURVE OF
TYPICAL TETRODE AMPLIFIER
At point "A" the Instantaneous plate
voltage is swinging down to the value
of screen voltage. At point "B" it is
swinging well below the sereen and is
approaching the point where saturation,
or plate eurrent limiting takes plaee.
= 595
watts
HANDBOOK
167
+100
4-400A
+ 75
TUBE
VOLTS
E SCR = 500
+50
+ a5
"
.0~POINT6
sco
1000
~t I'\""IS
f'
Ul
.i
-50
I
-75
:t
.i
-1.50
-175
i.
LOAD LINE
t'
VALUE OF
EP MIN.=
eoo v.,
I~:o.58A
400
3000
L!-+-
:"- .............
-100.l
I
-125
aooo
-...
r---
--
POINT
'
I
I
~
I
I
VAl-UE OF
MAX. PLATE
DISSIPATION
(3000V.X0.12A J~OWAr;s)
-200
Figure 16
OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR TETRODE LINEAR
AMPLIFIER ARE OBTAINED FROM CONSTANT-CURRENT
CURVES.
B+ 300-700 V.
Figure 17
SIMPLE GROUNDED-GRID
LINEAR AMPLIFIER
168
THE
VI
837
500
Vz
837
V4
V;
803
803
V3
837
500
R AD I 0
500
RF~
.001
5 KV
T,
-=-
~EACH
1'~'1'01
+1250V.
Figure 18
3-STAGE KILOWATT LINEAR
AMPLIFIER FOR 80 OR 40
METER OPERATION
115
v rv
+2500
+300
+300
+ 3000
+3500
60 MA
-60 V.
60MA.
-59
v.
87
v..
113
v.
660
500
v.
3.6 MA.
10 MA.
4.1 MA.
20MA.
1 9~ MA.
2.67 MA.
235
w.
235
180
w.
210W.
w.
0.63
w.
3.4
FEEDTHRU POWER
6.55
w.
15.8
350
POWER INPUT
565 w.
(MAXIMUM)
Figure 19
w.
700
w.
w.
w.
935 w.
HANDBOOK
16 9
CHAPTER NINE
The Oscilloscope
VERTICAL
INPUT
9-1
A Typical Cathode-Ray
Oscilloscope
GND.O::),
170
Figure 1
Time
Base
Generator
171
INTENSITY MOl),
c.
;;~,~~-'--~----------
Ca
0.1..1.6
O+
Figure 2
TYPICAL AMPLIFIER SCHEMATIC
'="120K
Figure 3
Investigation of e I e c t ric al
wave forms by the use of a
cathode-ray tube frequently
requires that some means be readily available
to determine the variation in these wave forms
with respect to time. When such a time base
is required, the patterns presentedon the cath
ode-ray tube screen show the variation in am
plitude of the input signal with respect to
172
The
Oscilloscope
THE
884
R AD I 0
Figure 4
SAWTOOTH WAVE FORM
Synchronization
SWEEP
GENERATOR
OUTPUT
R21
470K
R28
5M
FINE FREQ.
~,;___ _ _ ____J CONTROL
EY.TERNAL
SYNC
SCHEMATIC
OF
Figure 5
SWEEP
GENERATOR
HANDBOOK
The
173
Oscilloscope
Eb+
'!<-;;'/
<ul
EP vs Eg
STATIC CONTROL
CHARACTERISTIC
~;
EP+
,;JI
01
I
--1--
r-
E~~
FIRING POTENTIAL
(D.C. BIAS)
Figure 6
V4
80
:::::::Jr.~
~:J-=--' J
~::0"" L ___
s~~~\,_jI
Z30 V. CONN.
Figure 7
INTENSITY
~~o-----1[~----~ll~_~o~~----------------------------------------------------------------------------------~---------------------.
l-470K
-1
::r
V6
I'D
5BP1A
0
VI
O. I
4,7 M
IM
0
VI
y POS
180K
0
"0
IM
I'D
FOCUS
EXT.
SYNC.
S1
SYNC.
SELECTOR
390K
82.0 K
500K
12.0K
0.1
------....
IOK
lOOK
IM
POS.
4.7 t.A
-1
:::c
m
Slt;NAL
e>--J#r-X
IOK
Figure 8
HANDBOOK
Display
lt~~-0
I
I
I
I
~~c
~Z~1=
Figure 9
PROJECTION DRAWING OF A SINEWAVE
APPLIED TO THE VERTICAL AXIS AND A
SAWTOOTH WAVE OF THE SAME FR~
QUENCY APPLIED SIMULTANEOUSLY ON
THE HORIZONTAL AXIS
9-2
Display of Waveforms
Against Time
of
Waveforms
r~sEcl:-t,sEcj
1S&
rvsJ~4---
175
.----~- .~--.:
TIME---...
I
1
1"
;:::
'1:.
7
I
I
I
.35 SEC
,: ______ j_
Figure 10
176
The
THE
Oscilloscope
R AD I 0
Figure 12
METHOD OF CALCULATING FREQUENCY
RATIO OF LISSAJOUS FIGURES
Figure 11
PROJECTION DRAWING SHOWING THE RESULTANT LISSAJOUS PATTERN WHEN A
SINE WAVE APPLIED TO THE HORIZONTAL AXIS IS THREE TIMES THAT APPLIED TO THE VERTICAL AXIS
9-3
Lissajous Figures
1. The horizontal am
plifier should be dis con
nected from the sweep
oscillator. The signal
to be examined should be conn e c t e d to the
horizontal amplifier of the oscilloscope.
2. An audio oscillator signal should be con
nected to the vertical amplifier of the oscilloscope.
3. By adjusting the frequency of the audio
oscillator a stationary pattern should be ob
tained on the screen of the oscilloscope. It is
not necessary to stop the pattern, but merely
to slow it up enough to count the loops at the
side of the pattern.
4. Count the number of loops which intersect
an imaginary vertical line AB and the number
of loops which intersect the imaginary horizontal line BC as in figure 12. The ratio of
the number of loops which intersect AB is to
Obtaining a Lissajous
Pattern on the screen
Oscilloscope Settings
0 8
CD
RATIO,,,
RATIO 2.:1
@RATIO
5:~
Figure 13
OTHER LISSAJOUS PATTERNS
HANDBOOK
Lissajous
Figures
177
-t-- -t$t- -$ -~
PHASE DIFFERENCE=o
PHASE DIFFERENCE=4!t
PHASE DIFFERENCE=9o
PHASE DIFFERENCE=135
-~$*
PHASE OIFFERENcE=zz~o
Figure 14
plifier control is adjusted (3 inches). Reconnect the signal to the vertical ampli
fier.
The resulting pattern will give an accurate
picture of the exact phase difference between
the two waves. If these two patterns are exactly the same frequency but different in phase
and maintain that difference, the pattern on
the screen will remain stationary. If, 'however,
one of these frequencies is drifting slightly,
the pattern will drift slowly through 360 . The
phase angles of 0, 45, 90, 135, 180,
225 , 270 , 315 are shown in figure 14.
Each of the eight patterns in figure 14 can
be analyzed separately by the previously used
TIME-
_/
~"
Figure 15
178
The
THE
Oscilloscope
R AD I 0
Figure 16
Sine
e= ----y maximum
C]
Figure 17
TRAPEZOIDAL
MODULATION
PATTERN
Figure 18
Figure 19
PROJECTION DRAWING SHOWING TRAPEZOIDAL PATTERN
Trapezoidal
HANDBOOK
MODULATED
CARRIER
Pattern
179
TIME---
CRO
Figure 20
NOTE~
where e
= phase angle between signals
Y intercept = point where ellipse crosses ver
tical axis measured in tenths of
inches. (Calibrations on the
calibrated screen)
Y maximum = highest vertical point on ellipse
in tenths of inches
Several examples of the use of the formula are
given in figure 16. In each case the Y intercept and Y maximum are indicated together
with the sine of the angle and the angle itself.
For the operator to observe these various patterns with a single signal source such as the
test signal, there are many types of phase
shifters which can be used. Circuits can be
obtained from a number of radio text books.
The procedure is to connect the original signal to the horizontal channel of the oscilloscope and the signal which has passed through
the phase shifter to the vertical channel of
the oscilloscope, and follow the procedure set
forth in this discussion to observe the various
phase shift patterns.
9-4
Monitoring Transmitter
Performance with the Oscilloscope
Waveforms
Figure 21
The Trapezoidal
Pattern
18 0
The
THE
Oscilloscope
<J
TRAPEZOIDAL WAVE
Figure 22
(100% MODULATION)
Emin
----=X
Emax
+ Emin
<J
P~TTERN
Figure 23
R AD I 0
Figure 24
(OVER MODULATION)
100
9-5
24.
The Modulated
Wove Pattern
CRO
B+ FROM
MODULATOR
lC
Figure 25
The alignment of the i-f amplifiers of a receiver consists of adjusting all the tuned circuits to resonance at the intermediate frequency and at the same time to permit passage of
a predetermined number of side bands. The
best indication of this adjustment is a resonance curve representing the response of the
i-f circuit to its particular range of frequencies.
As a rule medium and low-priced receivers
use i-f transformers whose bandwidth is about
5 kc. on each side of the fundamental frequency. The response curve of these i-f transformers is shown in figure 29. High fide 1 it y receivers usually contain i-f transformers which
have a broader bandwidth which is usually 10
kc. on each side of the fundamental. The response curve for this type transformer is shown
in figure 30.
Resonance curves such as these can be displayed on the screen of an oscilloscope. For
a complete understanding of the procedure it
is important to know how the resonance curve
is traced.
HANDBOOK
Receiver
Alignment
181
Figure 26
(100% MODULATION)
8KC 4KC
4KC
Figure 28
IKC
Figure 29
{OVER MODULATION)
TRIODE DETECTOR
Figure 30
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF
HIGH-FIDELITY 1-F SYSTEM
DIODE DETECTOR
Figure 31
182
The
THE
Oscilloscope
Figure 32
Figure 33
DOUBLE
RESONANCE ACHIEVED BY
COMPLETE ROTATION OF THE MOTOR
DRIVEN CAPACITOR
9-6
Figure 34
R AD I 0
Figure 3S
SINGLE TONE PRESENTATION
Oscilloscope trace of SSB signal
modulated by single tone (A).
Incomplete carrier supression or
spurious
products will show
modulated envelope of (B). The
ratio of supression is:
= 20
log A+B
A-B
HANDBOOK
S.S.B. Applications
67 ~~~i~'oTRAGE
GERMANIUM
DIODE
183
2.5 MH
RFC.
(cil-.-1~.....-'00"0'-.-.....---<.0J TO 6~g~~L~~~6~~
PICKUP COIL
Figure 37
OSCILLOSCOPE
SCHEMATIC OF
ENVELOPE DETECTOR
Figure 36
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF
LINEARITY TRACER
Single Tone
Observations
184
The Oscilloscope
r-------------------------~e2
OUTPUT
SIGNAL
LEVEL
Figure 38
EFFECT OF INADEQUATE
RESPONSE OF VERTICAL
AMPLIFIER
INPUT SIGNAL LEVEL
Figure 41
ORDINATES ON LINEARITY
CURVE FOR 3RD ORDER
DISTORTION EQUATION
Figure 39
DOUBLE TRACE
CAUSED BY PHASE
SHIFT
0000
Figure 40
TYPICAL LINEARITY
TRACES
CHAPTER TEN
A whole new concept of vacuum tube applications has been developed in recent years.
No longer are vacuum tubes chained to the
field of communication. This chapter is devoted to some of the more common circuits encountered in industrial and military applications of the vacuum tube.
10-1
The characteristics of a
diode tube are such that the
tube conducts only when the plate is at a positive potential with respect to the cathode. A
positive potential may be placed on the cathode, but the tube will not conduct until the
voltage on the plate rises above an equally
positive value. As the plate becomes more
positive with respect to the cathode, the diode
conducts and passes that portion of the wave
that is more positive than the cathode voltage.
Diodes may be used as either series or parallel limiters, as shown in figure 1. A diode may
be so biased that only a certain portion of the
positive or negative cycle is removed.
Diode Limiters
Limiting Circuits
185
186
Special
Vacuum
Tube
, \J 'v
_{\_;,.," __,__.,I0
----r:::rv
-=
:.~":.
eiN
(\v(\v
-----.-f:\......--.-1I.,.
-=
cv
R AD I 0
e OUT
(\ "(\\}
(\ ~,N___.,i.,.M~'P.,. eouT
(\
=o\Jt
--vv
THE
Circuits
=c'r
VV
E =VOLTAGE
E =VOLTAGE
DROP
ACROSS DIODE
DROP
ACROSS DIODE
(\~~ __I.,......,M+,._@
.....E_____ ;;~: \/~.,.
-~)
(\v~~
--I.
=--~M~-~~--~----0~~~tf
Figure 1
Clamping
HANDBOOK
Circuits
187
-=o=cA
(\(\
vv
B+
=GRID-CATHODE RESISTANCE
WHEN GRID IS DRIVEN POSITIVE
Figure 2
Figure 3
is opened, removing its d-e load from the circuit. As long as only one of the diodes continues to conduct, the voltage at the diode
plates cannot rise above twice the voltage selected by R 4 In this example, the voltage cannot rise above 8 volts. Now, if the input audio
voltage applied through C, is increased to any
peak value between zero and plus 4 volts, the
first cathode of the 6AL 5 will increase in voltage by the same amount to the proper value between 4 and 8 volts. The other tube elements
will assume the same potential as the first
cathode. However, the 6AL5 plates cannot increase more than 4 volts above their original
4-volt static level. When the input voltage to
the first cathode of the 6AL5 increases to
more than plus 4 volts, the cathode potential
increases to more than 8 volts. Since the plate
circuit potential remains at 8 volts, the first
diode section ceases to conduct until the input voltage across R, drops below 4 volts.
When the input volr.age swings in a negative
direction, it will subtract from the 4-volt drop
across R, and decrease the voltage on the input cathode by an amount equal to the input
voltage. The plates and the output cathode will
follow the voltage lfvel at the input cathode
as long as the input voltage does not swing
below minus 4 volts. If the input voltage does
not change more than 4 volts in a negative
direction, the plates of the 6AL5 will also become negative. The potential at the output
cathode will follow the input cathode voltage
and decrease from its normal value of 4 volts
until it reaches zero potential. As the input
cathode voltage decr,~ases to less than zero,
""-;1
0=-rrrrr
-100--
--
--
I i>
-:
-:
Oo"'- +tOO--
Grid Limiters
10-2
Clamping Circuits
A circuit which holds either amplitude extreme of a waveform to a given reference level
--
---
0~:-
Figure 4
188
Special
Vacuum
Tube
Circuits
THE
R AD I 0
B+
Ct CHARGE PATH
Figure 5
NEGATIVE
CLAMPING
CIRCUIT EMPLOYED IN ELECTROMAGNETIC SWEEP
SYSTEM
C2 DISCHARGE PATH
Figure 7
B+
10-3
Multivibrators
Figure 6
B+
DIRECT-COUPLED CATHODE
MULTIVIBRATOR
B+
@
ELECTRON-COUPLED
MULTIVIBRATOR
Figure 8
HANDBOOK
189
Multivibrators
B+
B+
PULSE
OUTPUT
C1
TRIGGER"~
INPUT
R1
Figure 9
miscellaneous tube noise. Oscillation il' maintained by the process of building up and dis
charging the store of energy in the grid cou
piing capacitors of the two tubes. The charg
ing and discharging paths are shown in figure
7. Various forms of multivibrators are shown
in figure 8.
The output of a multivibrator may be used
as a source of square waves, as an electronic
switch, or as a means of obtaining frequency
division. Submultiple frequencies as low as
one-tenth of the injected synchronizing fre
quency may easily be obtained.
The Eccles Jordan trigger
circuit is shown in figure
9A. This is not a true multivibrator, but rather a circuit that possesses
two conditions of stable equilibrium. One con
clition is when V 1 is conducting and V2 is cut
off; the other when V 2 is conducting and V1 is
cutoff. The circuit remains in one or the other
of these two stable conditions with no change
in operating potentials until some external
action occurs which causes the nonconducting
tube to conduct. The tubes then reverse their
functions and remain in the new condition as
long as no plate current flows in the cutoff
tube. This type of circuit is known as a flipflop circuit.
The Eccles-Jordan
Circuit
RF
RF
RF
PULSE
PULSE
PULSE
~
00 0 I
'00
'on'
00,
I U l.\
1 VV
1----..j
1----l CUTOFF
CUTOFF
1
TIME
---1 h~ING
{\>
1\1 {\
\fi
IV lJ
~
CUTOFF
TIME
E'OUT
TIME
Figure 10
SINGLE-SWING
BLOCKING OSCILLATOR
Figure 11
1 90
Special
Vacuum
ciTVz
etN--j
VI
eouT
Tube
R AD I 0
+
c~Vz eour
e1N---1
VI
RI
@
POSITIVE COUNTING CIRCUIT
THE
Circuits
R1
Figure 12
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE COUNTING CIRCUITS
10-4
10-5
Counting Circuits
Figure 14
Figure 13
STEP-BY-STEP COUNTING CIRCUIT
HANDBOOK
R-C
1 91
Oscillators
+
lOOK
500'\.o
.---------~~ ~
.01
lP
=R 4 = 4 WATT, 110 v.
LAMP BULB
B+
R1 XC1 =R2 X C2
Figure 16
Figure 15
THE WIEN-BRIDGE AUDIO OSCILLATOR
10-6
Resistance-Capacity
Oscillators
f"'
277 R1 C,
, when R,
C 1 "'R 2 x C 2
Figure 17
192
Special
Vacuum
Tube
THE
Circuits
t--FREQ. OF OSCILLATION
r---.-----------------~---8+
47 K
1~0
R AD I 0
"NOTCH" FREQUENCY
F=--'-
2 Tr RC
WHERE
I
I
..J
C=~
POSITIVE
FEEDBACK
(LOOP 1)
-r~FREQ.
C1
"V
OUT
~IRz
OF OSCILLATION
"J:
..
:a~.-------*-------~
"'J:
Cz
~
~
"NOTCW NETWORK
Figure 19
Figure 18
BRIDGE-T FEEDBACK
LOOP CIRCUITS
Oscillation will occur at the null
frequency of the bridge, at which
frequency
the
bridge allows
minimum degeneration in loop 2.
-FEEDBACK
(ERROR SlbNAL)
10-7
Feedback
Figure 20
HANDBOOK
Feedback
INPUT src;NAL
/OUTPUT SIGNAL
\
\
g~-*-+~-+~~~~~~r-~-+--~~FEEDBACK
~~c;.~A/eo"
SHIFT
PHASE
<~----------~~~-----------------TIME-
Figure 21
193
CHAPTER ELEVEN
Electronic Computers
THE IBM
COMPUTER
AND
"MEMORY"
The '~704" Computet is used with
32,000 "word"
memory
storage
unit for research
programs. Heart
of this auxiliary
unit are small,
doughnut-shaped
iron fettites which
store information
by means of magnetism. The unit
Is the first of Its
kind to be Installed with I B M's
704 computer.
Components of the
system seen in the
foreground are
(left) card punch
and (right) card
reader. In the
center of the picture is the 704's
processing unit.
Digital Computers
195
9
NORTH SHORE
BATTERY
BUZZ.ER
Figure 2
A SEQUENCE COMPUTER.
Three correct buttons will sound the buzzer.
Figure 1
11-1
Digital Computers
11-2
Binary Notation
G)
G)
G)
G)
;~~
,,,
~
''
~",I,'
"'
~
,,,
Figure 3
196
THE RADIO
Electronic Computers
CD
- ,,, -
~::
TUBE(S)
DIGIT
1
DECIMAL NOTATION
BINARY NOTATION
2.
1, 0
1,1
2.
2.
2.+1
4+1
4+2.
4+2.+1
1,
1, 0 1 0 1 I
0+1
10
1, 0, 1, 0
10
0+2.
11
8+2+1
12.
0+4
13
1+4+1
14
8+4+2.
IS
8+ ... +2+1
Figure 4
o, 0
o,,
1,
1,
1, 1, 0
1,1,1
o,o,o
Figure 5
bols for all numbers. Computer service usually employs "zero" and "one" as these symbols.
Decimal notation and binary notation for common numbers are shown in figure 5. The
binary notation represents 4-digit numbers
(thousands) with ten bits, and 7-digit numbers (millions) with 20 bits. Only one electron tube is required to display an information
bit. The savings in components and primary
power drain of a binary-type computer over
the older ENIAC-type computer is obvious.
Figure 6 illustrates a computer board showing the binary indications from one to ten.
Digital
Computer Uses
COMPUTER NOTATION
0
1
2.
3
4
5
0
0
0
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
e=oFF
0
0
O=oN
Figure 6
HANDBOOK
Analog Computers
197
+t!IOV.
~~
y LLJ ~eouT
-
::~~'
_ ( e, R1
ez Rz) (
eouTR1+Rz + R1+R2.
R3
-)
R1 Rz
[R1+Rz]+R3
eouT
..,.
~----------~~-8+
EouT
Figure 7
11-3
Analog Computers
THE
HEATHKIT
ELECTRONIC
ANALOG
DIGITAL
COMPUTER
11
This
electronic
slide rule11 simulates equations or
physical problems
electronically, substituting one physical system as a
model lor a second system that
is usually more
difficult or costly
to construct or
measure, and that
obeys equations ol
the same form.
Figure 8
Addition and
Subtradion
198
THE
Electronic Computers
J:TL_~
~eour
eouT =EX
e1
R1
Figure 9
ELECT~ONIC MULTIPLICATION
MAY BE ACCOMPLISHED BY
CALIBRATED POTENTIOMETERS,
WHEN OUTPUT VOLTAGE IS
PROPORTIONAL TO THE INPUT
VOLTAGE MULTIPLIED BY A
CONSTANT CR2/R1l.
-c dt
de
1-
Cffy
R
~eour
OUT
Figure 11
ELECTRONIC DIFFERENTIATION
The time derivative of a voltage can be
expressed as a charge on a capacitor (A).
Operational amplifier (B) employs feed
back principle lor short differentiation
time.
de
eo=RCdt
(2)
(1)
and is shown in figure llA. The charging current is converted into a voltage by the use
of a resistor, R. If the input to the RC circuit
is charging at a uniform rate so that the current through C and R is constant, the output
voltage eo is:
OUTPUT"\..
RADIO
R 1 ~ R3.
Figure 10
ELECTRONIC MU LTl PLICATION BY
BRIDGE CIRCUIT PROVIDES
OUTPUT THAT IS PRODUCT OF
TWO INPUTS DIVIDED BY A
THIRD INPUT.
1
eo=c
i dt
( 3)
;:---J1
IN~~~~J~ON ~
Making use of
charging current
of capacitor.
fc
f3l
~eour
HANDBOOK
11-4
~~heo"'
.,
199
Operational Amplifier
The Operational
Amplifier
Figure 13
"MILLER FEEDBACK" INTEGRATOR
SUITABLE FOR COMPUTER USE.
eo = - Ae., or e. = Figure 14
R-L NETWORK USED FOR
INTEGRATION PURPOSES.
eo
(4 )
Figure 15
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER C-Al
(5)
Rr
eo= - Ke, where K = '
R,
(6)
1M (RF)
lOOK
eo
1~0
3K
(BALANCE)
2K
BIAS
K
2!>0K
('AIN)
00 K
1K
-2..50
-450.
1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- GAl N
= -A
NE-51
v.
--
Figure 16
HIGH GAIN OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER, SUCH AS USED IN HEATH COMPUTER.
200
THE RADIO
Electronic Computers
RF
u_2.____.!_G____.f
eo
y
Figure 17
F=f'(tl
Figure 19
"MASS-SPRINGDAMPER" PROBLEM
MAY BE SOLVED BY
ELECTRICAL ANALOGY
WITH SIMPLE
COMPUTER.
eo==-
R,
R,
(8)
eo==-
or,
where
(7)
Rr
Rr
K , = - andK,=-
R,
R,
(9l
eo==-
Rr
Rr
Rr
- e t + - e , + - - - +-en
R,
R,
Rn
(10)
or
eo=-Rr+~
Rn
( 11)
d.
1--
(12)
dt
d.
deo
e
deo
but g=C, eo so-= Cr-- and - = Cr dt
dt
R,
dt
'
(13)
Thus:
and
deo =
R.c,
eo==--R.Cr
e dt
dt
(14)
( 15)
11-5
Solving Analog
Problems
By combining the above operations in various ways, problems of many kinds may be
solved For example, consider the mass-springdamper assembly shown in figure 19. The mass
M is connected to the spring which has an
elastic constant K. The viscous damping constant is C. The vertical displacement is y. The
sum of the forces acting on mass M is:
d'y
dy
f (t) = M - + C -+Ky
dt'
dt
The first step is to set up the analog computer circuit so as to obtain an output voltage
proportional to y for a given input voltage
proportional to f ( t). Equation ( 16) may be
rewritten in the form:
d'y
dy
M dr = -ccit-Ky+f (t)
( 17)
Figure 18
Performed by
Summation Amplifier
by replacing teed
back resistor with a
capacitor.
dy
dt
by passing it through an integrator circuit having an RC time constant equal to M. This resulting voltage can be passed through a second
integrator stage with unit time constant which
will have an output volage equal to y. The
voltages representing y, -
INTEGRATION
(16)
1: ,
and f ( t) can
~:
- Ky + f (t)
~';,
. Connecting the
HANDBOOK
Analog Problems
OPERATE
OPERATE
RELAY
RELAY
1.0
201
1.0
'"
'"
--c~; -Kv+f'!tl
'"
'lc
TO DISPLAY
OS C.\ LLOSCO PE
'"
'"
f'(t J >------H\1'-----l
c;;
-P(tJ
Figure 20
ANALOG SOLUTION FOR "MASS-SPRINGDAMPER" PROBLEM OF FIGURE 19.
08
Figure 21
ANALOG COMPUTER FOR
"FREELY FALLING BODY"
PROBLEM.
velocity. That, in turn, will become y, or distance, at the output of the second amplifier.
Before the problem can be solved on the
computer it is necessary to determine the time
of solution desirable and the output amplitude
of the solution. The time of solution is determined by the RC constant of the integrating
amplifiers. If RC is set at unity, computer
time is equal to real time. The computer time
desirable is determined by the method of readout. When using an oscilloscope for read-out,
a short solution time is desirable. For a recorder, longer solution time is better.
Suppose, for example, in the problem of the
falling body, the distance of fall in 2.5 seconds
is desired. Using an RC constant of 1 would
give a solution time of 2.5 seconds. This would
be acceptable for a recorder but is slow for an
oscilloscope. A convenient time of solution for
the 'scope would be 25 milliseconds. This is
11100 of the real time, so an RC constant of
.01 is needed. This can be obtained with C
equal to 0.1 1'-fd, and R equal to 100,000
ohms.
It is now necessary to choose an input voltage which will not overdrive the amplifiers.
The value of g is known to be approximately
32 ft/ sec./ sec. A check indicates that if we
set g equal to 3 2 volts, the voltage representing the answer will exceed 100 volts. Since
the linear response of the amplifier is only
100 volts, this is undesirable. An input of 16
volts, however, should permit satisfactory operation of the amplifiers. Output voltages near
zero should also be avoided. In general, output
voltage should be about 50 volts or so, with
202
Electronic Computers
0.1
THE
0.1
Figure 22
ANALOG SOLUTION FOR
"FALLING BODY PROBLEM"
OF FIGURE 21.
Figure 24
LIMITING CIRCUIT TO SIMULATE
NON-LINEAR FUNCTIONS SUCH AS
ENCOUNTERED IN HYSTERESIS,
BACKLASH, AND FRICTION
PROBLEMS.
TIME IN SECONDS-
cs=.
1
eo
--
(2 5}
-~----
-1 8
VOLTS
-24
6
-32
-4 0
-4 6
-5
-7 2
"""
I,
32
""'
""'
RADIO
~ j
1\
\I
\
DISTANCE
IN
FEET
r6
(100)
1 12
1 28
144
Figure 23
READ-OUT SOLUTION OF "FREELY
FALLING BODY" PROBLEM.
11-6
Non-linear Functions
(19)
( 20)
( 21)
RAMP- FUNCTION
GENERATOR
820 K
Figure 25
SIMPLIFIED DIAGRAM OF FUNCTIONAL GENERATOR TO APPROXIMATE NON-LINEAR
FUNCTIONS.
HANDBOOK
Non-Linear Functions
---,
~-----
+Y
203
I
I
I
"AND" GATES
I
POSITIVE
Figure 26
TYPICAL NON-LINEAR FUNCTION
WHICH MAY BE SET UP WITH
FUNCTION GENERATOR.
The Function
Generator
requirements
over a comparable
IBM tube-model machine.
They
are
mounted, along with
related circuitry, on
banks of printed wirIng panels in the
608.
nal storage, or
mem-
ory," is made up of
magnetic cores-minute, doughnut-shaped objects that can
"remembet 11 information indefinitely, and
recall it for use in
calculations in a few
millionths of a
cl!lrl\nrl.
_ ___]I
Figure 27
ELECTRONIC PACKAGE IN
DIGITAL COMPUTER.
Stylized diagram of tube package. Lines carrying negative pulses are marked by a small
circle at each end. Gates are indicated by
a semi-circle with "pins 11 lor each input.
204
THE
Electronic Computers
11-7
Digital Circuitry
RADIO
Memory Circuits
"AND GATES
INPUT #1
LIMITING
DIODES
INPUT# 2
INPUT#:3
INPUT#4
INPUT41:5
INPUT'I:6
INPUT*- 7
INPUT# 8
Figure 28
TYPICAL DIGITAL PACKAGE SHOWING INPUT AND OUTPUT DIODE GATES AND
PULSE AMPLIFIER.
HANDBOOK
INPUT
Digital Circuitry
205
OUTPUT
0.5
Figure 30
0.4t----+--+---+,--+----t--
F (MC)
Figure 29
E &. E TECHNI-SHEET
TABLE OF ALUMINUM TUBING, ROUND DRAWN, 12 FOOT LENGTHS
3S-H 14 TUBING
DIAM.
24S-T3 TUBING
61S-T6 TUBING
.018
.028
.041
.036
.055
.044
.068
.074
.052
.089
.049
.060
.095
.1 04
.076
.121
.092
.148
.08~"
.204
1 II
.0~5"
.109
1"
.058" .175
1 II
.035" .125
1 II
1"
.058" .202.
111
.083" .281
3S-H14 ALUMINUM TUBING-CAN BE
1 1/4" .058" .256
BENT OR FLATTENED READILY.
1 1/4" .083 11 .357
2.4S-T3 AI.UMINUM TUBING-HAS HIGH
11
.282
TENSILE STRENGTH AND CAN BE BENT OR 1 3/8" .058
11
1/1/2
.058"
.309
FLATTENED ONLY SLIGHTLY WITHOUT
CRACKING. GOOD FOR ANTENNA MASTS,
1 1/2" .083 11 .510
BOOMS, ELEMENTS AND OTHER SECTIONS
2.11
.058" .416
REQUIRING STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY.
2.11
.083" .590
61S-T6 ALUMINUM TUBING-HAS GREAT
TENSILE STRENGTH BUT CANNOT BE FLATTENED OR BENT.
3/16
1/4"
1/4"
3/8"
3/8"
1/2"
1/2."
1/2"
5/8"
5/8"
5/8 11
3/4"
3/4"
3/4"
3/411
7/8"
7/8 11
7/8"
7/8"
11
.022
.022"
.035 11
.022"
.035"
.035"
.049 11
.06 5 II
11
.01~
.018
.028
.02.8
.060
.060
.083
.105
.0~5" .076
.049 11 .1 04
.065 11 .133
.0~5 11
.092.
.049" .128
.058 11
.149
.166
.065"
.110
.0~5"
.049 11
.150
.058 11
.177
.196
.065"
.035" .126
.049" .174
.058" .204
.065
.216
1/4"
3/8 11
1/2 11
518 11
3/4"
3/4"
7/8"
1 II
1 II
.035"
.049"
.035 11
.035"
.035 11
.049"
.049"
.035"
.049"
.065"
1"
.049 11
1 1/4 11
1 112" .035"
1 1/2" .049 II
1 1/2" .065 11
.06 5"
2"
.028
.060
.061
.078
.094
.1 ~0
.151
.128
.175
.228
.2.2.1
.193
.268
.351
.473
3/16"
1/4"
1/4"
5/16"
5/16"
3/8"
3/8"
3/8"
7/16"
7/16 11
1/2"
1/2"
1/2"
1/2"
518 11
5/8"
3/4"
3/4"
314 11
7/8"
7/8"
1 II
.035"
.035"
.0 5 8 11
.035"
.058"
.035"
.058"
.065"
.035"
.065
.0 2.8"
.035"
.o58
.065"
.035"
.058"
.035"'
.058"
CHAPTER TWELVE
12-1
Detection or
Demodulation
207
208
Radio
Receiver
Fundamentals
THE
R AD I 0
TRIODE
AUDIO OUTPUT
Figure 1
ELEMENTARY FORM OF RECEIVER
This is the basis of the "crystal set" type of receiver, although a vacuum cliocle may be usee/ in
place of the crystal cliocle. The tank circuit L2-C1
is tuned to the frequency it is clesirecl to receive.
The by-pass capacitor across the phones should
have a low reactance to the carrier frequency being received, but a high reactance to the moclulation on the received signal.
AUDIO OUTPUT
-B
+B
Radiotelegraphy
Reception
Figure 2
REGENERATIVE DETECTOR CIRCUITS
Regenerative detectors are seldom used at the pre
sent time due to their poor selectivity. However,
they do illustrate the sirrplest type of receiver
which may be used either for racliophone or radiotelegraph reception.
The Autodyne
Detector
HANDBOOK
12-2
209
Superregenerative
Receivers
Superregenerative Detectors
TO AUDIO
AMPLIFIER
Figure 3
The optimum quenching frequency is a function of rhe signal frequency. As rhe operating
frequency goes up, so does rhe optimum quenching frequency. When the quench frequency is
roo low, maximum sensitivity is nor obtained.
When ir is roo high, both sensitivity and selectivity suffer. In fact, rhe optimum quench frequency for an operating frequency below 15 Me.
is in rhe audible range. This makes rhe superregenerator impracticable for use on rhe lower
frequencies.
The high background noise or hiss which
is heard on a properly designed superregenerator when no signal is being received is not
the quench frequency component; ir is rube
and tuned circuit fluctuation noise, indicating
rhar rhe receiver is extremely sensitive.
A moderately strong signal will cause rhe
background noise to disappear completely,
because rhe superregeneraror has an inherent
and instantaneous automatic volume control
characteristic. This same a-v-e characteristic
makes rhe receiver comparatively insensitive
to impulse noise such as ignition pulses-a
highly desirable feature. This characteristic
also resulrs in appreciable distortion of a received radiotelephone signal, bur nor enough
ro affect rhe intelligibility.
The selectivity of a superregenerator is
rather poor as compared to a superheterodyne,
but is surprisingly good for so simple a receiver when figured on a percentage basis
rather than absolute kc. bandwidth.
A superregenerarive receiver
will receive frequency modulated signals with resulrs comparing favorably
with amplitude modulation if rhe frequency
FM Reception
s~ing of
high. For such reception, rhe receiver is detuned slightly ro either side of resonance.
210
Radio
Receiver
THE
Fundamentals
I
r
I
ANTENNA
R AD I 0
&2
AUDIO
OUTPUT
----,
R.F.
r-
I
AUDIO
I AMPLIFIER
I
I
L---
---,
r~p~~~~:J
_J
~~~~~1~0
IOSCJLLATORI
I (FORC.W.)I
L------'
Figure 5
ESSENTIAL UNITS OF A
SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER
The basic portions of the receiver are shown
In solicl blocks. Practicable receivers employ the clotted blocks oncl also usually include such oclclitlonol circuits as o noise
limiter, an a-v-e circuit, and a crystal filter
Figure 4
THE FREMODYNE SUPERREGENERATIVE
SUPERHETERODYNE DETECTOR FOR
FREQUENCY MODULATED SIGNALS
12-3
Superheterodyne
Receivers
Principle of
Operation
Superheterodyne
Advantages
HANDBOOK
The
VARIABLE-.U
INP<p: _ _ _ _ _
-~
JH
PE.NTOOE
I
I
I
I
L---~-_j
oo-
300
-=
1ME.G.
TO A.V.C
Figure 6
TYPICAL 1-F AMPLIFIER STAGE
Arithmetical
Selectivity
Superhetrodyne
211
The Converter
Stage
212
Radio
Receiver
THE
Fundamentals
TO I. F.
AMP.
[[
6BE6, 6BA 7
R AD I 0
TO I. F.
AMP.
[[
TOI.F.
AMP.
[[
2 ..UJJF.
TO I.F.
AMP.
[[
+150V.
Figure 7
Diode Mixers
12-4
Mixer Noise
and Images
HANDBOOK
both these efiects can largely be obviated by
the same remedy, they will be considered together.
Mixer noise of the shot-effect
type, which is evidenced by a
hiss in the audio output of the receiver, is
caused by small irregularities in the plate current in the mixer stage and will mask weak
signals. Noise of an identical nature is generated in an amplifier stage, but due to the
fact that the conductance in the mixer stage
is considerably lower than in an amplifier
stage using the same tube, the proportion of
inherent noise present in a mixer usually is
considerably greater than in an amplifier stage
using a comparable tube.
Although this noise cannot be eliminated,
its effects can be greatly minimized by placing sufficient signal-frequency amplification
having a high signal-to-noise ratio ahead of
the mixer. This remedy causes the signal output from the mixer to be large in proportion to
the noise generated in the mixer stage. Increasing the gain after the mixer will be of no
advantage in eliminating mixer noise difficulties; greater selectivity after the mixer will
help to a certain extent, but cannot be carried
too far, since this type of selectivity decreases
the i-f band-pass and if carried too far will
not pass the sidebands that are an essential
part of a voice-modulated signal.
Mixer Noise
Triode Mixers
The amplitude of the injection voltage will affect the conversion transconductance of the mixer, and therefore should be made optimum if maximum signal-to-noise ratio is desired. If fixed bias is
employed on the injection grid, the optimum
injection voltage is quite critical. If cathode
bias is used, the optimum voltage is not so
critical; and if grid leak bias is employed, the
Injection
Voltage
Mixer
Characteristics
213
12-5
R-F Stages
214
Radio
Receiver
Fundamentals
THE
R AD I 0
6AB4, 6J6,
6J4, {: 12A T7
GROUNDED-GRID
+f20V.
Figure 8
CATHODE -COUPLED
6J6
+120
v.
LOW NOISE
CAS CODE
R-F Stages in
the V.H.F Range
+120
v.
+250V.
Figure 9
HANDBOOK
The
Cascode
Amplifier
215
------,
I
I
I
I
II
11~--~
1
I
jl AMPLIFIER AND DEMODULATOR (Q5'ER)I
L----
---------
_ j L - - - - - - - - - - __
Figure 10
Double Conversion
As previously mentioned,
the use of a higher intermediate frequency will also improve the image
216
Radio
Receiver
stability of the oscillator which feeds the second mixer, while the selectivity is determined
by the bandwidth of the second, fixed i-f amplifier.
The second common applic"ation of the
double-conversion principle is for the purpose
of obtaining a very high degree of selectivity
in the complete communications receiver. In
this type of application, as illustrated in figure 10 (B), a conventional communications receiver is modified in such a manner that its
normal i-f amplifier (which usually is in the
450 to 915 kc. range) instead of being fed to
a demodulator and then to the audio system,
is alternatively fed to a fixed-tune mixer stage
and then into a much lower intermediate frequency amplifier before the signal is demodulated and fed to the audio system. The accessory i-f amplifier system (sometimes called a
Q5' er) normally is operated on a frequency of
175 kc., 85 kc., or 50 kc.
12-6
Signal-Frequency
Tuned Circuits
THE
Fundamentals
R.f.INPUT
R AD I 0
3
TOA.V.C.
"=
+B
Figure 11
ILLUSTRATING "COMMON POINT"
BY-PASSING
To reduce the detrimental eHects of cathode circuit inductance in v-h-f stages, all by-pass capacitors should be returned to the cathode terminal
at the socket. Tubes with two cathode leads can
give improved performance if the grid return is
made to one cathocle terminal while the plate and
screen by-pass returns are macle to the cathacle
terminal which is connected to the suppressor
within the tube.
Superheterodyne
Tracking
HANDBOOK
Tuning
MIXER
PADDING CAPACITOR
TUNING CAPACITOR
OSCILLATOR
Figure 12
SERIES TRACKING EMPLOYED
IN THE H-F OSCILLATOR OF A
SUPERHETERODYNE
The series tracking capacitor permits the use of
iclentical gangs in a ganged capacitor, since the
tracking capacitor slows clown the rate of frequen
cy change in the oscillator so that a constant clif
ference in frequency between the oscillator ancl
the r-f stage (equal to the i-f amplifier frequency)
may be maintained.
217
Circuits
ITE
oc
Figure 13
BANDSPREAD CIRCUITS
Parallel banclspreacl is illustrated at (A) ancl (B),
series banclspreacl at (C), ancl tappecl-coil banclspreacl at (D),
a combination of both methods is usually employed, the coils being changed from one band
to another, and variable capacitors being used
to tune the receiver across each band. In practical receivers, coils may be changed by one
of two methods: a switch, controllable from
the panel, may be used to switch coils of different sizes into the tuning circuits or, alternatively, coils of different sizes may be
plugged manually into the receiver, the connection into the tuning circuits being made by
suitable plugs on the coils. Where there are
several plug-in coils for each band, they are
sometimes arranged to a single mounting sttip,
allowing them all to be plugged in simultan
eously.
Bandspread
Tuning
of either the coils or the capacitors in the tuning circuits, or both. In short-wave receivers
218
Radio
Receiver
Fundamentals
THE
R AD I 0
12-7
!f
amplifiers usually employ bandpass circuits of some sort. A bandpass circuit is ex~ctly what the name implies-a circuit for passlOg a band of frequencies. Bandpass arrangements ca? _be designed for almost any degree
of selectivity, the type used in any particular
case depending upon the ultimate application
of the amplifier.
1-F
Transformers
HANDBOOK
tor, due to the inductance of M being added to
the circuit.
The opposite effect takes place at figure
14-C, where the common coupling impedance
is a capacitor. Thus, at C the second reson
ant frequency is higher than the first. In either
case, however, the circuit has two resonant fre
quencies, resulting in a flat-topped selectivity
curve. The width of the top of the curve is
controlled by the reactance of the mutual
coupling component. As this reactance is in
creased (inductance made greater, capacitance
made smaller), the two resonant frequencies
become further apart and the curve is broad
ened.
In the circuit of figure 14-D, there is indue
tive coupling between the center coil and each
of the outer coils. The result of this arrangement is that the center coil acts as a sharply
tuned coupler between the other two. A signal
somewhat off the resonant frequency of the
transformer will not induce as much current
in the center coil as will a signal of the cor
rect frequency. When a smaller current is induced in the center coil, it in turn transfers
a still smaller current to the output coil. The
effective coupling between the outer coils in
creases as the resonant frequency is ap
proached, and remains nearly constant over a
small range and then decreases again as the
resonant band is passed.
Another very satisfactory bandpass arrange
ment, which gives a very straight-sided, flat
topped curve, is the negative-mutual arrange
ment shown at figure 14-E. Energy is trans
erred between the input and output circuits in
this arrangement by both the negative-mutual
coils, M, and the common capacitive reactance,
C. The negative-mutual coils are interwound
on the same form, and connected backward.
Transformers usually are made tunable over
a small range to permit accurate alignment in
the circuit in which they are employed. This
is accomplished either by means of a variable
capacitor across a fixed inductance, or by
means of a fixed capacitor across a variable
inductance. The former usually employ either
a mica-compression capacitor (designated
"mica tuned"), or a small air dielectric vari
able capacitor (designated "air tuned"). Those
which use a fixed capacitor usually employ a
powdered iron core on a threaded rod to vary
the inductance, and are known as "permea
bility tuned."
1-F
Amplifiers
21 9
Figure 14
Shape F actar
220
Radio
Receiver
Fundamentals
THE
R AD I 0
Figure 16
ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENT OF
QUARTZ FILTER CRYSTAL
The crystal is e~ivalent to a very large value of
inductance in series with small values of capacitance anrl resistance, with a larger though still
small value of capacitance across the whole circuit "(representing holcler capacitance plus stray
capacitances).
KC.
Figure 15
1-F PASS BAND OF TYPICAL
COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVER
Crystal
HANDBOOK
Filters
221
z,
Figure 18
Figure 17
EQUIVALENT OF CRYSTAL
FILTER CIRCUIT
For a given voltage out of the generator, the voltage developed across zl depends upon the ratio
of the impedance of X to the sum of the impedances
of Z and Z1. Because of the high Q of the crystal,
Its impedance changes rapidly with changes in
frequency.
a good crystal of high Q) is very low. Capacitance C, represents the shunt capacitance of
the electrodes, plus the crystal holder and
wiring, and is many times the capacitance of
C. This makes the crystal act as a parallel
resonant circuit with a frequency only slightly
higher than that of its f r e que n c y of series
resonance. For crystal fi 1 t e r use it is the
series resonant characteristic that we are primarily interested in.
The electrical equivalent of the basic crystal filter circuit is shown in figure 17. If the
impedance of Z plus Z 1 is low compared to the
impedance of the crystal X at resonance, then
the current flowing through Z 1 , and the voltage
developed across it, will be almost in inverse
proportion to the impedance of X, which has
a very sharp resonance curve.
If the impedance of Z plus Z 1 is made high
compared to the resonant impedance of X, then
there will be no appreciable drop in voltage
across Z 1 as the frequency departs from the
resonant frequency of X until the point is
reached where the impedance of X approaches
that of Z plus Z 1 This has the effect of broadening out the curve of frequency versus voltage
developed across Z., which is another way of
saying that the selectivity of the crystal filter
(but not the crystal proper) has been reduced.
In practicable filter circuits the impedances
Z and z, usually are represented by some form
of tuned circuit, but the basic principle of
operation is the same.
It is necessary to balance
out the capacitance across
the crystal holder (C., in figure 16) to prevent
bypassing around the crystal undesired signals
off the crystal resonant frequency. The hal
ancing is done by a phasing circuit which
takes out-of-phase voltage from a balanced in-
Practical Filters
Varlable-Selectivity Filters
222
Radio
Receiver
R AD I 0
THE
Fundamentals
SELECTIVITY
CONTROL
Figure 19
VARIABLE SELECTIVITY
CRYSTAL FILTER
40
45
This circuit permits of a greater a>ntrol of selectivity than cloes the circuit of figure 76, and cloes
not require a split-stator variable capacitor.
50
-4
-3
-2
-1 455 +I
+Z +3
+4
KC.
As the output circuit is detuned from resonance, its impedance is lowered, and the
selectivity increases. Sometimes a set of
fixed capacitors and a multipoint switch are
used to give stepbystep variation of the output circuit tuning, and thus of the crystal
filter selectivity.
Rejection
Notch
Figure 20
Crystal Filter
Considerations
HANDBOOK
223
Figure 21
The frequency characteristics of the mechanical filter are permanent, and no adjustment is
required or is possible. The filter is enclosed
in a hermetically sealed case.
In order to realize full benefit from the mechanical filter's selectivity characteristics,
it is necessary to provide shielding between
the external input and output circuits, capable
of reducing transfer of energy external to the
ONE SUPPORTING
DISC AT
EACH END
ELECTRICAL SIGNAL
ELECTRICAL SIGNAL
(INPUT OR OUTPUT)
{INPUT OR OUTPUT)
Figure 23
Figure
22
MECHANICAL FILTER
FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM
224
Radio
Receiver
--l
/.<~~~~~~)
IL __ _
10K
POT.
THE
Fundamentals
rrO 2ND'
I. F. STAGE
R AD I 0
OH.
31]ijb-ffr-~
J DETECTOR
B+
'=-
:-
B+
Figure 24
VARIABLE-OUTPUT B-F-0 CIRCUIT
A beat-frequency oscillator whose output is controllable is of considerable assistance In copying
cw signals over a wide range of levels, one/ such
a control is almost a necessity for satisfactory
copying of single-siclebancl racliophone signals.
~-c--jj~----1~_---AUDIO
filter by a minimum value of 100 db. If the input circuit is allowed to couple energy into
the output circuit external to the filter, the
excellent skirt selectivity will deteriorate and
the passband characteristics will be distorted.
As with almost any mechanically resonant
circuit, elements of the mechanical filter have
multiple resonances. These result in spurious
modes of transmission through the filter and
produce minor passbands at frequencies on
other sides of the primary passband. Design
of the filter reduces these sub-bands to a low
level and removes them from the immediate
area of the major passband. Two conventional
if transformers supply increased attenuation
to these spurious responses, and are sufficient
to reduce them to an insignificant level.
The beat-frequency oscillator,
usually called the b.f.o., is a
necessary adjunct for recep
tion of c-w telegraph signals on superhetero
dynes which have no other provision for obtaining modulation of an incoming cw telegraphy signal. The oscillator is coupled into
or just ahead of second detector circuit and
supplies a signal of nearly the same frequency
as that of the desired signal from the i-f amplifier. If the if amplifier is tuned to 455 kc.,
for example, the b.f.o. is tuned to approximately 454 or 456 kc. to produce an audible
( 1000 cycle) beat note in the output of the
second detector of the receiver. The carrier
signal itself is, of course, inaudible. The b.f.o.
is not used for voice reception, except as an
aid in searching for weak stations.
The bfo input to the second detector need
only be sufficient to give a good beat note on
an average signal. Too much coupling into the
second detector will give an excessively high
hiss level, masking weak signals by the high
noise background.
Figure 24 shows a method of manually ad-
DIODE DETECTOR
f,F, STAGE
5U
B+
PLATE DETECTOR
/.F. STAGE
DET.
Beat-Frequency
Oscillators
Figure 25
TYPICAL CIRCUITS FOR GRID-LEAK,
DIODE, PLATE AND INFINITE IMPEDANCE DETECTOR STAGES
Detector
HANDBOOK
R.f.
Circuits
225
MIXER
-~
100M
500M
.05~
Figure 26
TYPICAL A-V-C CIRCUIT USING A DOUBLE DIODE
Any of the small clual-c/ioc/e tubes may be usee/ in this circuit. Or, if c/esirec/, a c/uo-c/ioc/etrioc/e may be usee/, with the triode acting as the first audio stage. The left-hone/ c/ioc/e serves
as the detector, while the right-hone/ side acts as the a-v-e rectifier. The use of separate
c/ioc/es for detector one/ a-vc reduces distortion when receiving an AM signal with a high
modulation percentage.
12-8
Detectors
226
Radio
Receiver
THE
Fundamentals
A. C Loading of
Second Detector
By disassociating the a. v. c.
and detecting f u n c t i on s
through using separate
diodes, as shown, most of the ill effects of
a-c shunt loading on the detector diode are
avoided. This type of loading causes serious
distortion, and the additional components re
quired to eliminate it are well worth their cost.
Even with the circuit shown, a-c loading can
occur unless a very high (5 megohms, or more)
value of grid resistor is used in the following
audio amplifier stage.
In receivers having a beat
frequency oscillator for the
Receivers
reception of radiotelegraph
signals, the use of a.v.c.
can result in a great loss in sensitivity when
the b.f.o. is switched on. This is because the
beat oscillator output acts exactly like a
strong received signal, and causes the a-v-e
circuit to put high bias on the r-f and i-f stages,
thus greatly reducing the receiver's sensitivity. Due to the above effect, it is necessary to
provide a method of making the a-v-e circuit
inoperative when the b.f.o. is being used. The
simplest method of eliminating the a-v-e action is to short the a-v-e line to ground when
the b.f.o. is turned on. A two-circuit switch
may be used for the dual purpose of turning on
the beat oscillator and shorting out the a.v.c.
if desired.
A.V.C. in
B- F-0- Equipped
RF
IF
R AD I 0
IF
+B
470
Signal Strength
Indicators
Figure 27
SIGNAL-STRENGTH-METER CIRCUITS
Shown above are four circuits for obtaining a sig
nat-strength reading which is a function of incoming carrier amplitucle. The circuits ore rJ/scussecl
lin the accompanying text.
with respect to srrength. This is because increased a-v-e bias on stronger signals causes
lower plate current through the meter. For this
reason, special meters which indicate zero at
the right-hand end of the scale are often used
for signal strength indicators in commercial
receivers using this type of circuit. Alternatively, the meter may be mounted upside
down, so that the needle moves toward the
right with increased strength.
The circuit of figure 27B can frequently be
used to advantage in a receiver where the cathode of one of the r-f or i-f amplifier stages
runs directly to ground through the cathode
bias resistor instead of running through a cath-
HANDBOOK
ode-voltage gain control. In this case a 0-1
d-e milliammeter in conjunction with a resistor
from 1000 to 3000 ohms can be used as shown
as a signal-strength meter. With this circuit
the meter will read backwards with increasing
signal strength as in the circuit previous! y
discussed.
Figure 27C is the circuit of a forward-readingS meter as is often used in communications
receivers. The instrument is used in an unbalanced bridge circuit with the d-e plate resistance of one i-f tube as one leg of the
bridge and with resistors for the other three
legs. The value of the resistor R must be determined by trial and error and will be somewhere in the vicinity of 50,000 ohms. Sometimes the screen circuits of the r-f and i-f
stages are taken from this point along with
the screen-circuit voltage divider.
Electron-ray tubes (sometimes called "magic
eyes") can also be used as indicators of relative signal strength in a circuit similar to that
shown in figure 270. A 6U5/6G5 tube should
be used where the a-v-e voltage will be from
5 to 20 volts and a type 6E5 tube should be
used when the a-v-e voltage will run from 2
to 8 volts.
Audio amp I if i e r s are employed in n e a r I y all radio
receivers. The audio amplifier stage or stages
are usually of the Class A type, although Class
AB push-pull stages are used in some receivers. The purpose of the audio amplifier is
to bring the reJatively weak signal from the
detector up to a strength sufficient to operate
a pair of headphones or a loud speaker. Either
triodes, pentodes, or beam tetrodes may be
used, the pentodes and beam tetrodes usually
giving greater output. In some receivers, particularly those employing grid leak detection,
it is possible to operate the headphones directly from the detector, without audio amplification. In such receivers, a single audio
stage with a beam tetrode or pentode tube is
ordinarily used to drive the loud speaker.
Most communications receivers, either homeconstructed or factory-made, have a singleended beam tetrode (such as a 6L6 or 6V6) or
pentode (6F6 or 6K6-GT) in the audio output
stage feeding the loudspeaker. If precautions
are not taken such a stage will actually bring
about a decrease in the effective signal-tonoise ratio of the receiver due to the rising
high-frequency characteristic of such a stage
when feeding a loud-speaker. One way of improving this condition is to place a mica or
paper capacitor of approximately 0.003 11fd.
capacitance across the primary of the output
transformer. The use of a capacitor in this
manner tends to make the load impedance seen
by the plate of the output tube more constant
Noise
Suppression
227
12-9
Noise Suppression
228
Radio
Receiver
of very short duration, yet of very high amplitude. The popping or clicking type of noise
from electrical ignition systems may produce
a signal having a peak value ten to twenty
times as great as the incoming radio signal,
but an average power much less than the sig
nal.
As the duration of this type of noise peak
is short, the receiver can be made inoperative
during the noise pulse without the human ear
detecting the total loss of signal. Some noise
limiters actually punch a hole in the signal,
while others merely limit the maximum peak
signal which reaches the headphones or loudspeaker.
The noise peak is of such short duration
that it would not be objectionable except for
the fact that it produces an over-loading effect
on the receiver, which increases its time con
stant. A sharp voltage peak will give a kick
to the diaphragm of the headphones or speak
er, and the momenrum or inertia keeps the
diaphragm in motion until the dampening of
the diaphragm stops it. This movement pro
duces a popping sound which may completely
obliterate the desired signal. If the noise pulse
can be limited to a peak amplitude equal to
that of the desired signal, the resulting inter
ference is practically negligible for moder
atel y low repetition rates, such as ignition
noise.
In addition, the if amplifier of the receiver
will also tend to lengthen the duration of the
noise pulses because the relatively highQ if
runed circuits will ring or oscillate when ex
cited by a sharp pulse, such as produced by
ignition noise. The most effective noise limiter
would be placed before the highQ if tuned
circuits. At this point the noise pulse is the
sharpest and has not been degraded by pass
age through the if transformers. In addition,
the pulse is eliminated before it can produce
ringing effects in the if chain.
The Lamb
Noise Limiter
THE
Fundamentals
1ST OET.
R AD I 0
2ND l,f,
ISTI.f,
6L7
6AB7
6H6
Figure 28
THE LAMB 1-F NOISE SILENCER
HANDBOOK
Noise
Limiters
229
Practical
Peak Noise
Limiter Circuits
Figure 29
Audio Noise
Limiters
voice sidebands (to take care of drift and instability). Therefore, they are capable of bet-
23 0
Radio
Receiver
Fundamentals
THE
R AD I 0
C, -0.1-).Lfd. paper
C.,-50-).L).Lfd. mica
C,-1 00-).L).Lfd. mica
C., Cs -0.01-).Lfd. paper
R1, R2 -1 megohm,
Y2
watt
R3 , R.-220,000 ohms,
Yz watt
Rs, R,;-1 megohm,
Y2
watt
R,-2-megohm paten
tiometer
Figure 30
NOISE LIMITER CIRCUIT, WITH ASSOCIATED A-V-C
This I imiter is of the series type, one/ is seff-acljusting to carrier strength for phone reception. For proper
operatio'l several volts shoulcl be clevelopecl across the seconclary of the last i-f transformer (/FT) uncler
carrier conditions.
The Full-Wave
Limiter
HANDBOOK
U-H-F
Circuits
2 31
R..,
R5 -1 megohm,
J.-'2
watt
~-2-megohm potentiometer
v,
sections
L __________ .JI
or
of a 658-GT
Figure 31
ALTERNATIVE NOISE LIMITER CIRCUIT
cuir is useful in eliminating the grinding background noise that is the residual left by the
diode clipper. In figure 33, the setting of the
470K potentiometer determines the operating
level of the squelch action and should be set
to eliminate the residual background noise.
Because of the low inherent distortion of the
TNS, it may be left in the circuit at all times.
As with other limiters, the TNS requires a
high signal level at the second detector for
maximum limiting effect.
12-10
Special Considerations
in U-H-F Receiver Design
Transmission
Tuning
Short Lines
J.F. STAGE
Line Circuits
AUDIO
Figure 32
THE FULL-WAVE SERIES AUDIO
NOISE LIMITER
Figure 33
THE TNS AUDIO NOISE LIMITER
2 32
Radio
Receiver
Fundamentals
THE
CAVITY
-~~~INE
->I
I
CAVITY
0~
I I
TO ANT.
R AD I 0
-ol
TO ANT.
Figure 34
COUPLING AN ANTENNA TO A
COAXIALRESONANT CIRCUIT
(A) shows the recommenclecl methocl for coup/in!l
a coaxial line to a coaxial resonant circuit. (BJ
shows an alternative methocl for use with an openwire type of antenna feeclline.
1
2 rr fC
= Z 0 tan l
Coupling Into
Lines and
Coaxial Circuits
@6itt2
HOLE
ELECTRON
BEAM
Figure 35
METHODS OF EXCITING A RESONANT
CAVITY
circuit can be made directly on the inner conductor at the point where it is properly matched
(figure 34). For low impedances, such as a concentric line feeder, a small one-half turn loop
can be inserted through a hole in the outer
conductor of the coaxial circuit, being in effect a half of the hairpin type recommended
for coupling balanced feeders to coaxial resonant lines. The size of the loop and closeness to the inner conductor determines the
impedance matching and loading. Such loops
coupled in near the shorting disc do not alter
the tuning appreciably, if not overcoupled.
A cavity is a closed resonant
chamber made of metal. It is
known also as a rhumbatron. The
cavity, having both inductance and capacitance, supersedes coil-capacitor and capacitance-loaded transmission-line tuned circuits
at extremely high frequencies where conventional L and C components, of even the most
refined design, prove impractical because of
the tiny electrical and physical dimensions
they must have. Microwave cavities have high
Q factors and are superior to conventional
tuned circuits. They may be employed in the
manner of an absorption wavemeter or as the
tuned circuit in other r-f test instruments, and
in microwave transmitters and receivers.
Resonant cavities usually are closed on all
sides and all of their walls are made of electrical conductor. However, in some forms,
small openings are present for the purpose of
excitation. C~vities have been produced in
several shape~ including the plain sphere,
Resonant
Cavities
HANDBOOK
U-H-F
Circuits
233
TUNING
SLUGS
Figure 36
TUNING METHODS FOR CYLINDRICAL
RESONANT CAVITIES
Figure 37
THE BUTTERFLY RESONANT CIRCUIT
Shown at (A) is the physical appearance of the
butterfly circuit as usecl in the v-h-f ancl lower
u-h-f range. (B) shows an electrical representa
tion of the circuit.
234
Radio
Receiver
Fundamentals
THE
R AD I 0
general, the improvements embodied in existing tubes have consisted of (1) reducing electrode spacing to cut down electron transit
time, (2) reducing electrode areas to decrease
interelectrode capacitances, and (3) shortening of electrode leads either by mounting the
electrode assembly close to the tube base or
by bringing the leads out directly through the
glass envelope at nearby points. Through reduction of lead inductance and interelectrode
capacitances, input and output resonant fre
quencies due to tube construction have beet,
increased substantially.
Tubes embracing one or more of the features just outlined include the later loctal
types, high-frequency acorns, button-base
types, and the lighthouse types. Type 6]4
button-base triode will reach 500 Me. Type
6F4 acorn triode is recommended for use up to
1200 Me. Type 1A3 button-base diode has a
resonant frequency of 1000 Me., while type
9005 acorn diode resonates at 1500 Me. Lighthouse type 2C40 can be used at frequencies
up to 3500 Me. as an oscillator.
Crystal
Rectifiers
HANDBOOK
Receiver
Figure 38
1N23 MICROWAVE-TYPE
CRYSTAL DIODE
A small silicon crystal is attached to
the base connector and a fine "catwhisker" wire is set to the most sensitive spot on the crystal. After adjust
ment the ceramic shell is filled with
compound to hold the contact wire in
position. Crystals of this type are used
to over 3 0, 000 me.
12-11
Receiver Adjustment
Adjustment
235
Superheterodyne
Alignment
Instruments
1- F AI ignment
236
Radio
Receiver
THE
Fundamentals
R AD I 0
Figure 39
THE Q-MUL TIPLIER
The loss resistance of a high-Q circuit
is
neutralizecl by regeneration in a
1- F with
Crystal Filter
Front-End
Alignment
B- F-0 Adiustment
12-12
Receiving Accessories
HANDBOOK
237
Receiving Accessories
TO PLATE TERMINAL
OF FIRST 1-F TUBE THRU
2.' OF COAXIAL LINE
.ooo
L1
P~o:5
.
Q MULTIPLIER "NULL''
12AX7
10K
W.,
4,Bfill+g
5
+200-30QV_
4~5
L1=GRAYBURNE
KC
FR EQU ENC.Y
Ve
CHOKE
-=
6.3V.
(0.6-6.0 MH)
Figure 40
Q-MUL TIPLIER NULL CIRCUIT
The addition of a second triode permits
the Q-Multiplier to be used for nulling
out an unwanted hetrodyne.
Figure 41
SCHEMATIC OF A 455KC
Q-MUL TIPLIER
Coil
L7
reactance
justed
for
signal response.
the intermediate frequency, and the loss resistance of the circuit is neutralized by the
positive feedback circuit composed of C3 and
the vacuum tube. Too great a degree of positive
feedback will cause the circuit to break into
oscillation.
At the resonant frequency, the impedance of
the tuned circuit is very high, and when shunted
across an i-f stage will have little effect upon
the signal. At frequencies removed from resonance, the impedance of the circuit is low, resulting in high attenuation of the i-f signal.
The resonant frequency of the Q-multiplier may
by varied by changing the value of one of the
components in the tuned circuit.
The Q-multiplier may also be used to "null"
a signal by employing negative feedback to
control the plate resistance of an auxiliary
amplifier stage as shown in figure 40. Since the
grid-cathode phase shift through the Q-multiplier
is zero, the plate resistance of a second tube
may be readily controlled by placing it across
the Q-multiplier. At resonance, the high negative feedback drops the plate resistance of
V2, shunting the i-f circuit. Off resonance, the
feedback is reduced and the plate resistance
of V2 rises, reducing the amount of signal attenuation in the i-f strip. A circuit combining
both the "peak" and "null" features is shown
in figure 41.
The Product Detector
AUDIO OUTPUT
Figure 42
THE PRODUCT
DETECTOR
23 8
20 K 7
470T
BEAT OSC.
Slt;NAL
BEAT OSC
SIGNAL
Figure 44
Figure 43
TRIPLE-TRIODE
PRODUCT DETECTOR
PENTAGRID MIXER
USED AS PRODUCT
DETECTOR
ers,
.01
r-'-"----t-...- (----AU D I 0
OUT
100
1- F S I G.
47 K
100 K
Figure 45
DOUBLE-TRIODE
PRODUCT DETECTOR
II.
Figure 46
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
Generation of
Radio Frequency Energy
A radio communication or broadcast transmitter consists of a source of radio frequency
power, or carrier; a system for modulating the
carrier whereby voice or telegraph keying or
other modulation is superimposed upon it; and
an antenna system, including feed line, for
radiating the intelligence-carrying radio frequency power. The power supply employed to
convert primary power to the various voltages
required by the r-f and modulator portions of
the transmitter may also be considered part
of the transmitter.
Voice modulation usually is accomplished
by varying either the amplitude or the frequency of the radio frequency carrier in accordance
with the components of intelligence to be
transmitted.
Radiotelegraph modulation (keying) normally is accomplished either by interrupting,
shifting the frequency of, or superimposing an
audio tone on the radio-frequency carrier in
accordance with the dots and dashes to be
transmitted.
The complexity of the radio-frequency generating portion of the transmitter is dependent
upon the power, order of stability, and frequency desired. An oscillator feeding an antenna
direct! y is the simplest form of radio-frequency
generator. A modern high-frequency transmitter,
on the other hand, is a very complex generator.
Such an equipment usually comprises a very
13-1
Self-Controlled
Oscillators
239
240
Generation
of
R-F
Energy
THE
R AD I 0
SHUNT-FED HARTLEY
SHUNT-FED COLPITTS
+B
ELECTRON COUPLED
+B
L2
@ CLAPP
Figure 1
COMMON TYPES OF SELF-EXCITED OSCILLATORS
Fixecl capacitor ~a/ues ~re ~ypical, but will vary somewhat with the application.
In the Clapp OSCillator CirCUitS (G) ancl (H), capacitors cl ancl c2 should have a
reactance of ~0 to 10~ ohms at t.he operating frequency of the oscillator. Tuning of
these two osc1llators IS accompl1shecl by capacitor C. In the circuits of (E) (F) ancl
(H), tuning of the tank circuit in the plate of the oscillator tube will have ~elatlvely
s':'all effect on the frequency. of oscillation. The plate tank circuit also may, if cles~recl, be tunecl to a harmomc of the oscillation frequency, or a broadly resonant
circuit may be usecl In this circuit position.
Negotive-Grid
Oscillators
The Hartley
HANDBOOK
ence between the various circuits is the manner in which energy for excitation is coupled
from the plate to the grid circuit.
When plate voltage is applied to the Hartley
oscillator shown at (A), the sudden flow of
plate current accompanying the application of
plate voltage will cause an electro-magnetic
field to be set up in the vicinity of the coil.
The building-up of this field will cause a potential dr6p to appear from turn-to-turn along
the coil. Due to the inductive coupling between the portion of the coil in which the plate
current is flowing and the grid portion, a potential will be induced in the grid portion.
Since the cathode tap is between the grid
and plate ends of the coil, the induced grid
voltage acts in such a manner as to increase
further the plate current to the tube. This action will continue for a short period of time
determined by the inductance and capacitance
of the tuned circuit, until the flywheel effect
of the tuned circuit causes this action to come
to a maximum and then to reverse itself. The
plate current then decreases, the magnetic
field around the coil also decreasing, until a
minimum is reached, when the action starts
again in the original direction and at a greater
amplitude than before. The amplitude of these
oscillations, the frequency of which is determined by the coil-capacitor circuit, will increase in a very short period of time to a limit
determined by the plate voltage of the oscillator tube.
Figure 1 (B) shows a version of
the Colpitts oscillator. It can
be seen that this is essentially the same circuit as the Hartley except that the ratio of a
pair of capacitances in series determines the
effective cathode tap, instead of actually using a tap on the tank coil. Also, the net capacitance of these two capacitors comprises
the tank capacitance of the tuned circuit. This
oscillator circuit is somewhat less susceptible to parasitic (spurious) oscillations than
the Hartley.
For best operation of the Hartley and Colpitts oscillators, the voltage from grid to cathode, determined by the tap on the coil or the
setting of the two capacitors, normally should
be from 1/3 to 1/5 that appearing between
plate and cathode.
The Colpitts
Oscillators
241
242
Generation
of
R-F
THE
Energy
R AD I 0
HANDBOOK
Oscillators
24 3
Figure 2
TRANSITRON OSCILLATOR
c,
TRANSITION OSCILLATOR
c,-0.01-!Lfd. mica for r.f. 10-!Lfd. elect. for a.f.
C,-0.00005-!Lfd. mica for r.f. 0.1- !Lid. paper for
a. f.
C,-0.003- /Lfd. mica for r.f. 0.5- !Lid. paper for
a. f.
C..-0.01- !Lid. mica for r.f. 8- !Lid. elect. for a. f.
R1 -220K ~-watt carbon
R2 -1800 ohms ~-watt carbon
R3 -22K 2-watt carbon
R.-22K 2-watt carbon
CATHODE-COUPLED OSCILLATOR
C,-0.00005-!Lfd. mica for r.f. 0.1-!Lid. poper
for audio
B+ 100- 1!!10 V.
The Frankl in
Oscillator
-B+
Figure 3
244
Generation
V.F.O. Transmit
of
R-F
quency of a transmitter in
which there are s t ring en t
limitations on frequency tolerance, several precautions are taken to ensure that a variable
frequency oscillator will stay on frequency.
The oscillator is fed from a voltage regulated
power supply, uses a well designed and temperature compensated tank circuit, is of rugged
mechanical construction to avoid the effects
of shock and vibration, is protected against
excessive changes in ambient room temperature, and is isolated from feedback or stray
coupling from other portions of the transmitter
by shielding, filtering of voltage supply leads,
and incorporation of one or more buffer-amplifier stages. In a high power transmitter a small
amount of stray coupling from the final amplifier to the oscillator can produce appreciable
degradation of the oscillator stability if both
are on the same frequency. Therefore, the oscillator usually is operated on a subharmonic
of the transmitter output frequency, with one
or more frequency multipliers between the os
cillator and final amplifier.
ter Controls
13-2
THE
Energy
Quartz Crystal
Oscillators
Quartz is a naturally occuring crystal having a structure such that when plates are cut
in certain definite relationships to the crystal
lographic axes, these plates will show the
piezoelectric effect-the plates will be deformed in the influence of an electric field,
and, conversely, when such a plate is compressed or deformed in any way a potential
difference will appear upon its opposite sides.
The crystal has mechanical resonance, and
will vibrate at a very high frequency because
of its stiffness, the natural period of vibration
depending upon the dimensions, the method of
electrical excitation, and crystallographic
orientation. Because of the piezoelectric properties, it is possible to cut a quartz plate
which, when provided with suitable electrodes,
will have the characteristics of a series resonant circuit with a very high L/C ratio and
very high Q. The Q is several times as high
as can be obtained with an inductor-capacitor
combination in conventional physical sizes.
The equivalent electrical circuit is shown in
figure 4A, the resistance component simply
being an acknowledgment of the fact that the
Q, while high, does not have an infinite value.
The shunt capacitance of the electrodes and
associated wiring (crystal holder and socket,
plus circuit wiring) is represented by the dotted portion of figure 4B. In a high frequency
'~~~;
Li
(LARGE)
R1
(SMALL)
"f
L1
~LC2
Ll
R AD I 0
(sTRAY
SHUNT)
I
I
I ~:
_..J
Figure 4
Crystal
HANDBOOK
Oscillators
245
AT+35"15'
BT-49
CT-t-36
OT-52'
ET"-t66
Figure 5
fT-57'
ORIENTATION OF THE
COMMON CRYSTAL CUTS
ZERO TE~PERATURE
COEFFICIENT
OSCILLATORS
A MT LONGITUDINAL CRYSTAL
B NT FLEXURE CRYSTAL
DOUGHNUT
ZERO TEMPERATURE
COEFFICIENT
The crystal blank is then rough-ground almost to frequency, the frequency increasing
in inverse ratio to the oscillating dimension
(usually the thickness). It is then finished to
exact frequency either by careful lapping, by
etching, or plating. The latter process consists of finishing it to a frequency slightly
higher than that desired and then silver plating
the electrodes right on the crystal, the frequency decreasing as the deposit of silver is
increased. If the crystal is not etched, it must
be carefully scrubbed and "baked" several
times to stabilize it, or otherwise the frequency and activity of the crystal will change with
time. Irradiation by X-rays recently has been
used in crystal finishing.
Unplated crystals usually are mounted in
pressure holders, in which two electrodes are
held against the crystal faces under slight
pressure. Unplated crystals also are sometimes mounted in an air-gap holder, in which
there is a very small gap between the crystal
and one or both electrodes. By making this
gap variable, the frequency of the crystal may
be altered over narrow limits (about 0.3% for
certain types).
The temperature coefficient of frequency for
various crystal cuts of the "-T" rotated family is indicated in figure 5. These angles are
typical, but crystals of a certain cut will vary
slightly. By controlling the orientation and dimensioning, the turning point (point of zero
temperature coefficient) for a BT cut plate may
be made either lower or higher than the 75 degrees shown. Also, by careful control of axes
246
Generation
of
R-F
Energy
THE
R AD I 0
100-15QV.
best .type mount is determined by the type crystal and its application, and usually an optimum mounting is furnished with the crystal.
However, certain features are desirable in all
holders. One of these is exclusion of moisture
and prevention of electrode oxidization. The
best means of accomplishing this is a metal
holder, hermetically sealed, with glass insulation and a metal-to-glass bond. However, such
holders are more expensive, and a ceramic or
phenolic holder with rubber gasket will serve
where requirements are not too exacting.
Where the frequency tolerance requirements are
not too stringent and the
ambient temperature does not include extremes,
an AT-cut plate, or a BT-cut plate with optimum (mean temperature) turning point, will
often provide adequate stability without resorting to a temperature controlled oven. However, for broadcast stations and other applications where very close tolerances must be
maintained, a thermostatically controlled oven,
adjusted for a temperature slightly higher than
the highest ambient likely to be encountered,
must of necessity be employed.
Temperature Control;
Crystal Ovens
EXCITATION
RFC
+B
1oo-1~v.
+B
HOT-CATHODE "PIERCE'
OSCILLATOR
Figure 6
THE PIERCE CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
CIRCUIT
Shown at (A} is the &as/c Pierce crystal oscillator circuit. A capacitance of 10 to 75
IJ.!J.frl. normally will &e requlrerJ crt C 1 for
optimum operation. If a plate supply voltage
higher than inrlicaterJ is to &e userJ, RFC 1
may &e replcrcerJ &y a 22,000-ohm 2watt resistor. Shown at (B) Is an alternative arrangement with the r-f grounrl moverJ to the
plate, crnrJ with the catharle floating. This
alternative circuit hers the arlvcrntcrge that
the full r-f voltage rleveloperJ across the
crystal may &e userl as excitation to the next
stage, since one s/rle of the crystal Is
grounrlerJ.
Harmonic Cut
Crystals
nate against the fundamental frequency or undesired harmonics. Otherwise the crystal might
notalways oscillate on the intended frequency.
For this reason the Pierce oscillator, later
described in this chapter, is not suitable for
use with harmonic-cut crystals, because the
only tuned element in this oscillator circuit
is the crystal itself.
For a given crystal operating as an anti-resonant tank in a given oscillator at fixed load impedance and plate and
screen voltages, the r-f current through the
crystal will increase as the shunt capacitance
C 2 of figure 4 is increased, because this effectively increases the step-up ratio of C, to C 2
For a given shunt capacitance, C 2 , the crystal
current for a given crystal is directly proportional to the r-f voltage across C 2 This voltage may be measured by means of a vacuum
tube voltmeter having a low input capacitance,
and such a measurement is a more pertinent
one than a reading of r-f current by means of
a thermogalvanometer inserted in series with
one of the leads to the crystal holder.
The function of a crystal is to provide accurate frequency control, and unless it is used
in such a manner as to take advantage of its
inherent high stability, there is no point in
using a crystal oscillator. For this reason a
Crystal Current;
Heating and Fracture
Crystal
HANDBOOK
crystal oscillator should not be run at high
plate input in an attempt to obtain considerable power directly out of the oscillator, as
such operation will cause the crystal to heat,
with resultant frequency drift and possible
fracture.
13-3
Crystal Oscillator
Circuits
The Pierce
Oscillator
Oscillators
247
Pentode
Harmonic Crystal
Oscillator Circuits
Tuned. Plate
Crystal Oscillator
248
Generation
of
R-F
THE
Energy
R AD I 0
RECOMMENDED TUNED-PLATE
OSCILLATOR
@)
6AG7
F, 2F, 3F, 4F
6AG7
"TRITET'' CIRCUIT
F. 2F. 3F, 4F
Figure 7
HANDBOOK
75
1---F, 2F,3F,
20-15-lo
+300
F.
v.
~
I.
2.
3.
(zf"oF B&W#3016)
4, X=
Figure 8
ALL-BAND 6AG7 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
CAPABLE OF DRIVING
BEAM PENTODE TUBE
Crystal Switching
A Versatile 6AG7
Crystal Oscillator
24 9
Triode Overtone
Oscillators
250
Generation
of
R-F
Energy
THE
R AD I 0
lf24DNNATtONAL xRso
FORM
L2=sr. f/18 ON NATIONAL XR50
FORM
12AU7
50
RFC
r-----,---jr---
62 K
-=
100
+30011.
L1 =zsr.
+300v
v.
+300
6J6
3F
6, 9 F
L:O
0
5
L1
}
':"' .001
100
;::;
1000
100
f::eMc.
l1 =tOT.#
+30011.
9f:tfff1 P,}'oCJc~'8R~1flr6lf.~~'fo~{f.N ro
1
12AT7
(oR 6AB4)
IK
+200V,
-f"
l I =5 T. # !8,
0. SPACED
l2=1r. HOOKUP WIRE, fH D.
+300V.
Figure 9
R-F
HANDBOOK
back should be employed to maintain proper
oscillation of the crystal. Excessive feedback
will cause the first section of the 12AU7 to
oscillate as a self-excited TNT oscillator,
independent of the crystal. A variety of this
circuit is shown in figure 9D, wherein a tapped
coil, L 1 , is used in place of the two separate
coils. Operation of the circuit is the same in
either case, regeneration now being controlled
by the placement of the tap on L 1
A cathode follower overtone oscillator is
shown in figure 9E. The cathode coil, L., is
chosen so as to resonate with the crystal and
tube capacities just below the third overtone
frequency of the crystal. For example, with an
8-Mc. crystal, L, is tuned to 24 Me., L 1 resonates with the circuit capacities to 23.5 Me.,
and the harmonic tank circuit of the second
section of the 12AT7 is tuned either to 48 Me.
or 72 Me. If a 24-Mc. overtone crystal is used
in this circuit, L, may be tuned to 72 Me., L 1
resonates with the circuit capacities to 70
Me., and the harmonic tank circuit, L 2 , is tuned
to 144 Me. If there is any tendency towards
self-oscillation in the circuit, it may be eliminated by a small amount of inductive coupling
between L 2 and L,. Placing these coils near
each other, with the winding of L 2 correctly
polarized with respect to L, will prevent selfoscillation of the circuit.
The use of a 144-Mc. overtone crystal is
illustrated in figure 9F. A 6AB4 or one-half
of !l 12AT7 tube may be used, with output
directly in the 2-meter amateur band. A slight
amount of regeneration is provided by the one
turn link, L, which is loosely coupled to the
144-~lc. tuned tank circuit, L 1 in the plate circuit of the oscillator tube. If a 12AT7 tube
and a 110-Mc. crystal are employed, direct output in the 220-Mc. amateur band may be obtained from the second half of the 12A T7.
13-4
Radio Frequency
Amplifiers
Amplifiers
251
mum harmonic output is desired in a particular stage. A Class B amplifier operates witlt
cutoff bias and a comparatively small amount
of excitation. Power gains of 20 to 200 or so
are obtainable in a well-designed Class B
amplifier. The plate efficiency of a Class B
c-w amplifier will run around 65 per cent.
Another type of Class B amplifier is the Class B linear stage
as employed in radiophone work.
This type of amplifier is used to increase the
level of a modulated carrier wave, and depends for its operation upon the linear relation between excitation voltage and output
voltage. Or, to state the fact in another manner, the power output of a Class B linear stage
varies linearly with the square of the excitation voltage.
The Class B linear amplifier is operated
with cutoff bias and a small value of excitation, the actual value of exciting power being
such that the power output under carrier conditions is one-fourth of the peak power capabilities of the stage. Class B linears are very
widely employed in broadcast and commercial
installations, but are comparatively uncommon
in amateur application, since tubes with high
plate dissipation are required for moderate
output. The carrier efficiency of such an amplifier will vary from approximately 30 per
cent to 35 per cent.
The Class B
Linear
Class C amplifiers are very widely used in all types of transmitters. Good power gain may be
obtained (values of gain from 3 to 20 are common) and the plate circuit efficiency may be,
under certain conditions, as high as 85 per
cent. Class C amplifiers operate with considerably more than cutoff bias and ordinarily with
a large amount of excitation as compared to a
Class B amplifier. The bias for a normal Class
C amplifier is such that plate current on the
stage flows for approximately 120 of the 360
excitation cycle. Class C amplifiers are used
in transmitters where a fairly large amount of
excitation power is available and good plate
circuit efficiency is desired.
The Class C
Amplifier
Plate Modulated
Class C
252
Generation
of
R-F
Grid Modulated
Class C
THE
Energy
R AD I 0
13-5
Neutralization of
R.F. Amplifiers
Neutralizing
Circuits
Split-Stator
Plate Neutralization
Neutralization
HANDBOOK
253
NC
~1~~1 1~~
':'
RF'C
Figure 10
COMMON NEUTRALIZING CIRCUITS FOR SINGLE-ENDED AMPLIFIERS
a split-stator plate capacitor makes the electrical balance of the circuit substantially independent of the mutual coupling within the coil
and also makes the balance independent of the
place where the coil is tapped. With conven
tional tubes this circuit will allow one neutralization adjustment to be made on, say, 28 Me.,
and this adjustment usually will hold sufficiently close for operation on all lower frequency bands.
Condenser C 1 is used to balance out the
plate-filament capacity of the tube to allow a
perfect neutralizing balance at all frequencies.
The equivalent bridge circuit is shown in figure llB. If the plate-filament capacity of the
tube is extremely low (lOOTH triode, for example), condenser C 1 may be omitted, or may
merely consist of the residual capacity of NC
to ground.
split grid tank circuit
may also be used for neutralization of a triode tube as shown in figure
10C. Out of phase voltage is developed across
a balanced grid circuit, and coupled through
NC to the single-ended plate circuit of the
tube. The equivalent bridge circuit is shown
in figure llC. This circuit is in balance until
the stage is in operation when the loading effect of the tube upon one-half of the grid circuit throws the bridge circuit out of balance.
Grid Neutralization
254
Generation
of
R-F
Energy
THE
R AD I 0
,~,
Figure 12
STANDARD CROSS-NEUTRALIZED
PUSH-PULL TRIODE AMPLIFIER
C1YCP-F
Figure 11
Shunt or Coil
Neutralization
HANDBOOK
Figure 13
13-6
Neutralizing
Procedure
Neutralizing
Procedure
255
Neutralization of
Screen-Grid R- F
Amplifiers
256
Generation
-C
of
R-F
-c
+S<; +HV
-HV
THE
Energy
-HV
R AD I 0
+SG
+HV
+SG
+HV
-)
-HV
+SG
+HV
-c
-HV
Figure 14
-HV
+SG
+HV
A conventional cross neutralized circuit lor use with push-pull beam tetrocles is
shown ot (A). The neutralizing capacitors (NC) usually consist of small plates or
rocls mountec/ olongsicle th,. plot,. e/,.m,.nts of the tubes. (B) one/ (C) show 11 gricl
neutroliz:ecl" circuits for use with o single-enclecl tetrocle stage having either link
coupling or capacitive coupling into the gricl tonk. (D) shows o methocl of tuning the
screen-leoc/ incluctonce to accomplish neutroliz:otion in o single-frequency v-h-f
tetrocle amplifier, while (E) shows o methocl of neutroliz:otion by increasing the grid
to-plate copocitonc .. on o t ..trocle when the operating frequency is higher than that
frequency where the tetrocle is 11 self-neutral izec/ 11 as a result of series resonance
in the screen /,.ocl. Methods (D) one/ (E) normally ore not procticoble ot frequencies
below about 50 Me. with the usual types of beam tetroc/e tubes.
HANDBOOK
Neutralizing
Single- Ended
Tetrode Stages
A single-ended tetrode r-f amplifier stage may be neutralized in the same manner as
iII us t rated for a push-pull
stage in figure 14A, provided a split-stator
tank capacitor is in use in the plate circuit.
However, in the majority of single-ended retrode r-f amplifier stages a single-section capacitor is used in the plate tank. Hence, other
neutralization procedures must be employed
when neutralization is found necessary.
The circuit shown in figure 14B is not a
true neutralizing circuit, in that the plate-togrid capacitance is not balanced out. However,
the circuit can afford the equivalent effect by
isolating the high resonant impedance of the
grid tank circuit from the energy fed back from
plate to grid. When NC and C are adjusted to
bear the following ratio to the grid-to-plate
capacitance and the total capacitance from
grid-to-ground in the output tube:
Cancellation of
Screen-Lead
Inductance
Tetrode
Neutralization
257
though the socket terminal on the tube is carefully by-passed to ground. This condition takes
place even though the socket pin is bypassed
since the reactance of the screen lead
will allow a moderate amount of r-f potential
to appear on the screen itself inside the electrode assembly in the tube. This effect has
been reduced to a very low amount in such
tubes astheHytron5516, andtheEimac 4Xl50A
and 4X500A but it is still quite appreciable in
most beam-tetrode tubes.
The effect of screen-lead inductance on the
stability of a stage can be eliminated at any
particular frequency by one of two methods.
These methods are: (1) Tuning out the screenlead inductance by series resonating the screen
lead inductance with a capacitor to ground.
This method is illustrated in figure 140 and is
common! y employed in commercial! y-built equipment for operation on a narrow frequency band
in the range above about 75 Me. The other
method (2) is illustrated in figure 14E and
consists in feeding back additional energy
from plate to grid by means of a small capacitor connected between these two elements.
Note that this capacitor is connected in such
a manner as to increase the effective grid-toplate capacitance of the tube. This method
has been found to be effective with 807 tubes
in the range above 50 Me. and with tubes such
as the 4-125A and 4-2SOA in the vicinity of
their upper frequency limits.
Note that both these methods of stabilizing
a beam-tetrode v-h-f amplifier stage by cancellation of screen-lead inductance are suitable only for operation over a relatively narrow
band of frequencies in the v-h-f range. At lower frequencies both these expedients for reducing the effects of screen-lead inductance
will tend to increase the tendency toward oscillation of the amplifier stage.
When a stage cannot be completely neutralized, the difficulty
usually can be traced to one or
more of the following causes: (1) Filament
leads not by-passed to the common ground of
that particular stage. (2) Ground lead from the
rotor cqnnection of the split-stator tuning capacitor to filament open or too long. (3) Neutralizing capacitors in a field of excessive
r.f. from one of the tuning coils. (4) Electromagnetic coupling between grid and plate
coils, or between plate and preceding buffer
or oscillator circuits. (5) Insufficient shielding
or spacing between stages, or between grid
and plate circuits in compact transmitters.
(6) Shielding placed too close to plate circuit
coils, causing induced currents in the shields.
Neutralizing
Problems
258
Generation
of
R-F
THE
Energy
R AD I 0
GRID
LEAK
INTERWOUNO COILS
(UNITY COUPLING)
Figure 16
f"IL.
+HV
Figure 15
GROUNDED-GRID AMPLIFIER
CONVENTIONAL
TRIODE
MULTIPLIER
FREQUENCY
change the length of grid or plate or neutralizing leads, insert a parasitic choke in the grid
lead or leads, or eliminate the grid r-f chokes
which may be the cause of a low-frequency
parasitic (in conjunction with plate r-f chokes).
13-7
Grounded Grid
Amplifiers
13-8
Frequency Multipliers
Quartz crystals and variable-frequency oscillators are not ordinarily used for direct control of the output of high-frequency transmitters. Frequency multipliers are usually employed to multiply the frequency to the desired
value. These multipliers operate on exact multiples of the excitation frequency; a 3.6-Mc.
crystal oscillator can be made to control the
output of a transmitter on 7.2 or 14.4 Me., or
on28.8 Me., by means of one or more frequency
multipliers. When used at twice frequency,
they are often termed frequency doublers. A
simple doubler circuit is shown in figure 16.
It consists of a vacuum tube with its plate circuit tuned to twice the frequency of the grid
driving circuit. This doubler can be excited
from a crystal oscillator or another multiplier
or amplifier stage.
Doubling is best accomplished by operating
the tube with high grid bias. The grid circuit
is driven approximately to the normal value of
d-e grid current through the r-f choke and gridleak resistor, shown in figure 16. The resistance value generally is from two to five times
as high as that used with the same tube for
straight amplification. Consequently, the grid
bias is several times as high for the same
value of grid current.
Neutralization is seldom necessary in a
doubler circuit, since the plate is tuned to
twice the frequency of the grid circuit. The
impedance of the grid driving circuit is very
low at the doubling frequency, and thus there
is little tendency for self-excited oscillation.
HANDBOOK
Frequency
1(CUTOF'F')
1\ (\
H
- ,'J-/\ /\- /\
L\
1E G\
1
\../
\_J
HI
25 9
Multipliers
N(CUTOFF)-- -
- 1L -
/S
I
I
-tI
[\
w
U\
I
I
-1p_--
-ly--- -
,.___ E:XCITATION
VOLTAGE
'Q'
Figure 18
Figure 17
Angle of Flow
in Frequency
Multipliers
260
Generation
of
R-F
THE
Energy
R AD I 0
Figure 19
Figure 20
HANDBOOK
13-9
Tank Circuit
Capacitances
Tank
Circuits
261
DYNAMIC
CHARACTER ISTJC
GRID SWING
Figure 21
where the values in the equation have the characteristics listed in the beginning of Chapter 6.
The expression above is academic, since
the peak value of the fundamental component
of plate voltage swing, EPm is not ordinarily
known unless a high-voltage peak a-c voltmeter
is available for checking. Also, the decimal
ly known with any degree of accuracy. However, in a normally operated Class C amplifier
2NpibEbb
262
Generation
of
R-F
THE
Energy
R AD I 0
2ND
HARMONIC
'
>RD
HARMONIC
I'N.III
[[l_t
10
1!.
>0
20
TANK CIRCUIT Q
Xc
Figure 22
2Q
Rd.c.
RL ! : : : : ! - - 2
~ \1\\
10
1\ f\\1\
1\
1\
..>
"
IV..
\ """'I\
~
1\
000
000
~
10
20
l"... ~
ci
!t
rTF
__'t'_
a:
-B
+SG +B
~ ~
\
u
Q=l2
000
XL
t""J Rd.c.
----
50
~~\ ~
100
200
500
1000
2000
-c
+B
-c
tB
Figure 23
HANDBOOK
20
Tank
~ \
l\
10
\\
000
1\ 1\
263
Q=12
1\
'ol
"'\
000
I~
:\
\ \
_\
_:\ \ \
i\ \
1\
[\.\ \
II
u
0
IX
I
Circuits
1\
10
1\1\
20 30
RFC
50
1\ 1\
100
200
B+
500
1000
Figure 24
beam tetrode, neutralized triode, groundedgrid triode, whether it is single ended or push-
264
Generation
00001\\ \
0000
8000
UJI<.?Z
<(UJ 6000
E1p ~-
R AD I 0
THE
Energy
o=s
[\
llr--;-
<Co
f.-
1-0:
..Ja:
0:::>
>U
UJUJ
\:(~
..J..J 3
2000
10
20 30
1\
l\
1\
2
B+
\ [\'l\\
0
a:
1000
i\ r-.
~ [\
(l.(l.
R-F
r-.
\[\1\
5000
of
50
100
200
\
\
500 1000
Figure 2S
Tuning Capacitor
Air Gap
HANDBOOK
and
FIGURE 26
Pi
RP
breakdown
.030
.050
.070
.100
.125
.150
.170
.200
.250
.350
.500
.700
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
4,500
5,200
6,000
7,500
9,000
11,000
15,000
20,000
c.w.
PLATE
MOD.
400
600
750
1000
1250
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
.030
.050
.050
.070
.070
.078
.100
.175
.200
.250
.050
.070
.084
.100
.144
.200
.250
.375
.500
.600
Spacings
should be multiplied by
1.5 for
13-10
L and Pi Matching
Networks
RP
RA
RFC
+B
265
Networks
=Q2
RA (APPROX)
-=
RP= 225 RA
Q OF 15
Xc
~;
XL=~
Figure 27
266
Generation
of
R-F
Energy
Ro.c.
+B(Ebb)
Ro.c. =
~ ~b
X 2 =-RA
C
RP
RA(Q2+1 )- RP
Figure 28
THE PI NETWORK
The pi network is valuable for use as an im
pee/once transformer over a w I cl e ratio of
transformation values. The operating Q shoulcl
be at least 12 ancl preferably 15 to 20 when
the circuit is to be usee/ in the plate circuit
of a Class C amp/ ifier. Design equations
are given above. The inductor Ltot represents a single incluctance, usually variable,
The Pi Network
THE
R AD I 0
HANDBOOK
Grid
Bias
267
<j>+B
~RFC1
Ce
Q'
:t:
:;~
l
IU
RFC2
.,.-B
PLATE LOAD
(OHMS)
z~~B
~ ?~C2
~xoAx
OUTPUT
!NA,NPI!IiES.
RFC I
RFC2.-
Estimated Plate
load (ohms)
C1 in p.!.J.f, 3.5 Me
7
14
21
2a
L in p.h,
C2 in
C2 in
f..L/.Lf,
~J.)J..f,
3.5 Me
7
14
21
2a
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
4,000
4,500
s,ooo
520
260
130
360
laO
90
60
45
280
140
70
47
35
210
lOS
52
35
26
laO
90
155
3a
25
19
120
60
30
20
110
4S
135
6a
34
23
17
as
65
4.5
2.2
1.1
0.73
o.ss
3.5 Me
7
14
21
2a
2,400
1.200
600
3.5 Me
7
14
21
2a
l,aOO
900
450
300
225
400
300
6.S
a.s
3.2
1.6
l.Oa
o.a
4.2
2.1
1.3a
l.OS
1.7
1.2a
2,100
1,060
530
350
265
1,aoo
l,SSO
900
760
3ao
250
190
1,500
1,300
7SO
6SO
370
320
215
160
250
las
-450
300
225
10.5
5.2
2.6
1,100
560
2aO
190
140
76
31
23
lS
la
S6
2a
19
14
20
10
6,ooo
25
12.5
6.2
-4.1
3.1
lS.S
l.SS
14
7
3.5
2.3
1.7
1,400
700
350
230
175
1,250
630
320
210
160
1,100
1,000
S60
soo
2aO
250
165
125
230
115
90
1,000
900
aoo
450
220
145
110
400
640
320
160
110
ao
soo
soo
720
360
laO
120
12.5
6.2
3.1
2.05
250
170
125
7.a
3.9
2.6
1.9S
las
140
200
130
100
4.5
3
2.25
90
3.3
2.5
900
460
lSS
NOTES
250
125
as
6S
Values given are approximations. All components shown in Table I are for a Q of 12. For other values of Q, use
Qa
Ca
Qa
lt,
:-:-:: and = - When the estimated plate load is higher than 5,000 ohms, it is recommended that the
Q,,
C,,
Qh
.La
components be selected for a circuit Q between 20 and 30.
Component Chart
for Pi-Networks
13-11
Grid Bias
with a sinusoidal excitation voltage, the operating grid bias must be at least sufficient to
cut off the plate current. In very high efficiency Class C amplifiers the operating bias may
be many times the cutoff value. Cutoff bias,
it will be recalled, is that value of grid voltage which will reduce the plate current to
zero at the plate voltage employed. The method
for cal"culating it has been indicated previously. This theoretical value of cutoff will not
reduce the plate current completely to zero,
due to the variable-11 tendency or "knee"
which is characteristic of all tubes as the
cutoff point is approached.
Class C Bias
268
Generation
of
'''""'"'"~~
R1
R-F
THE
Energy
R AD I 0
41
-BIAS SUPPLY
Figure 29
GRID-LEAK BIAS
The grid leak on an amplifier or multiplier
stage may a/ so be used as the shunt feed
impedance to the grid of the tube when a
high value of grid leak (greater than perhaps
20,000 ohms) is used. When a lower value of
grid leak is to be employed, an r-f choke
should be used between the grid of the tube
and the grid leak to reduce rf losses in the
grid leak resistance.
Figure 30
Cathode Bios
HANDBOOK
FROM
Protective
\iJ
DRIVERI
26 9
ORIVER
FROM-ju-RFC
---
RFC
Circuits
.JII _
BATTERY-
Figure 32
Figure 31
Separate Bias
Supply
13-12
270
Generation
of
R-F
Energy
THE
R AD I 0
E
+B
NEGATIVE{
Figure 33
OPERATING
8/ASCUTS
OFF CLAMP
TUBE
':'"
Figure 34
The Clamp Tube
pling. The latter is a special form of inductive coupling. The choice of a coupling method
depends upon the purpose for which it is to
be used.
Capacitive coupling between an
amplifier or doubler circuit and a
preceding driver stage is shown
in figure 36. The coupling capacitor, C, iso
lates the d-e plate supply from the next grid
and provides a low impedance path for the rf
energy between the tube being driven and the
driver tube. This method of coupling is simple
and economical for low powe& amplifier or exciter stages, but has certain disadvantages,
particularly for high frequency stages. The
grid leads in an amplifier should be as short
as possible, but this is difficult to attain in
the physical arrangement of a high power am
plifier with respect to a capacitively-coupled
driver stage.
Capacitive
Caupl ing
Disadvantages of
Capacitive
Coupling
SERIES RESISTOR
LOW VOLTAGE
SCREEN SUPPLY
13-13
+B
HANDBOOK
lnterstage
Figure 36
CAPACITIVE INTERSTAGE COUPLING
Coupling
271
Figure 37
BALANCED CAPACITIVE COUPLING
Balancecl capacitive coupling sometimes is
Inductive
Coupling
INTE'RWOUND
Figure 39
Figure 38
INDUCTIVE INTERSTAGE COUPLING
272
Generation
of
R-F
THE
Energy
F~~3U1e
liif
R AD I 0
LINK COUPLING
AT "COLD" CENTER.
ENDS "HOT"
LINK COUPLING
AT "COLO" ENOS.
UPPER ENDS "HOT"
Figure 40
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Figure 41
13-14
Radio-Frequency
Chokes
HANDBOOK
Shunt
and
Series
Feed
2 73
-1~
RFC! -}
+SG +HV
-BIAS
-BIAS
Figure 42
Shunt and
Series Feed
Figure 43
ILLUSTRATING SERIES AND
PARALLEL BIAS FEED
13-15
Parallel and
Push-Pull Tube Circuits
The comparative r-f power output from parallel or push-pull operated amplifiers is the same
if proper impedance matching is accomplished,
if sufficient grid excitation is available in
both cases, and if the frequency of measurement is considerably lower than the frequency
limit of the tubes.
Operating tubes in par a 11 e I has
some advantages in transmitters
designed for operation below 10
Me., particularly when tetrode or pen rode tubes
are to be used. Only one neutralizing capacitor
is required for parallel operation of triode
tubes, as against two for push-pull. Above
about 10 Me., depending upon the tube type,
parallel tube operation is not ordinarii y recommended with triode tubes. However, parallel
operation of grounded-grid stages and stages
using low-C beam tetrodes often will give excellent results well into the v-h-f range.
Parallel
Operation
Push-Pull
Operation
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
R-f feedback
Comparatively high gain is required in single sideband equipment because the signal is
usually generated at levels of one watt or less.
To get from this level to a kilowatt requires
about 30 db of gain. High gain tetrodes may
be used to obtain this increase with a minimum
number of stages and circuits. Each stage contributes some distortion; therefore, it is good
practice to keep the number of stages to a
minimum. It is generally considered good practice to operate the low level amplifiers below
their maximum power capability in order to
confine most of the distortion to the last two
amplifier stages. R-f feedback can then be
utilized to reduce the distortion in the last
two stages. This type of feedback is no different from the common audio feedback used
in high fidelity sound systems. A sample of
the output waveform is applied to the amplifier input to correct the distortion developed
in the amplifier. The same advantages can be
obtained at radio frequencies that are obtained
at audio frequencies when feedback is used.
14-1
R-F Feedback
Circuits
B+
~u~q
1OEour
fHAS
-:-
Figure 1
SIMILAR CATHODE FOLLOWER CIRCUITS HAVING DIFFERENT R-F GROUND POINTS.
274
275
B+
B+
BIAS
BIAS
B+
Figure 4
R-F AMPLIFIER WITH FEEDBACK
AND IMPEDANCE MATCHING
OUTPUT NETWORK.
Figure 2
SINGLE STAGE AMPLIFIER WITH
R-F FEEDBACK CIRCUIT
B+
BIAS
Figure 3
SINGLE STAGE FEEDBACK
AMPLIFIER WITH GROUND
RETURN POINT MODIFIED FOR
UNBALANCED INPUT AND
OUTPUT CONNECTIONS.
point of the circuit from the plate to the cathode as shown in figure lB. Both ends of the
input circuit are at high r-f potential so inductive coupling to this type of amplifier is
necessary.
Inspection of figure lB shows that by moving the top end of the input tank down on a
voltage divider tap across the plate tank circuit, the feedback can be reduced from 100%,
as in the case of the cathode follower circuit,
down to any desired value. A typical feedback
circuit is illustrated in figure 2. This circuit
is more practical than those of figure 1, since
the losses in the input tank are greatly reduced.
A feedback level of 12 db may be achieved
as a good compromise between distortion and
stage gain. The voltage developed across C,
will be three times the grid-cathode voltage.
Figure 5
276
THE RADIO
R-F Feedback
1
21rf X c.p ( Asin8)
Amplifier
Neutralization Check
A useful "rule of
thumb" method of
checking neutralization of an amplifier stage (assuming that it
is nearly correct to start with) is to tune both
grid and plate circuits to resonance. Then, observing the r-f grid current, tune the plate circuit to the high frequency side of resonance.
If the grid current rises, more neutralization
capacitance is required. Conversely, if the grid
current decreases, less capacitance is needed.
This indication is very sensitive in a neutralized triode amplifier, and correct neutralization exists when the grid current peaks at the
point of plate current dip. In tetrode power
amplifiers this indication is less pronounced.
Sometimes in a supposedly neutralized tetrode
amplifier, there is practically no change in
grid voltage as the plate circuit is tuned
through resonance, and in some amplifiers it
is unchanged on one side of resonance and
drops slightly on the other side. Another observation sometimes made is a small dip in
the center of a broad peak of grid current.
These various effects are probably caused by
HANDBOOK
E()UT
277
Er")IJT
R-F IN
R-~
IN
Figure 6
SINGLE STAGE R-F AMPLIFIER
WITH FEEDBACK RATIO OF
C,/C, to C"v!C" 1 DETERMINES
STAGE NEUTRALIZATION
Figure 7
NEUTRALIZED AMPLIFIER AND
INHERENT FEEDBACK CIRCUIT.
Feedback and
Neutralization
of a One-Stage
R-F Amplifier
Figure 6 shows an r-f amplifier with negative feedback. The voltage developed
across c, due to the voltage
divider action of c, and C.
is introduced in series with the voltage developed across the grid tank circuit and is in
phase-opposition to it. The feedback can be
made any value from zero to 100% by properly choosing the values of C, and C..
For reasons stated previously, it is necessary
to neutralize this amplifier, and the relationship for neutralization is:
c.
c.,
14-2
Feedback and
Neutralization of a
Two-Stage R-F Amplifier
Feedback around two r-f stages has the advantage that more of t~he tube gain can be
realized and nearly as much distortion reduction can be obtained using 12 db around two
stages as is realized using 12 db around each
of two stages separately. Figure 9 shows a
basic circuit of a two stage feedback amplifier. Inductive output coupling is used, although a pi-network configuration will also
work well. The small feedback voltage required
is obtained from the voltage divider C. - C,
and is applied to the cathode of the driver
tube. C is only a few 1-'1-'fd., so this feedback
voltage divider may be left fixed for a wide
frequency range. If the combined tube gain is
160, and 12 db of feedback is desired, the ratio
of C, to C is about 40 to 1. This ratio in
practice may be 400 1-'1-'fd. to 2.5 1-'1-'fd., for
example.
A complication is introduced into this simplified circuit by the cathode-grid capacitance
Figure 8
UNBALANCED INPUT AND OUTPUT
CIRCUITS FOR SINGLE-STAGE
R-F AMPLIFIER WITH FEEDBACK
278
THE RADIO
R-F Feedback
V1
V2
Figure 9
TWO-STAGE AMPLIFIER WITH FEEDBACK.
Included is a capacitor (C,) for neutra/iring the cathode-grid capacity of the first tube. V, is neutralired
by capacitor c,, and Vz is neutra/ired by the correct ratio of c,;c,.
c.
c.,
c.
c.
c..
c.-
c.,
c,
c.
c.
HANDBOOK
Neutra I ization
279
VOLTAGEINPUT <;AID
TO
GROUND
Figure 10
VECTOR RELATIONSHIP OF
FEEDBACK VOLTAGE
A= Output Circuit Properly Tuned
B=Output Circuit Mis-Tuned
BIAS
Figure 11
INTERSTAGE CIRCUIT COMBINING
NEUTRALIZATION AND
FEEDBACK NETWORKS.
BIAS
Figure 12
INTERSTAGE CIRCUIT WITH
SEPARATE NEUTRALIZING
AND FEEDBACK CIRCUITS.
14-3
Neutralization
Procedure in
Feedback-Type Amplifiers
280
THE RADIO
R-F Feedback
C11
~R-FOUT
y
BIAS
B+
BIAS
Figure 13
TWO-STAGE AMPLIFIER WITH FEED BACK CIRCUIT.
Figure 14
FEEDBACK SHORTING DEVICE.
HANDBOOK
Neutralization
281
neutralization will be off a little, since it partially compensates for that error.
Figure 1 S
FEEDBACK NEUTRALIZING
CIRCUIT USING
AUXILIARY RECEIVER.
Neutralization
Techniques
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
Amplitude Modulation
If the output of a c-w transmitter is varied
in amplitude at an audio frequency rate instead of interrupted in accordance with code
characters, a tone will be heard on a receiver
tuned to the signal. If the audio signal consists of a band of audio frequencies comprising voice or music intelligence, then the
voice or music which is superimposed on the
radio frequency carrier will be heard on the
receiver.
When voice, music, video, or other intelligence is superimposed on a radio frequency
carrier by means of a corresponding variation
in the amplitude of the radio frequency output
of a transmitter, amplitude modulation is the
result. Telegraph keying of a c-w transmitter
is the simplest form of amplitude modulation,
while video modulation in a television transmitter represents a highly complex form. Systems for modulating the amplitude of a carrier
envelope in accordance with voice, music, or
similar types of complicated audio waveforms
are many and varied, and will be discussed
later on in this chapter.
15-1
Sidebands
282
Modulation
15-2
Mechanics of
Modulation
283
0 nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn1A
vvvvv~vv~v vvvvv vvv uVINU ~rr
@~
SINEWAVE
AUDIO SIGNAL FROM MODULATOR
Figure 1
2 84
Amplitude
Modulation
THE
Modulation
R AD I 0
Emax- Ecar
M= -----------Ecar
The factor for negative peaks may be determined from this formula:
Ecar- Emin
M=-----Ecar
In the above two formulas Em ax is the maximum carrier amplitude with modulation and
Emin is the minimum amplitude; Ecar is the
steady-state amplitude of the carrier with
out modulation. Since the deflection of the
spot on a cathode-ray tube is linear with respect to voltage, the relative voltages of
these various amplitudes may be determined
by measuring the deflections, as viewed on
the screen, with a rule calibrated in inches
or centimeters. The percentage of modulation
of the carrier may be had by multiplying the
modulation factor thus obtained by 100. The
above procedure assumes that there is no
@
Figure 2
Modulation
Capability
HANDBOOK
The manner in which the
human voice is produced
by the vocal cords gives
rise to a certain dissymmetry in the waveform
of voice sounds when they are picked up by
a good-quality microphone. This is especially
pronounced in the male voice, and more so
on certain voiced sounds than on others. The
result of this dissymmetry in the waveform is
that the voltage peaks on one side of the
average value of the wave will be considerably greater, often two or three times as great,
as the voltage excursions on the other side
of the zero axis. The average value of voltage on both sides of the wave is, of course,
the same.
As a result of this dissymmetry in the male
voice waveform, there is an optimum polarity
of the modulating voltage that must be observed if maximum sideband energy is to be
obtained without negative peak clipping and
generation of "splatter" on adjacent channels.
A double-pole double-throw "phase revers
ing" switch in the input or output leads of any
transformer in the speech amplifier system will
permit poling the extended peaks in the direc
tion of maximum modulation capability. The
optimum polarity may be determined easily by
listening on a selective receiver tuned to a
frequency 30 to 50 kc. removed from the desired signal and adjusting the phase reversing
switch to the position which gives the least
"splatter" when the transmitter is modulated
rather heavily. If desired, the switch then may
be replaced with permanent wiring, so long as
the microphone and speech system are not to
be changed.
A more conclusive illustration of the lop
sidedness of a speech waveform may be obtained by observing the modulated waveform
of a radiotelephone transmitter on an oscilloscope. A portion of the carrier energy of the
transmitter should be coupled by means of a
link direct 1 y to the vertical plates of the
'scope, and the horizontal sweep should be a
sawtooth or similar wave occurring at a rate
of approximately 30 to 70 sweeps per second.
With the speech signal from the speech am
plifier connected to the transmitter in one po
larity it will be noticed that negative-peak
clipping-as indicated by bright "spots" in
the center of the 'scope pattern whenever the
carrier amplitude goes to zero-will occur at
a considerably lower level of average modulation than with the speech signal being fed to
the transmitter in the other polarity. When the
input signal to the transmitter is polarized in
such a manner that the "fingers" of the
speech wave extend in the direction of posi
Speech Waveform
Dissymmetry
Modulation
Systems
285
Single-Sideband
Transmission
15-3
There are many different systems and methods for amplitude modulating a carrier, but
286
Amplitude
THE
Modulation
R AD I 0
The Class B
Linear Amplifier
HANDBOOK
Adjustment of a Class
B Linear Amplifier
287
288
Amplitude
THE
Modulation
R AD I 0
E
+B
MIDGET CHOKE
2~K
.025
fOW
47K
AUDIO INPUT
FROM 6SJ7
ETC.
f1!1V.A.C.
Figure 3
Screen-Grid
Modulation
HANDBOOK
tetrode, or other type of screen-grid tube. The
modulation obtained in this way .is not especially linear, but screen-grid modulation
~oes _offer other advantages and the linearity
Is quae adequate for communications work.
There are two significant and worthwhile
advantages of screen-grid modulation for communications work: ( 1) The excitation requirements for an amplifier which is to be modulated in the screen are not at all critical and
good regulation of the excitation volta~e is
not required. The normal rated grid-circuit
operating conditions specified for Class C
c-w operation are quite adequate for screengrid modulation. (2) The audio modulating
power requirements for screen-grid modulation
are relatively low.
A screen-grid modulated r-f amplifier operates as an efficiency-modulated amplifier, the
same as does a Class B linear amplifier and
a grid-modulated stage. Hence, plate circuit
loading is relatively critical as in any efficiency-modulated stage, and must be adjusted
to the correct value if normal power output
with full modulation capability is to be obtained. As in the case of any efficiency-modulated stage, the operating efficiency at the
peak of the modulation cycle will be between
70 and 80 per cent, with efficiency at the carrier level (if the stage is operating in the normal manner with full carrier) about half of the
peak-modulation value.
There are two main disadvantages of screengrid modulation, and several factors which
must be considered if satisfactory operation
of the screen-grid modulated stage is to be
obtained. The disadvantages are: (1) As mentioned before, the linearity of modulation with
~espe~t to screen-grid voltage of such a stage
Is satisfactory only for communications work,
unless carrier-rectified degenerative feed-back
is employed around the modulated stage to
straighten the linearity of modulation. ( 2) The
impedance of the screen grid to the modulating
signal is non-linear. This means that the modulating signal must be obtained from a source
of quite low impedance if audio distortion of
the signal appearing at the screen grid is to
be avoided.
289
Screen-Grid
lmpedance
Circuits for
Screen-Grid
Modulation
2 90
Amplitude
THE
Modulation
R AD I 0
-c
+MOD.
-!10 V, APPROX,
+S.G.
Figure 4
SCREEN-MODULATION CIRCUITS
Three common screen modulation circuits are illustrated above. All three circuits
are capable of giving intelligible voice modulation although the waveform distortion
in the circuits of (A) and (B) Is likely to be rather severe. The arrangement at (A)
is often call eel "clamp tube" screen modulation; by returning the grid leak on the
clamp tube to ground the circuit will give control/eel-carrier screen modulation. This
circuit has the advantage that it is simple one/ is well suited to use in mobile transmitters. (B) is an arrangement using a transformer coup/eel modulator, and offers no
particular advantages. The arrangement at (C) is capable of giving goocl modulation
linearity clue to the low impedance of the cathode-follower modulator. However, clue
to the relatively low heater-cathode ratings on tubes suited for use as the modulator, a separate heater supply for the moclulator tube normally is requirecl. This limi
tation mokes application of the circuit to the mobile transmitter a special problem,
since an isolatecl heater supply normally is not available. Shown at (D) as an assist
once in the tuning of a screenmoclulatecl transmitter (or any efficiencymoclulatecl
transmitter for that matter) is the type of moclulation envelope which results when
loading to the moclulatecl stage is insufficient.
grid stage since it acts as a relatively lowimpedance source of modulating voltage for
the screen-grid circuit. In addition the cathodefollower modulator allows the supply voltage
both for the modulator and for the screen grid
of the modulated tube to be obtained from the
high-voltage supply for the plate of the screengrid tube or beam tetrode. In the usual case
the plate supply for the cathode follower, and
hence for the screen grid of the modulated
tube, may be taken from the bleeder on the
high-voltage power supply. A tap on the bleeder
may be used, or two resistors may be connected in series to make up the bleeder, with ap-
HANDBOOK
propriate values such that the voltage applied
to the plate of the cathode follower is ~pp.ro
priate for the tube to be modulated. It IS Important that a bypass capacitor be used from
the plate of the cathode-follower modulator
to ground.
The voltage applied to the plate of the
cathode follower should be about 100 volts
greater than the rated screen voltage for the
tetrode tube as a c-w Class C amplifier. Hence
the cathode-follower plate voltage should be
about 350 volts for an 815, 2E26, or 8298,
about 400 volts for an 807 or 4-125A, about
500 volts for an 813, and about 600 volts for
a 4-250A or a 4E27. Then potentiometer P1
in figure 5 should be adjusted until the carrierlevel screen voltage on the modulated stage
is about one-half the rated screen voltage
specified for the tube as a Class C c-w amplifier. The current taken by the screen of the
modulated tube under carrier conditions will
be about one-fourth the normal screen current
for c-w operation.
The only current taken by the cathode
follower itself will be that which will flow
through the 100,000-ohm resistor between the
cathode of the 6L6 modulator and the negative supply. The current taken from the bleeder
on the high-voltage supply will be the carrierlevel screen current of the tube being modulated (which current passes of course through
the cathode follower) plus that current which
will pass through the 100,000-ohm resistor.
The loading of the modulated stage should
be adjusted until the input to the tube is about
50 per cent greater than the rated plate dissipation of the tube or tubes in the st~ge. If the
carrier-level screen voltage value Is correct
for linear modulation of the stage, the loading
will have to be somewhat greater than that
amount of loading which gives maximum output
from the stage. The stage may then be modulated by applying an audio signal to the grid
of the cathode-follower modulator, while observing the modulated envelope on an oscilloscope.
If good output is being obtained, a~d t.he
modulation envelope appears as shown In figure 4C all is well, except that P2 in figure 5
should' be adjusted until negative modulation
peaks, even with excessive modulating signal,
do not cause carrier cutoff with its attendant
sideband splatter. If the envelope appears as
at figure 4D, antenna coupling should be increased while the carrier level is backed down
by potentiometer P 1 in figure 5 until a set .of
adjustments is obtained which will give a satisfactory modulation envelope as shown in
figure 4C.
Changing Bands
Modulation
Systems
2 91
TO SCREEN OF
~ODULATED STAGE
22 K
2W
-100
1~
v.
K POT.
P2
+250V.
Figure 5
CATHODE-FOLLOWER
SCREEN-MODULATION CIRCUIT
A cletallecl c/iscusslan of this circuit, which
also is representee/ in figure 4C, is given in
the accompanying text.
292
Amplitude
Modulation
THE
R AD I 0
15-4
Input Modulation
Systems
HANDBOOK
Plate
CARRIER
OUTPUT
:.33W.
R.F. INPUT
----..--1IG=
8 MA.
....-+-..+--+---+++-l~+------'E
22. K
6J5
+1500
"'"'"'1
v.
+300V. -210V.
Figure 6
Modulation
293
294
Amplitude
THE
Modulation
MODU~ATtD C~ASS
R AD I 0
R.f'. AMPLIFIER
R,f. DRIVE
+B
Figure 7
MOD.+B
R.F.+B
Figure 8
CLASS B PLATE MODULATION
HANDBOOK
this high harmonic content manifests itself by
making the wave unsymmetrical and causing
sharp peaks or "fingers" of high energy content to appear. Thus for unclipped speech, the
average modulator plate current, plate dissipation, and power output are approximately
one-half the sine wave values for a given peak
output power.
Both peak power and average power are
necessarily associated with waveform. Peak
power is just what the name implies; the power
at the peak of a wave. Peak power, although
of the utmost importance in modulation, is of
no great significance in a-c power work, except insofar as the average power may be determined from the peak value of a known wave
form.
There is no time element implied in the
definition of peak power; peak power may be
instantaneous-and for this reason average
power, which is definitely associated with
time, is the important factor in plate dissipation. It is possible that the peak power of a
given waveform be several times the average
value; for a sine wave, the peak power is twice
the average value, and for unclipped speech
the peak power is approximately four times
the average value. For 100 per cent modulation, the peak (instantaneous) audio power
must equal the Class C input, although the
average power for this value of peak varies
widely depending upon the modulator waveform, being greater than 50 per cent for speech
that has been clipped and filtered, 50 per cent
for a sine wave, and about 25 per cent for typical unclipped speech tones.
The modulation transformer is
a device for matching the load
impedance of the Class C amplifier to the recommended load
impedance of the Class B modulator tubes.
Modulation transformers intended for communications work are usually designed to
carry the Class C plate current through their
secondary windinss, as shown in figure 8.
The manufacturer's ratings should be consulted to insure that the d-e plate current
passed through the secondary winding does
not exceed the maximum rating.
A detailed discussion of the method of
making modulation transformer calculations
has been given in Chapter Six. However, to
emphasize the method of making the calcula
tion, an additional example will be given.
Suppose we take the case of a Class C amplifier operating at a plate voltage of 2000
with 225 rna. of plate current. This amplifier
would present a load resistance of 2000 divided by 0.225 amperes or 8888 ohms, The plate
power input would be 2000 times 0.225 or 450
watts. By reference to Chapter Six we see that
Modulation
Transformer
Colculations
Plate
Modulation
2 95
v TsOoO
0.703
2 96
Amplitude
THE
Modulation
B+ S.G.
B+S.G.
RA0 I 0
B+
B+
Figure 9
HANDBOOK
much as is requtred tor actual screen voltage,
and the value of resistor is chosen such that
with normal screen current the drop through
the resistor and choke will be such that normal screen voltage will be applied to the tube.
When the plate voltage is removed the screen
current will increase greatly and the drop
through resistor R will increase to such a
value that the screen voltage will be lowered
to the point where the screen dissipation on
the tube will not be exceeded. However, the
supply voltage and value of resistor R must
be chosen carefully so that the maximum rated
screen dissipation cannot be exceeded. The
maximum possible screen dissipation using
this arrangement is equal to: W = E'/ 4R where
E is the screen supply voltage and R is the
combined resistance of the resistor in figure
9D and the d-e resistance of the choke L. It
is wise, when using this arrangement to check,
using the above formula, to see that the value
of W obtained is less than the maximum rated
screen dissipation of the tube or tubes used
in the modulated stage. This same system can
of course also be used in figuring the screen
supply circuit of a pentode or tetrode amplifier stage where modulation is not to be
applied.
The modulation transformer for plate-andscreen-modulation, when utilizing a dropping
resistor as shown in figure 9A, is similar to
the type of transformer used for any plate
modulated phone. The combined screen and
plate current is divided into the plate voltage
in order to obtain the Class C amplifier load
impedance. The peak audio power required to
obtain 100 per cent modulation is equal to the
d-e power input to the screen, screen resistor,
and plate of the modulated r-f stage.
15-5
Cathode Modulation
Cathode modulation offers a workable compromise between the good plate efficiency but
expensive modulator of high-level plate modulation, and the poor plate efficiency but inexpensive modulator of grid modulation. Cathode
modulation consists essentially of an admixture of the two.
The efficiency of the average well-designed
plate-modulated transmitter is in the vicinity
of 75 to 80 per cent, with a compromise perhaps at 77.5 per cent. On the other hand, the
efficiency of a good grid-modulated transmitter
may run from 28 to maybe 40 per cent, with
the average falling at about 34 per cent. Now
since cathode modulation consists of simultaneous grid and plate modulation, in phase
Cathode
Modulation
2 97
Figure 10 shows the circuit of such a modulator, designed to cathode modulate a Class C
amplifier using push-pull 810 tubes, running
at a supply voltage of 2500, and with a plate
input of 660 watts. The modulated stage runs
at about 50% efficiency, giving a power output
of nearly 350 watts, fully modulated. The voltage drop across the cathode modulator is 400
volts, allowing a net plate to cathode voltage
of 2100 volts on the final amplifier. The plate
current of the 810' s should be about 330 rna.,
and the grid current should be approximately
40 rna., making the total cathode current of the
modulated stage 370 rna. Four parallel 6L6
modulator tubes can pass this amount of plate
current without difficulty. It must be remembered that the voltage drop across the cathode
modulator is also the cathode bias of the modulated stage. In most cases, no extra grid bias
is necessary. If a bias supply is used for c-w
operation, it may be removed for cathode modulation, as shown in figure 11. With low-mu
triodes, some extra grid bias (over and above
that amount supplied by the cathode modulator)
may be needed to achieve proper linearity of
the modulated stage. In any case, proper operation of a cathode modulated stage should be
determined by examining the modulated output
waveform of the St!lge on an oscilloscope.
Excitation
2 98
Amplitude
THE
Modulation
R AD I 0
TO CATHOOE
MODULATED
STAGE
6AU6
6AU6
6L6
6L6
6L6
~4~.M7~K--.---~:;~
-=
10
lHJF
2.5K
lOW
IOK,IW
CAUTION
Figure 10
15-6
These two amplifiers will be described together since they operate upon very similar
principles. Figure 12 shows a greatly simplified schematic diagram of the operation of both
types. Both systems operate by virtue of a carrier tube (V 1 in both figures 12 and 13) which
HANDBOOK
Doherty
Amplifier
2 99
R.F. AMPLIFIER
Figure 12
DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF
THE DOHERTY LINEAR
t.AJC
6AU6
6AU8
4-6L6'S
Figure 11
CATHODE MODULATOR INSTALLATION
SHOWING PHONE-C.W. TRANSFER SWITCH
In the TermanWoodyard grid-modulated amplifier the carrier tube runs Class C with com
paratively high bias and high plate efficiency,
while the peak tube again is biased so that it
draws almost no plate current. Unmodulated
r.f. is applied to the grid circuits of the two
tubes and the modulating voltage is inserted
in series with the fixed bias voltages. From
one-half to two-thirds as much audio voltage
is required at the grid of the peak tube as is
required at the grid of the carrier tube.
The Electrical
Quarter-Wave
Line
Operating
Efficiencies
300
Amplitude
THE
Modulation
R AD I 0
15-7
Figure 13
SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC OF A
"HIGH EFFICIENCY" AMPLIFIER
The basic system, comprising a "carrier"
tube and a "peak" tube interconnecled by
lumped-constant quarter-wave lines, is the
same lor either griclbias moclulation or lor
use
as a
linear amplifier of
moclulatecl
wave.
each an inductive reactance equal to the capacitive reactance of the capacitor C1. Thus
we have the effect of a pi network consisting
of shunt inductances and series capacitance.
In the plate circuit we want a phase shift of
the same magnitude but in the opposite direc
tion; so our series element is the inductance
L3 whose reactance is equal to the characteristic impedance desired of the network. Then
the plate tank capacitors of the two tubes c2
and C3 are increased an amount past resonance, so that they have a capacitive reactance
eq~al to_ the_ inductive reactance of the coil L 3 .
It ts qutte tmportant that there be no coupling
between the inductors.
Although both these types of amplifiers are
highly efficient and require no high-level audio
equipment, they are difficult to adjust-particularly so on the higher frequencies-and it
would be an extremely difficult problem to d~
sign a multiband transmitter employing the
circuit. However, the grid-bias modulation system has advantages for the high-power transmitter which will be operated on a single frequency band.
Many other high-efficiency modulation systems
have been described since
about 1936. The majority of these, however
have received little application either by commercial interests or by amateurs. In most cases
the circuits are difficult to adjust, or they have
Other High-Efficiency
Modulation Systems
Speech Clipping
\
Speech
HANDBOOK
Figure 14
Clipping
301
SPEECH-WAVEFORM AMPLITUDE
MODULATION
Showing the effect of using the prop
er polarity of a speech wave for
modulating a transmitter. (A) shows
the effect of proper speech polarity
on a transmitter having an upward
Phase Shift
Correction
(2)
3 02
Amplitude
Modulation
THE
R AD I 0
Figure 15
ACTION OF A CLIPPER-FILTER
ON A SPEECH WAVE
AVERAGE LEVEL
NEGATIVE CLIPPING LEVEL
___
_!0~ _!()!JTJYE_MO_Q_UJ..~TI,P~
AVERA
VE
The drawing (A) shows the incomIng speech wave before it reaches
the clipper stage. (B) shows the
output of the clipper-filter, illus
tratlng the manner in which the
peaks are clipped and then the
sharp edges of the clipped wave
removed by the filter. (C) shows
the eHect of phase shift in the
stages following the clipper-filter.
(C) a/so shows the manner in which
the transmiHer may be adjusted for
100 per cent modulation of' the
"canted" peaks of the wave, the
sloping top of the wave reaching
about 70 per cent modulation.
_ _ .!._O~N~GA_!!V~QQ~A_I!O~
100 "'b NEGATIVE MODULATION
stages following the clipper-filter. Feeding the plate current to the final amplifier
through a choke rather than through the
secondary of the modulation transformer
will help materially.
Even with the normal amount of improvement
which can be attained through the steps mentioned above there will still be an amount of
wave cant which must be compensated in some
manner. This compensation can be done in
either of two ways. The first and simpler way
is as follows:
(1)
Adjust the speech gain ahead of the clipper-filter until with normal talking into
the microphone the distortion being introduced by the clipper-filter circuit is quite
apparent but not objectionable. This amount
of distortion will be apparent to the normal
listener when 10 to 15 db of clipping is
taking place.
( 2)
(3)
If the phase shift in the transmitter or modulator is not excessive the adjustment procedure given above will allow a clean signal to be
radiated regardless of any reasonable voice
level being fed into the microphone.
If a cathode-ray oscilloscope is available
the modulated envelope of the transmitter
should be checked with 30 to 70 cycle sawtooth waves on the horizontal axis. If the upper
half of the envelope appears in general the
same as the drawing of figure 15C, all is well
and phase-shift is not excessive. However, if
much more slope appears on the tops of the
waves than is illustrated in this figure, it will
be well to apply the second step in compensation in order to insure that sideband splatter
cannot take place and to afford a still higher
average percentage of modulation. This second
step consists of the addition of a high-level
splatter suppressor such as is illustrated in
figure 17.
HANDBOOK
+ l\- 71
- 7\- -r;:
Splatter
-ri - 7'1 -
Suppression
303
~-
0~~4-~~~4-~-+~+-~-+4-~~_L
TO
3000 '\..WAVE
(0001
FIL. TRANS.
PLATE-MODULATED
CLASS-C AMPLIFIER
7500-10000 OHMS
LOAD
---INSULATED
FOR H.V.
11!JV.A.C.
+B MOO.
..r--
+B R.F. FINAL
Figure 17
300 '\..WAVE
Figure 16
Clipper Circuits
304
Amplitude
Modulation
THE
R AD I 0
Figure 18
ACTION OF HIGH-LEVEL
SPLATTER SUPPRESSOR
ZERO AXIS
......
,'~, SPLATTER-CAUSING
Clipper Adjustment
High-Level
Filters
/ADJUST GAIN
TO NEXT
500 K
GRID
OF CLIPPING.
5K1 1W
IK
IW
+250
v.
Figure 19
HANDBOOK
Splatter
Suppression
305
56 K
OF CLIPPING
IK,IW
+300 v.
Figure 20
Regardless of the point in the system following the speech amplifier where the high
audio frequencies may be generated, these fre
quencies can still cause a broad signal to be
transmitted even though all frequencies above
3000 or 3500 cycles have been cut off in the
speech amplifier. The effects of distortion in
the audio system following the speech amplifier can be eliminated quite effectively through
the use of a post-modulator filter. Such a filter
must be used between the modulator plate cir
cuit and the rf amplifier which is being modulated.
This filter may take three general forms in
a normal case of a Class C amplifier plate mod
ulated by a Class B modulator. The best meth
od is to use a high level low-pass filter as
CLASS C AMPLIFIER
MODUL.ATOR
MODULATOR
~II
Figure 22
8+ R.F.
B+ MOD.
Figure 21
ancl
manufacturers.
c2 plus c3 af 0.004-J.Lfc/.
factory results.
306
Amplitude
R AD I 0
THE
Modulation
R1
0
OSCILLOSCOPE
AUDIO
OSCILLATOR
R3
2f----.o0~
.C, yg[\.METE
C3
Figure 23
z -6
..:
::J
z w
II- -
..:
o"~
Tl
II
II
f1!.
10
100
]I
II
II
. I
I
12
j_(_'?(~~~~~:'tt:t;,~~7f_,R~~~FOR
f= -7
?j
cf
ID
2- 5
JU
I
200
300
.500 700
Ill
1000
...
2000
RG=sooK
3000
5000
FREQUENCY (CPS)
Figure 24
(RG
> RL)
HANDBOOK
bility. This means that the speech level may
be increased considerably without overmodulation or overload of the audio system. In
addition, if speech clipping is used, attenuation of the lower audio frequencies before the
clipper will reduce phase shift and canting of
the clipper output.
A simple method of bass suppression is to
reduce the size of the interstage coupling capacitors in a resistance coupled amplifier.
Figure 24 shows the frequency characteristics
causeJ by such a suppression circuit. A second simple bass suppression circuit is to
place a small a.c. - d.c. type filter choke from
grid to ground in a speech amplifier stage, as
shown in figure 25.
The
systems described
in the preceding paragraphs will have no effect
in reducing a broad signal caused by nonlinearity in the modulated amplifier. Even
though the modulating waveform impressed upon the modulated stage may be distortion free,
if the modulated amplifier is non-linear distortion will be generated in the amplifier. The
only way in which this type of distortion may
be corrected is by making the modulated amplifier more linear. Degenerative feedback
which includes the modulated amplifier in the
loop will help in this regard.
Plenty of grid excitation and high grid bias
will go a long way toward making a platemodulated Class C amplifier linear, although
such operating conditions will make more difficult the problem of TVI reduction. If this still
does not give adequate linearity, the preceding buffer stage may be modulated 50 per cent
or so at the same time and in the same phase
as the final amplifier. The use of a grid leak
to obtain the majority of the bias for a Class
C stage will improve its linearity.
The linearity of a grid-bias modulated r-f
amplifier can be improved, after proper adjustments of excitation, grid bias, and antenna
coupling have been made by modulating the
stage which excites the grid-modulated amplifier. The preceding driver stage may be gridbias modulated or it may be plate modulated.
Modulation of the driver stage should be in
the same phase as that of the final modulated
amplifier.
Modulated Amplifier
Distortion
15-8
The Bias-Shift
Heising Modulator
Bass
307
Suppression
.01
sr~
+B
L ..
"IOHENRY"'MIDGET
A C-DC FILTER CHOKE
(STANCOR C-/JJJ)
Figure 25
+1P
i PLATE
~OUTPUT
I SI(;NAL
-IP
\ __ -----v__J
(;RID INPUT
SI(;NAL
Figure 26
CHARACTERISTIC GRID
VOLTAGE-PLATE CURRENT
3 08
THE
Amplitude Modulation
RADIO
CLASS C
+lP
AMPLIFIER
I
-EG
CUT-OFF
BIAS
81 AS -SH 1FT
EXC URSION
I p (MAX SIGNAL)
PLATE CURRENT
EXCUrSION
p (NO Sf GNAL)
+Eo
-[p
CLASS A OPERATING
BIAS LINE
QUIESCENT
BIAS LINE
Figure 28
Figure 27
BIAS-SHIFT MODULATOR
OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
Modulator is biased close to plate
current cufaoff under no signal,
condition, B. Upon application
of audio signal, the bias of the
stage is shifted toward the class
A operating point, A. Bias-shift
voltage is obtained from audio
signal.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF
BIAS-SHIFT MODULATOR
a heavy-duty filter choke will serve as an impedance coupler for the modulated stage.
The bias-shift system
make take one of several
forms. A "series" control
circuit is shown in figure 29. Resting bias is
applied to the bias-shift modulator tube through
the voltage divider R2/R4. The bias control
tube is placed across resistor R2. Quiescent
bias for the modulator is set by adjusting R2.
As the internal resistance of the bias control
tube is varied at a syllabic rate the voltage
drop across R2 will vary in unison. The modulator bias, therefore varies at the same rate.
Excitation for the bias control tube is obtained
from the audio signal through potentiometer
Rl which regulates the amplitude of the control signal. The audio signal is rectified by
the bias control rectifier, and filtered by network R3-Cl in the grid circuit of the bias control tube.
The "parallel" control system is illustrated
in figure 30. Resting bias for the modulator is
obtained from the voltage divider R2/R4.
Potentiometer R2 adjusts the resting bias
level, determining the static plate current of
the modulator. Resistor R3 serves as a bias
resistor for the control tube, reducing its plate
current to a low level. When an audio signal
is applied via Rl to the grid of the control
tube the internal resistance is lowered, decreasing the shunt resistance across R2. The
negative modulator bias is therefore reduced.
The bias axis of the modulator is shifted from
the cut-off region to a point on the linear
portion of the operating curve. The amount of
bias-shift is controlled by the setting of
potentiometer Rl. Capacitor Cl in conjunction
with bias resistor R3 form a syllabic filter for
HANDBOOK
Heising Modulator
B+ TO MODULATED
R-F AMPLl Fl ER
309
B+ 10 MODULATED
R-F AMPLIFIER
SPEECH
~
+
B lAS CONTROL
RECTI Fl ER
NE<;ATIVE
MODULATOR BIAS
Figure 29
Shown in figure 31 is
a bias-shift modulator
employing two 304-TL
tubes in parallel, operating from a 2500 volt
plate supply. This modulator is capable of
modulating 1000 watts input to an rf amplifier.
Modulator resting current is adjusted to about
40 milliamperes, rising to about 350 milliam
peres on voice peaks. Plate power requirements
are approximately the same as a conventional
class B modulator. The class C rf amplifier
is adjusted to draw 400 milliamperes at 2500
volts.
A High-Level Bios-Shift
Modulator
Figure 30
"PARALLEL" CONTROL
CIRCUIT FOR BIAS-SHIFT
MODULATOR
The resistance to ground of point
A in the bias network is varied
at a syllabic rate by the bias
control tube.
310
304-TL
+300
v.
CH
('I( LOAO)
T 1- CHIC'A'O
SiANOARO I'C-~40P
Tz -cHICA'o
srANOARo P-1~9'
Figure 31
E & E TECHNI-SHEET
DECIBEL CONVERSION CHART
--
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---------j
199.53
6.310-X--10-4~----f--2-5_1_.-,-9-----j
- - - - - - t - - - - - - - - - I l - - - --5=-oc-------"ir----, o-5- - ---3-,-6--'.-2-3----------1
5.0
3.162
f------5--.5--------+-----3-. 5~--;.-------
1 778
1. 684
5.012
6.3>o
-~~- -7-_..-9-4-, __ -
1.9 9 5
2... 239
2.5>2
L_L-
56
58
=t
60
70--
9 ___
______
2.~---~
I 0
00 0
r----------t------------j------';---'-6"'2=-~~~~:::_],
_ _ -~---
10
---+--+-.
52
54
-----T----------1
f----6:_ _ _ _ _+----3::_.__c9:_::61
-79.433
~B
I
630 96
25.119
=~
-~-----j----'-"-oo_._o_o_ _ _ _ _--'----3_1_._6_2_3~~~~~~----1-l
2.8
6.310
1s
3.0
4. 5
..m
--~+---=1' -~.::0
r------1-.-6----------:-==---
4.467
25 119
____
EJ'
1.122
1 380
~53
14
------
~---------~----------+---------1
1.4
_ ___
.0,_2_ _ _ _ _ _ _
---1-----
1.585 X 10 5
2. 51 2 X 10 5
-;~------
3. 98 1 X 10
6 3 0. 96
6._310 X
10 6
----,-o-7
-=---;-;-s
11
12.589
3.548
!1
9o
_____
r---1-2_ _ _ _ _+--,-5-.-8-4_9_ _ _--t---3-.-9-8-,-------J, 1------1-o--o-
10
398.11
794.33
1ooo.o
_3_,__6__ _ _ _ ____,
2 3
------ ~o_o_ _ _ -
~------l-~'623
, o' o
1 ,
o
ooo_o_o_o_ _ _ ____,
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
16-1
the advantages of FM for certain types of communication pointed out. Since the distinguishing features of the two types of transmission
lie entirely in the modulating circuits at the
transmitter and in the detector and limiter circuits in the receiver, these parts of the communication system will receive the major portion of attention.
Modulation is the process of altering a radio wave in accordance
with the intelligence to be transmitted. The
nature of the intelligence is of little importance as far as the process of modulation is
concerned; it is the method by which this in
telligence is made to give a distinguishing
characteristic to the radio wave which will
enable the receiver to convert it back into intelligence that determines the type of modulation being used.
Figure 1 is a drawing of an r-f carrier amplitude modulated by a sine-wave audio voltage. After modulation the resultant modulated
r-f wave is seen still to vary about the zero
axis at a constant rate, but the strength of the
individual r-f cycles is proportional to the amplitude of the modulation voltage.
In figure 2, the carrier of figure 1 is shown
frequency modulated by the same modulating
voltage. Here it may be seen that modulation
voltage of one polarity causes the carrier frequency to decrease, as shown by the fact that
the individual r-f cycles of the carrier ate
spaced farther apart. A modulating voltage of
the opposite polarity causes the frequency to
Modulation
Frequency Modulation
312
Frequency
Modulation
313
CARRIER
Cl
;::
0..
::;
<
FREQUENCY
Figure 3
FIGURE 1
FIGURE 2
AM AND FM WAVES
Figure 1 shows a sketch of the scope pattern of
an arrpl itude modulated wave at the boHom. The
center sketch shows the modulating wave and the
upper sketch shows the carrier wave.
Figure 2 shows at the bottom a sketch of a frequency modulated wave. In this case the center
sketch also shows the modulating wave and the
upper sketch shows the carrier wave. Note that
the carrier wave and the modulating wave are the
same in either case, but that the waveform of the
modulated wave is quite different in the twa
cases.
AM SIDE FREQUENCIES
For each AM modulating frequency, a pair of side
frequencies is produced. The side frequencies are
spaced away from the carrier by an amount equal
to the modulation frequency, and their arrplitude
is directly proportional to the arrplitude of the
modulation. The arrplitude of the carrier does not
change under modulation.
Carrier-Wave
Distortion
314
FM
Transmission
CARRIER
"1-
:::>
SIDE
FREQUENCIES
:;
SIDE
FREQUENCIES
~~
0..
~
<
FREQUENCY
Figure 4
FM SIDE FREQUENCIES
With FM each modulation frequency corrponent
causes a large number of sicle frequencies to be
pmclucecl. The sicle frequencies are separated
fmm each other one/ the carrier by an amount equal
to the rrr>clulation frequency, but their arrpl itucle
varies greatly as the amount of modulation Is
changed. The ca"ier strength also varies greatly
with frequency modulation. The sicle frequencies
shown represent a case where the clevlation each
sicle of the "carrier" frequency is equal to five
times the moclul ati ng frequency. Other amounts of
deviation with the same moclulat/on frequency
woulcl cause the relative strengths of the various
siclebancls to change widely.
strength of the component at the carrier frequency varies widely in FM and it may even
disappear entirely under certain conditions.
The variation of strength of the carrier component is useful in measuring the amount of
frequency modulation, and will be discussed
in detail later in this chapter.
One of the great advantages of FM over AM
is the reduction in noise at the receiver which
the system allows. If the receiver is made responsive only to changes in frequency, a considerable increase in signal-to-noise ratio is
made possible through the use of FM, when
the signal is of greater strength than the noise.
The noise reducing capabilities of FM arise
from the inability of noise to cause appreciable
frequency modulation of the noise-plus-signal
voltage which is applied to the detector in the
receiver.
Unlike amplitude modulation, the
term percentage 11KJdulation means
little in FM practice, unless the receiver characteristics are specified. There are, however,
three terms, deviation, modulation index, and
deviation ratio, which convey considerable
information concerning the character of the
FMwave.
Deviation is the amount of frequency shift
each side of the unmodulated carrier frequency
which occurs when the transmitter is modulated. Deviation is ordinarily measured in kilocycles, and in a properly operating FM transFM Terms
THE
R AD I 0
HANDBOOK
the noise suppression becomes better if the
signal is somewhat stronger than the noise.
Where the noise approaches the signal in
strength, however, low deviation ratios allow
communication to be maintained in many cases
where high-deviation-ratio FM and conventional AM are incapable of giving service.
This assumes that a narrow-band FM receiver
is in use. For each value of r-f signal-to-noise
quio at the receiver, there is a maximum deviation ratio which may be used, beyond which
the output audio signal-to-noise ratio decreases. Up to this critical deviation ratio,
however, the noise suppression becomes progressively better as the deviation ratio is increased.
For high-fidelity FM broadcasting putposes,
a deviation ratio of 5 is ordinarily used, the
maximum audio frequency being 15,000 cycles,
and the peak deviation at full modulation being 75 kc. Since a swing of 150 kc. is covered
by the transmitter, it is obvioll's that wideband FM transmission must necessarily be
confined to the v-h-f range or higher, where
room for the signals is available.
In the case of television sound, the deviation ratio is 1.67; the maximum modulation
frequency is 15,000 cycles, and the transmitter deviation for full modulation is 25 kc.
The sound carrier frequency in a standard TV
signal is located exactly 4.5 Me. higher than
the picture carrier frequency. In the intercarrier TV sound system, which recently has
become quite widely used, this constant difference between the picture carrier and the sound
carrier is employed within the receiver to obtain an FM sub-carrier at 4.5 Me. This 4.5
Me. sub-carrier then is demodulated by the FM
detector to obtain the sound signal which
accompanies the picture.
Narrow-band FM transmission has become standardized for use by the mobile services such as police, fire, and taxicab communication, and also on the basis of
a temporary authorization for amateur work in
portions of each of the amateur radiotelephone
bands. A maximum deviation of 15 kc. has
been standardized for the mobile and commercial communication services, while a maximum deviation of 3 kc. is authorized for amateur NBFM communication.
Narrow-Band
FM Transmission
Bandwidth Re
qulred by FM
Narrow
Band
FM
315
16-2
Direct FM Circuits
316
FM
FM BROADCAST
THE
Transmission
DEVIATION- 75 KC
OSCILLATOR IN
f. 7 5 MC. RANGE
+1S0-200V.
TV SOUND
DEVIATION- 25 KC.
MOO. FREQ.-
1~
Figure 6
REACTANCE- TUBE MODULATOR
This circuit is convenient for direct frequen
cy modulation of an oscillator in the 1. 75-Mc.
range. Capacitor C3 may be only the input
capacitance of the tube, or a small trimmer
capacitor may be incluclecl to permit a varia
tion in the sensitivity of the reactance tube.
-45KC
AMATEUR NBFM
DEVIATION- 3 KC.
MOD. FREQ.- 3 KC.
MOO. INDEX -I
CENTER
FREQUENCY
Figure 5
EFFECT OF FM MODULATION INDEX
Showing the side-frequency arrpl itucle ancl distribution for the three most common moclulotion inc/ices usee/ in FM work. The maximum mocluloting
frequency and maximum deviation are shown in
each case.
REGULATED
KC.
R AD I 0
dilator tank is varied. By applying audio modulating voltage to one of the elements, the
transconductance, and hence the frequency,
may be varied at an audio rate. When properly
designed and operated, the reactance-tube
modulator gives linear frequency modulation,
and is capable of producing large amounts of
deviation.
There are numerous possible configurations
of the reactance-tube modulator circuit. The
difference in the various arrangements lies
principally in the type of phase-shifting circuit used to give a grid voltage which is in
phase quadrature with the r-f voltage at the
modulator plate.
Figure 6 is a diagram of one of the most
popular forms of reactance-tube modulators.
The modulator tube, which is usually a pentode such as a 6BA6, 6AU6, or 6CL6, has its
plate coupled through a blocking capacitor,
C,, to the "hot" side of the oscillator grid
circuit. Another blocking capacitor, C 2 , feeds
r.f. to the phase shifting network R-C 3 in the
modulator grid circuit. If the resistance of R
is made large in comparison with the reactance of C 3 at the oscillator frequency, the current through the R-C 3 combination will be
nearly in phase with the voltage across the
tank circuit, and the voltage across C, will
lag the oscillator tank voltage by almost 90
degrees. The result of the 90-degree lagging
voltage on the modulator grid is that its plate
current lags the tank voltage by 90 degrees,
and the reactance tube appears as an inductance in shunt with the oscillator inductance,
thus raising the oscillator frequency.
The phase-shifting capacitor C 3 can consist
of the input capacitance of the modulator tube
and stray capacitance between grid and ground.
HANDBOOK
Reactance
rl~
LQ-
lOOK
47K
C3, .001
AUDIO
IN
+I!:.0-250
v.
REGULATED
Figure 7
ALTERNATIVE REACTANCE- TUBE
MODULATOR
This circuit is often preferable for use in the
lower frequency range, although it may be
usee! at 1. 75 Me. ancl above if clesirecl. In the
schematic above the reactance tube is shown
connected across the voltageclivicler capaci
tors of a Clapp oscillator, although the moclulator circuit may be usee/ with any common
type of oscillator.
However, better control of the operating conditions of the modulator may be had through
the use of a variable capacitor as C 3 Resistance R will usually have a value of between
4700 and 100,000 ohms. Either resistance or
transformer coupling may be used to feed audio
voltage to the modulator grid. When a resistance coupling is used, it is necessary to shield
the grid circuit adequately, since the high impedance grid circuit is prone to pick up stray
r-f and low frequency a-c voltage, and cause
undesired frequency modulation.
An alternative reactance modulator circuit
is shown in figure 7. The operating conditions
are generally the same, except that the r-f
excitation voltage to the grid of the reactance
tube is obtained effectively through reversing
the R and C 3 of figure 6. In this circuit a small
capacitance is used to couple r.f. into the grid
of the reactance tube, with a relatively small
value of resistance from grid to ground. This
circuit has the advantage that the grid of the
tube is at relatively low impedance with respect to r.f. However, the circuit normally is
not suitable for operation above a few megacycles due to the shunting capacitance within
the tube from grid to ground.
Either of the reactance-tube circuits may
be used with any of the common types of oscillators. The reactance modulator of figure
6 is shown connected to the high-impedance
point of a conventional hot-cathode Hartley
oscillator, while that of figure 7 is shown connected across the low-impedance capacitors
Tube
317
318
FM
THE
Transmission
R AD I 0
6CL6
6AU6
RFC.
2..5 MH
OTHERWISE NOTED
ALL CAPACITORS IN ..UF UNLESS
OTHERWISE NOTED
Figure 8
SIMPLE FM REACTANCE-TUBE MODULATOR
6AL5
6CL6
ADJUST FOR
CORRECT VR CURRENr
Figure 9
FM REACTANCE MODULATOR WITH SPEECH CLIPPER
HANDBOOK
Phase
TO MODUl-ATOR
CONTROL ELEMENT
&ooon.
4.!)V.
ltll+
-
4.~v.
ltil +
Figure 10
REACTANCE TUBE LINEARITY CHECKER
16-3
Phase Modulation
Modulation
319
320
FM
Measurement
REACTANCE
TUBE
Figure 11
REACTANCE-TUBE MODULATION OF
CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR STAGE
R AD I 0
+B
Phase-Modulation
Circuits
THE
Transmission
Deviation
HANDBOOK
12AX7
FM
Reception
321
6CL6
PGWOEREO!RON COR
f' DIA.
OTHERWISE NOTED
Figure 12
REACTANCE MODULATOR FOR 10, 15 AND 20 METER OPERATION
PHASE-MODULATED
OUTPUT
AUDIO IN
16-4
Reception of FM
Signals
Figure 13
CATHODE-FOLLOWER PHASE
MODULATOR
The
322
FM
THE
Transmission
Figure 14
FM RECEIVER BLOCK DIAGRAM
Up to the amp/ /tude I /miter stage, the FM
receiver is similar to an AM receiver, except
R AD I 0
Figure IS
SLOPE DETECTION OF FM SIGNAL
One side of the response characteristic of a
tuned circuit or of an i-f amp/ ifier may be
used as shown to convert frequency variations of an incoming signal into amplitude
variations.
of frequency variations into amplitude variations, since the linear portion of the curve is
rather shon. Any frequency variation which
exceeds the linear portion will cause distortion of the recovered audio. It is also obvious
by inspection of figure 15 that an AM receiver
used in this manner is wide open to signals
on the peak of the resonance curve and also
to signals on the other side of the resonance
curve. Further, no noise limiting action is af
forded by this type of reception. This system,
therefore, is not recommended for FM reception, although widely used by amateurs for
occasional NBFM reception.
Another form of frequen
cy detector or dis crimi
nator, is shown in figure 16. In this arrange
ment two tuned circuits are used, one tuned
on each side of the i-f amplifier frequency,
and with their resonant frequencies spaced
slightly more than the expected transmitter
swing. Their outputs are combined in a differ
entia! rectifier so that the voltage across the
series load resistors, R, and R 2 , is equal to
the algebraic sum of the individual output
voltages of each rectifier. When a signal at the
Travis Discriminator
Figure 16
TRAVIS DISCRIMINATOR
This type of discriminator makes use of two
off-tuner/ resonant circuits couplec/ to a sin
gle primary winding. The circuit is capable
of excellent linearity, but Is difficult to align.
output voltage. On
e i t h e r s i de of this
frequency It gives
a voltage of a polar
lty and magnitude
which depend on the
direction and amount
FREQUENCY
of frequency shift.
Figure 17
DISCRIMINATOR VOLTAGE-FREQUENCY
CURVE
HANDBOOK
Figure 18
FOSTER-SEELEY DISCRIMINATOR
This discriminator is the most wiclely usee/
circuit since it is capable of excellent lin
earity one/ is relatively simple to align when
proper test equipment is available.
FM
Reception
323
Figure 19
DISCRIMINATOR VECTOR DIAGRAM
A signal at the resonant frequency of the
secondary will cause the secondary voltage
to be 90 clegrees out of phase with the primary voltage, as shown at A, one/ the resultant voltages R one/ R' are equal. If the signal frequency changes, the phase relationship also changes, one/ the resultant voltages
are no longer equal, as shown at B. A clifferential rectifier is usee/ to give an output voltage proportional to the difference between
R one/ R'.
ing and the primary winding in series, the resultant r-f voltages applied to each are equal,
and the voltages developed across each diode
load resistor are equal and of opposite polarity. Hence, the net voltage between the top of
the load resistors and ground is zero. This is
shown vectorially in figure 19A where the resultant voltages R and R' which are applied
to the two diodes are shown to be equal when
the phase angle between primary and secondary voltages is 90 degrees. If, however, the
signal varies from rhe resonant frequency, the
90-degree phase relationship no longer exists
between primary and secondary. The result of
this effect is shown in figure 198 where the
secondary r-f voltage is no longer 90 degrees
out of phase with respect to the primary voltage. The resultant voltages applied to the two
diodes are now no longer equal, and a d-e
voltage proportional to the difference between
the r-f voltages applied to the two diodes will
exist across the series load resistors. As the
signal frequency varies back and forth across
the resonant frequency of the discriminator,
an a-c voltage of the same frequency as the
original modulation, and proportional to the
deviation, is developed and passed on to the
audio amplifier.
One of the more recent types of FM
detector circuits, called the ratio
detector is diagrammed in figure 20.
The input transformer can be designed so that
the parallel input voltage to the diodes can be
taken from a tap on the primary of the transRatio
Detector
324
FM
THE
Transmission
R AD I 0
RFC
A.V.C OUTPUT
33
K
fOJJF.
TO
DISCRIMINATOR
100K
+250
A.F. OUTPUT
Figure 20
RATIO DETECTOR CIRCUIT
The parallel voltage to the c/ioc/es in a ratio
detector may be obtained from a tap on the
primary winding of the transformer or from
a third winding. Note that one of the cliocles
is reversed from the system usee/ with the
Foster-Seeley discriminator, ancl that the
output circuit is completely different. The
ratio detector c/oes not hove to be prececlecl
by a limiter, but is more difficult to align for
distortion-free output than the conventional
discriminator.
Figure 21
LIMITER CIRCUIT
One, or sometimes two,
molly precede the discriminator sa that a constant signal level will be feel to the FM de
tector. This procedure eliminates amplitude
variations in the signal feel to the discrimi
nator, so that it will respond only to frequency changes.
HANDBOOK
by a simple R-C circuit, the voltage across
the grid resistor may also be used as a-v-e
voltage for the receiver. When the limiter is
operating properly, a.v.c. is neither necessary
nor desirable, however, for FM reception alone.
Receiver Design
NBFM
Adapter
325
.oz
=FR~OM~----~%~~--J~~~
DISCRIMINATOR
TO AUDIO GRID
R=zzoK.,
C=340.U.J.JF.
R=
C=
100 K,
750 ..UJ.JF.
R= 47K, C= 1600JJ.UF.
R= 22 K, C
= 3400 .U..UF.
Figure 22
75-MICROSECOND DE-EMPHASIS
CIRCUITS
The audio signal transmitted by FM one/ TV
stations has received high-frequency pre
emphasis, so that a cle-emphasi s c i r c u it
should be in clue/eel between the output of the
FM detector one/ the input of the audio
system.
326
FM
Radio Teletype
Transmission
6AU6
AUDIO
OUT
lOOK
---,
1oo[Y,
_---?
K
100
lJUF
":"
0.1
39K
2W
VOLTMETER~
e+ 250V.
AT 3 t.tA.
NOTE: ALL
Figure 23
NBFM ADAPTER FOR 455-KC. 1-F SYSTEM
16-5
Radio Teletype
The Teletype
System
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
Sideband Transmission
17-1
Commercial
Applications of SSB
327
328
"~
SIDEBAND
THE RADIO
Sideband Transmission
SIDEBAND
CARRIER
FREQ,
Figure 1
REPRESENTATION OF A
CONVENTIONAL AM SIGNAL
17-2
Derivation of
Single-Sideband Signals
The single-sideband method of communication is, essentially, a procedure for obtaining
more efficient use of available frequency spectrum and of available transmitter capability.
As a starting point for the discussion of single-sideband signals, let us take a conventional AM signal, such as shown in figure 1,
as representing the most common method for
transmitting complex intelligence such as
.
.
voice or musiC.
It will be noted in figure 1 that there are
three distinct portions to the signal: the carrier, and the upper and the lower sideband
group. These three portions always are present
in a conventional AM signal. Of all these portions the carrier is the least necessary and
the most expensive to transmit. It is an actual
HANDBOOK
envelope. The peak envelope power of a conventional amplitude modulated signal at 100%
modulation is four times the carrier power.
The average power input to a SSB transmitter
is therefore a very small fraction of the power
input to a conventional amplitude modulated
transmitter of the same power rating.
Single sideband is well suited for longrange communications because of its spectrum
and power economy and because it is less susceptible to the effects of selective fading and
interference than amplitude modulation. The
principal advantages of SSB arise from the
elimination of the high-energy carrier and
from further reduction in sideband power permitted by the improved performance of SSB
under unfavorable propagation conditions.
In the presence of narrow band man-made
interference, the narrower bandwidth of SSB
reduces the probability of destructive interference .A statistical study of the distribution
of signals on the air versus the signal strength
shows that the probability of successful communication will be the same if the SSB power
is equal to one-half the power of one of the
two a-m sidebands. Thus SSB can give from 0
to 9 db improvement under various conditions
when the total sideband power is equal in
SSB and a-m. In general, it may be assumed
that 3 db of the possible 9 db advantage will
be realized on the average contact. In this case,
the SSB power required for equivalent performance is equal to the power in one of the
a-m sidebands. For example, this would rate
a 100-watt SSB and a 400 watt (carrier) a-m
transmitter as having equal performance. It
should be noted that in this comparison it is
assumed that the receiver bandwidth is just
sufficient to accept the transmitted intelligence
in each case.
To help evaluate other methods of comparison the following points should be considered.
In conventional amplitude modulation two
sidebands are transmitted, each having a peak
envelope power equal to Y-4-carrier power. For
example, a 100-watt a-m signal will have 25watt peak envelope power in each sideband,
or a total of 50 watts. When the receiver detects this signal, the voltages of the two sidebands are added in the detector. Thus the detector output voltage is equivalent to that of
a 100-watt SSB signal. This method of comparison says that a 100 watt SSB transmitter
is just equivalent to a 100-watt a-m trans-
Derivation
329
tbtbd!
"'
c
"'
c
c::0
...::::i
...:J::0
-....J
"'
~0
4KC
AUDIO SPECTRUM
4000KC. 4004KC
3996KC.4000KC
SSB SPECTRUM
(UPPER SIDEBAND)
SSB SPECTRUM
(LOWERS IDE BAND)
Figure 2
RELATIONSHIP OF AUDIO AND
SSB SPECTRUMS
330
THE RADIO
Sideband Transmission
SIN(;LE TONE
TWO TONE
Figure 3
A SINGLE SINE WAVE TONE INPUT
TO A SSB TRANSMITTER RESULTS
IN A STEADY SINGLE SINE WAVE
R-F OUTFIT (Al. TWO AUDIO TONES
OF EQUAL AMPLITUDE BEAT
TOGETHER TO PRODUCE HALF-SINE
WAVES AS SHOWN IN (8).
of a SSB signal can only be changed by adding or subtracting to the original carrier frequency. This is done by heterodyning, using
converter or mixer circuits similar to those
employed in a superheterodyne receiver.
It is noted that a single sine wave tone input to a SSB transmitter results in a single
steady sine wave r-f ouput, as shown in figure
3A. Since it is difficult to measure the performance of a linear amplifier with a single
tone, it has becoine standltd practice to use
two tones of equal amplitude for test purposes. The two radio frequencies thus produced beat together to give the SSB envelope
shown in figure 3B. This figure has the shape
of half sine waves, and from one null to the
next represents one full cycle of the difference
frequency. How this envelope is generated is
shown more fully in figures 4A and 4B. f1
and f, represent the two tone signals. When
a vector representing the lower frequency tone
signal is used as a reference, the other vector
rotates around it as shown, and this action
Figure 5
TWO-TONE SSB
ENVELOPE WHEN
ONE TONE HAS
TWICE THE
AMPLITUDE OF
THE OTHER.
Figure 6
THREE-TONE SSB
ENVELOPE WHEN
EQUAL TONES OF
EQUAL FREQUENCY
SPACINGS
ARE USED.
A
f"2
/
I
. I I
FREQUENCY
OF
CARRIER
f"t
,., I
f"2
Figure 4
VECTOR REPRESENTATION OF
TWO-TONE SSB ENVELOPE
Figure 7A
FOUR TONE
SSB ENVELOPE
when equal tones
with equal frequency
spacings are used
Figure 78
SSB ENVELOPE
OF A SQUARE
WAVE.
Peak of wave reaches
infinite amplitude.
HANDBOOK
in amplitude modulation is of no practical
value in SSB because the SSB r-f envelopes
are so different than the audio envelopes. A
heavily clipped wave approaches a square wave
and a square wave gives a SSB envelope with
peaks of infinite amplitude as shown in figure
7B.
331
c:::-;uo
~
0---:J
Reception of a SSB
s i g n a 1 is accomplished by simply
heterodyning the carrier down to zero frequency. (The conversion frequency used in the
last heterodyne step is often called the reinserted carrier) . If the SSB signal is not heterodyned down to exactly zero frequency, each
frequency component of the detected audio
signal will be high or low by the amount of
this error. An error of 10 to 20 c.p s. for speech
signals is acceptable from an intelligibility
standpoint, but an error of the order of 50
c.p.s. seriously degrades the intelligibility. An
error of 20 c.p.s. is not acceptable for the
transmission of music, however, because the
harmonic relationship of the notes would be
destroyed. For example, the harmonics of 220
c.p.s. are 440, 660, 880, etc., but a 10 c.p s.
error gives 230, 450, 670, 890, etc., or 210,
430, 650, 870, etc., if the original error is on
the other side. This error would destroy the
original sound of the tones, and the harmony
between the tones.
Suppression of the carrier is common in amateur SSB work, so the combined frequency stabilities of all oscillators in both the transmitting and receiving equipment add together to
give the frequency error found in detection.
In order to overcome much of the frequency
stability problem, it is common commercial
practice to transmit a pilot carrier at a reduced amplitude. This is usually 20 db below
one tone of a two-tone signal, or 26 db below
the peak envelope power rating of the transmitter. This pilot carrier is filtered out from
the other signals at the receiver and either amplified and used for the reinserted carrier or
used to control the frequency of a local oscillator. By this means, the frequency drift of
the carrier is eliminated as an error in detection.
Carrier Frequency
Stability Requirements
Advantage of SSB
with Selective Fading
Derivation
PUSH-PULL
AUDIO IN
~
~
PUSH-PULL
AUDIO IN
Figure 8
332
THE RADIO
Sideband Transmission
SlOEBAND
OUTPUT
BRIDGE
MODULATOR
ro~OOO)
CARRIER
VOLTAGE
RING
MODULATOR
( 000001I
CARRIER
VOLTAGE
Figure 9
TWO TYPES OF DIODE BALANCED
MODULATOR
Such balanced modulator circuits are commonly used in carrier telephone work and in
single-sideband systems where the carrier
frequency and modulating frequency are relatively close together. Vacuum diodes, copperoxide rectifiers, or crystal diodes may be
used in the circuits.
17-3
Carrier Elimination
Circuits
Various circuits may be employed to eliminate the carrier to provide a double sideband
signal. A selective filter may follow the carrier
elimination circuit to produce a single sideband signal.
Two modulated amplifiers may be connected
with the carrier inputs 180 o out of phase, and
with the carrier outputs in parallel. The car-
ws.
~T
B+
B+
PUSH-PULl_
AUDIO IN
Figure 10
BALANCED MODULATORS
PUSH-PULL
8+
AUDIO IN
HANDBOOK
333
Carrier Elimination
HIGH Z
SIDEBAND
OUTPUT
LOWZ
SIDEBAND
OUTPUT
LOW Z
MODULATING
VOLTAGE
CARRIER VOLTAGE
CARRIER VOLTAGE
CARRIER VOLTAGE
SHUNT-QUAD MODULATOR
SERIES-QUAD MODULATOR
Figure 11
DIODE RING MODULATORS
0
SIDEBAND
OUTPUT
SHUNT-PAl R
MODULATOR
CARRIER VOLTAGE
SERIES-PAIR
MODULATOR
OUTPUT
CARRIER VOL.TAGE
Figure 12
DOUBLE-DIODE PAIRED MODULATORS
334
THE RADIO
Sideband Transmission
B+
I
0
A'JDIO
IN
-1 0
470
-20
-3 0
0
\
/
ID -> 0~~~--+--+--+-~---~
\
<1)-4
...J
PUSH-PULL R.F.
CARRIER IN
u
w- 0
~ \
-70f----l--f----1r----l---l--~
-80>1--l----1r----l'-----l---l--l-1-----\--l
-o
-!1
-4
-3
-2
-1
+I
KILOCYCLES DEVIATION
Figure 15
BANDPASS CHARACTERISTIC OF
BURNELL S-15000 SINGLE
SIDEBAND FILTER
R.F.CAR
RIER IN
AUDIO
IN
Figure 13
VACUUM DIODE MODULATOR CIRCUITS
17-4
Generation of
Single-Sideband Signals
In general, there are two commonly used
methods by which a single-sideband signal may
be generated. These systems ar: ( 1) The Filter Method, and ( 2) The Phasing Method.
The systems may be used singly or in combination, and either method, in theory, may
be used at the operating frequency of the
transmitter or at some other frequency with
the signal at the operating frequency being obtained through the use of frequency changers
(mixers).
The Filter
Method
Figure 14
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FILTER EXCITER EMPLOYING A 50-K.C.
SIDEBAND FILTER
HANDBOOK
t
6AU6
Generation of S.S. B.
12AU7
6AL5
SHUNT-DIODE MODULATOR
.01
0.1
335
6C4
12AU7
R.F. AMPLIFIER
PHASE~JNVERTER
2~0.UUF
+3!10V.
$0htA.
PUSH-PULL R.F. TO BALANCED
MODULATOR FOR CONVERSION
TO 160 METERS
12AU7
50KC. OSCILLATOR
Figure 16
OPERATIONAL CIRCUIT FOR SSB EXCITER USING THE BURNELL
50-KC. SIDEBAND FILTER
component in the whole system-the first sideband filter. It is the function of this first sideband filter to separate the desired 47 to 50 kc.
sideband from the unneeded and undesired 50
to 53 kc. sideband. Hence this filter must have
low attenuation in the region between 47 and
50 kc., a very rapid slope in the vicinity of
50 kc., and a very high attenuation to the
sideband components falling between 50 and
53 kilocycles.
Burnell & Co., Inc., of Yonkers, New York
produce such a filter, designated as Burnell
S-15,000. The passband of this filter is shown
in figure 15.
Appearing, then, at the output of the filter
is a single sideband of 47 kc. to 50 kc. This
sideband may be passed through a phase inverter to obtain a balanced output, and then
fed to a balanced mixer. A local oscillator
operating in the range of 1750 kc. to 1950 kc.
is used as the conversion oscillator. Additional
conversion stages may now be added to trans-
Figure 17
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FILTER EXCITER EMPLOYING A 455-KC.
MECHANICAL FILTER FOR SIDEBAND SELECTION
336
Sideband Transmission
THE RADIO
CH!aO
CH~O
460.~
K.C.
10
.../
OUT
zo
1\
CH$0
CH~O
451.1 KC.
= 462,9KC.
4-
CARRIER
FREQUENCY.
Figure 18
SIMPLE CRYSTAL LATTICE FILTER
j
\
I
0
459 460 461
FREQUENCY (K.C.)
LhWER
~IDEB1ND \
SI~EB ...ND
\i/
;o
{ U+R
z0
,_CARRIER
FREQUENCY
f-
30
\
\
<(
::>
40
I1J
ff-
<(
, 0
246
2.47
248
2.49
/:\
I :\
2SO
~
2.5-1
2.52
2~
254
FREQUENCY (K.C.)
Figure 19
PASSBAND OF LOWER AND UPPER
SIDEBAND MECHANICAL FILTER
255
Crystal Filters
Mechanical Filters
HANDBOOK
Generation of S.S.B.
337
= to
= 90
Figure 20
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE "PHASING" METHOD
The phasing method of obtaining a single-sideband signal is simpler than the filter system in regard to
the number of tubes ond circuits required. The system is also less expensive In regard to the components
required, but is more critical in regard to adjustments for the transmission of a pure single-sideband signal.
mitted, as is the case with all SSB transmissions, but only the sum or the difference of the
modulation band from the nominal carrier is
transmitted (figure 20) .
The phasing system has the obvious advantage that all the electrical circuits which give
rise to the single sideband can operate in a
practical transmitter at the nominal output frequency of the transmiter. That is to say that
if we desire to produce a single sideband whose
nominal carrier frequency is 3.9 Me., the
balanced modulators are fed with a 3-9-Mc.
signal and with the audio signal from the
phase splitters. It is not necessary to go through
several frequency conversions in order to obtain a sideband at the desired output frequency, as in the case with the filter method
of sideband generation.
Assuming that we feed a speech signal to
the balanced modulators along with the 3900kc. carrier ( 3.9 Me.) we will obtain in the output of the balanced modulators a signal which
is either the sum of the carrier signal and the
speech band, or the difference between the carrier and the speech band. Thus if our speech
signal covers the band from 200 to 3000
cycles, we will obtain in the output a band of
frequencies from 3900.2 to 3903 kc. (the sum
of the two, or the "upper" sideband), or a band
from 3897 to 3899.8 kc. (the difference between the two or the "lower" sideband) . A
further advantage of the phasing system of
sideband generation is the fact that it is a very
simple matter to select either the upper sideband or the lower sideband for transmission.
338
THE RADIO
Sideband Transmission
~
FOUR-PHASE A.F.
Figure 21
TWO CIRCUITS FOR SINGLE
SIDEBAND GENERATION BY THE
PHASING METHOD.
High-Level
Phasing Vs.
Low-Level Phasing
0.1VOLT
SSB
OUTPUT
12AU7
\
R-F CARRIER
2.5 VOLTS
>---
Figure 22
BALANCED MODULATOR FOR USE
WITH MECHANICAL FILTER
HANDBOOK
Generation of S.S. B.
339
+U0\1.
+1~0V
Figure 23
LOW-Q R-F PHASE-SHIFT NETWORK
Figure 24
DOME AUDIO-PHASE-SHIFT NETWORK
variable and should have a lower value of inductance than that value of inductance which
would have the same reactance as resistor R.
Inductor L may be considered as being made
up of two values of inductance in parallel; (a)
a value of inductance which will resonate at
the operating frequency with the circuit and
tube capacitances, and (b) the value of inductance which is equal in reactance to the resistance R. In a network such as shown in figure
23, equal and opposite 45-degree phase shifts
are provided by the RL and RC circuits, thus
providing a 90-degree phase difference between the excitation voltages applied to the
two balanced modulators.
Audio-Frequency
Phasing
340
Sideband Transmission
THE RADIO
12AU7
o.o
o--j
. 01
PUSH-PULL
AUDIO
INPUT
o-j
TO BAL.
MOO.tt1
TO BAL.
1.6K
100
1.6K
o-----j
....
lOOK
.... r
....
TO BAL.
MOD.l* 1
lOOK
1215
JJJJF
TO BAL.
133.3 K rMOO. tt
o.o
MOD.2
Figure 26
PASSIVE AUDIO-PHASE-SHIFT
NETWORK, USEFUL OVER RANGE
OF 300 TO 3000 CYCLES.
+10$V. REI;ULATEO
Figure 25
A VERSION OF THE DOME
AUDIO-PHASE-SHIFT
NETWORK
Comparison of Filter
and Phasing Methods
of SSB Generation
17-5
Single Sideband
Frequency Conversion Systems
In many instances the band of sideband
frequencies generated by a low level SSB transmitter must be heterodyned up to the desired
carrier frequency.
In receivers the circuits
which perform this function are called converters or mixers. In sideband work they are
usually termed mixers or modulators.
One circuit which can be used
for this purpose employs a
rece1vmg-type mixer tube, such as the 6BE6.
The output signal from the SSB generator is
fed into the # 1 grid and the conversion fre-
Mixer Stages
HANDBOOK
rf+l
Frequency Conversion
+
6BE6
CONVERSION
2000KC.
FREQUENCY
(2.5 v.)
::;:;:
:::
':"'
IH
341
100
TUNE TO SELECT
t---;~
~ 2.000+~~0=22.~0KC.
SSB OUTPUT
c::_.2000-2.$0=t750 KC.
(0.25V.)
Figure 27
PENTAGRID MIXER CIRCUIT FOR
SSB FREQUENCY CONVERSION
output. In practice, when a considerable frequency range must be tuned by the balanced
modulator and it is not practical to trim the
Figure 28
TWIN TRIODE MIXER CIRCUIT FOR
SSB FREQUENCY CONVERSION
6AS6's
-BIAS
CARRIER
IN
+ 120 V.
AT SMA,
Figure 29
BALANCED MODULATOR CIRCUIT
FOR SSB FREQUENCY CONVERSION
342
THE RADIO
Sideband Transmission
I
I
80
Figure 30
HANDBOOK
Frequency Conversion
tl.f
f,
250
= -- =
4250
0.059
The point on the chart where .059 intersects 100 db is between the curves for 6 and 7
tuned circuits, so 7 tuned circuits are required.
343
Frequency Conversion
Problems
344
THE
Sideband Transmission
FRO>J
RADIO
sse
CENERATOR
Figure 31
17-6
Distortion Products
Due to Nonlinearity of
R-F Amplifiers
Figure 32
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AUTOMATIC
LOAD CONTROL (A.L.C.) SYSTEM
HANDBOOK
Distortion Products
the signal is nearly up to the full power capability of the amplifier. At this signal level,
the rectified output overcomes the delay bias
and the gain of the preamplifier is reduced
rapidly with increasing signal so that there is
very little rise in output power above the
threshold of gain control.
When a signal peak arrives that would normally overload the power amplifier, it is desireable that the gain of the ALC amplifier be
reduced in a few milliseconds to a value where
overloading of the power amplifier is overcome. After the signal peak passes, the gain
should return to the normal value in about
one-tenth second. These attack and release
times are commonly used for voice communications. For this type of work, a dynamic range
of at least 10 db is desirable. Input peaks as
high as 20 db above the threshold of compression should not cause loss of control although some increase in distortion in the upper range of compression can be tolerated because peaks in this range are infrequent. Another limitation is that the preceding SSB
generator must be capable of passing signals
above full power output by the amount of
compression desired. Since the signal level
through the SSB generator should be maintained within a limited range, it is unlikely
that more than 12 db ALC action will be
useful. If the input signal varies more than
this, a speech compressor should be used to
limit the range of the signal fed into the SSB
generator.
Figure 33 shows the effectiveness of the
ALC in limiting the output signal to the capabilities of the power amplifier. An adjustment
of the delay bias will place the threshold of
compression at the desired power output. Figure 34 shows a simplified schematic of an ALC
system. This ALC uses two variable gain am-
3 DB
2. DB
A.LC LEVEL
1
t =- =- ~ ~ ~~-=----_- ~-=
-t-
~ --~
r-r---- --,--,---I
345
'
I
~
I
I 2ooa
Figure 33
PERFORMANCE CURVE OF
A.L.C. CIRCUIT
6BA6
Figure 34
SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC OF AUTOMATIC
LOAD CONTROL AMPLIFIER. OPERATING
POINT OF ALC
CIRCUIT MAY BE
SET BY VARYING
BLOCKING BIAS ON
CATHODE OF 6X4
SIGNAL RECTIFIER
TOP-A
PLATE
+2.!0V.
ls
2.2K
10K
ALC
':"COMPRESSION
INDICATOR
ZERO
ADJ. "='
346
THE RADIO
Sideband Transmission
so~-;cE~
17-7
Sideband Exciters
A-F
SOURCEl
Fisure 35
SSB JR. MODULATOR CIRCUIT
T 12AU7
12AU7
12AT7
6AG7
+300
v.
-10.5V.
C+,B-
Figure 36
SCHEMATIC, SSB, JR.
S.B. Exciters
HANDBOOK
having a push-pull output circuit tuned to the
r-f "carrier" frequency. The modulator drives
a linear amplifier directly at the output frequency. The complete circuit of the exciter
is shown in figure 36.
The first tube, a 12AU7, is a twin-triode
serving as a speech amplifier and a crystal
oscillator. The second tube is a 12AT7, acting as a twin channel audio amplifier following the phase-shift audio network. The linear
amplifier stage is a 6AG 7, capable of a peak
power output of 5 watts.
Sideband switching is accomplished by the
reversal of audio polarity in one of the audio
channels (switch s,), and provision is made
for equalization of gain in the audio channels
(R,). This adjustment is necessary in order
to achieve normal sideband cancellation, which
may be of the order of 35 db or better. Phaseshift network adjustment may be achieved by
adjusting potentiometer R,. Stable modulator
balance is achieved by the balance potentiometers R" and Rn in conjunction with the
germanium diodes.
The SSE, Jr. is designed for spot frequency
operation. Note that when changing frequency
L,, L,, L,, L,, and L should be readjusted,
since these circuits constitute the tuning adjustments of the rig. The principal effect of
mistuning L,, L,, and L, will be lower output.
The principal effect of mistuning L,, however,
will be degraded sideband suppression.
Power requirements of the SSE, Jr. are 300
volts at 60 rna., and -10.5 volts at 1 rna.
Under load the total plate current will rise to
about 80 rna. at full level with a single tone
input. With speech input, the total current
will rise from the resting value of 60 rna. to
about 70 rna., depending upon the voice waveform.
The Model 1OcA phasing exciter produced by Central
Electronics, Inc. is an advanced version of the SSE, Jr. incorporating
extra features such as VFO control, voice operation, and multi-band operation. A simplified schematic of the Model 1OA is shown in
figure 3 7. The 12AX7 two stage speech amplifier excites a transformer coupled V2-12BH7
low impedance driver stage and a voice operated (VOX) relay system employing a 12AX7
and a 6AL5. A transformer coupled 12AT7
follows the audio phasing network, providing
two audio channels having a 90-degree phase
difference. A simple 90-degree r-f phase shift
network in the plate circuit of the 9 Me. crys-
The "Ten-A"
Exciter
347
ol:lo
CIO
12AT7
Vl
Q..
(1)
o0
::::s
Q..
R2
-j
2.2 K
.....
::::s
R11
V>
10K
"'n::c
~:!!
-fiD
-c
TO VOICE
CONTROL STAGES
n;;
3
V>
V>
::::s
9 MC.
BALANCED MODULATOR
Ow
.......
-i
z"'
~
"'
n><
::::j
"'
;;u
+300V.
~CONTROL
ca1
0.25:f
R39
R4o
10 K
lOOK
-100V.
HANDBOOK
S.B. Exciters
349
6CL6
12AU7
L3
fc
.3W.PEAK
558
(0.5"01A.)
D1-D4" 1N71
70K
+300 v.
MIC,
,.,
1K
IM
Figure 38
SIMPLE 3-WATT PHASING TYPE SSB EXCITER
capacitors.
A series-tuned Clapp oscillator covers the
range of 452 kc. - 457 kc. permitting the
MAj
AliA
POINT
P~T
II
a:
w, 0
~
u.
u.
or---
030
Q4 0
1-
~, 0
w. v
If<(
j .-PfSSBANOOF
FILTER
~ N.J --- --~ POl fl:..
ll
/1
l[l
...1.\
I ~
lL II
!"--
MCHANICA~-
1
558
SB
70
Ill
I
I
452
453
454
457
458
FREQUENCY (KC.)
....
>-
u
z
w
<(
Ill
"'
::J
aw
a:
"-
Q
II)
a:
w
>
r;-4-U-~h-::-----<t~-----+-'-1+HI
"'
. ..
I
Cl
I
.
.... ..
.." "..
..
0
a:
Figure 40
THE "TWENTY DB" CARRIER
POINTS ON THE FILTER CURVE
a:
6BE6
RFC
"'o:>
-'"
>o
<(
1-
Ill
"'
oo
..,,_
o~
+-<
~~~N
LUll
T
FROM...
IF AMP.
"'"'
Figure 41
THE PRODUCT DETECTOR
t--M,._+----t---------+-'1+ f----l~~
@
..."'
L'JWER
UPPER
SIDEBAND
SIDEBAND
CARRIER
FREQ.
1 CYCLEOF
MODULATING
WAVEFORM
Figure 42
DOUBLE-SIDEBAND
SUPPRESSED-CARRIER SIGNAL
Figure 39
SCHEMATIC, FILTER-TYPE SSB EXCITER
FOR 80 OR 40 METER OPERATION
S.B. Exciters
transformer is placed between the mixer stage
and the 6AG 7 output stage. A maximum signal of 3 watts may be obtained from the 6AG 7
linear amplifier.
Selection of the upper or lower sideband is
accomplished by tuning the 6U8 beating oscillator across the passband of the mechanical
filter, as shown in figure 40. If the 80 meter
conversion oscillator is placed on the low frequency side of the SSB signal, placing the
6U8 beating oscillator on the low frequency
side of the passband of the mechanical filter
will produce the upper sideband on 80 meters.
When the beating oscillator is placed on the
high frequency side of the passband of the
mechanical filter the lower sideband will be
generated on 80 meters. If the 80 meter conversion oscillator is placed on the high frequency side of the SSB signal, the sidebands
will be reversed from the above. The variable
oscillator should be set at approximately the
20 db suppression point of the passband of
the mechanical filter for best operation, as
shown in figure 40. If the oscillator is closer
in frequency to the filter passband than this,
carrier rejection will suffer. If the oscillator is
moved farther away in frequency from the
passband, the lower voice frequencies will be
attenuated, and the SSB signal will sound highpitched and tinny. A little practice in setting
the frequency of the beating oscillator while
monitoring the 80 meter SSB signal in the
station receiver will quickly acquaint the operator with the proper frequency setting of the
beating oscillator control for transmission of
either sideband.
If desired, an amplitude modulated signal
with full carrier and one sideband may be
transmitted by placing the 6U8 low frequency
oscillator just inside either edge of the passband of the filter (designated "AM point",
figure 40).
After the 6U8 oscillator is operating over
the proper frequency range it should be possible to tune the beating oscillator tuning capacitor across the passband of the mechanical filter and obtain a reading on the S-meter of a
receiver tuned to the filter frequency and coupled to the input grid of the 6BA6 i-f amplifier tube. The two carrier balance controls of
the 6U8 phase inverter section should be adjusted for a null reading of the S-meter when
the oscillator is placed in the center of the
filter passband. The 6BA6 stage is now
checked for operation, and transformed T1
aligned to the carrier frequency. It may be
necessary to unbalance temporarily potentio-
351
17-8
Reception of
Single Sideband Signals
Single-sideband signals may be received,
after a certain degree of practice in the technique, in a quite adequate and satisfactory
manner with a good communications receiver.
However, the receiver must have quite good
frequency stability both in the high-frequency
352
THE RADIO
Sideband Transmission
HANDBOOK
S.S.B. Reception
353
6L6
MODUL.ATORS
B+ 4000
v.
Figure 43
HIGH-LEVEL DSB BALANCED MODULATOR
17-9
Double Sideband
Transmission
A balanced modulator
of the type shown in
figure 8 may be employed to create a DSB
Figure 44
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DSB
RECEIVING ADAPTER
354
Sideband Transmission
E 1!. E TECHNI-SHEET
AI RWOUND INDUCTORS
COIL DIA. TURNS PER
INCHES
INCH
B&W
0.18
1004
2..7!!>
408T
0.40
1006
6.30
3002.
408T
o. 72.
410T
1.1 2.
10
2..90
16
AIR DUX
3001
404T
8
10
INDUCTANCE
.UH
16
3003
416T
32.
3004
432T
3005
504T
0.2.8
506T
0.62.
8
10
COIL DIA.
INDUCTANCE
TURNS PER
INCH
B&W
INCHES
1_!_
4
12..0
4
6
1.L
2.
3006
508T
1.1
10
!!>lOT
1.7
18
16
3007
516T
4.4
32.
3008
!!>32.T
18.0
3009
604T
0.39
606T
0.87
10
1.A.
4
AIR DUX
.UH
1008
11. 2.
1010
17.5
1016
42..!!>
12.04
3.9
1208
8.8
12.08
15.6
12.10
2.4.!!>
12.18
63.0
1404
!!>.2.
1406
11.8
1408
2.1.0
1410
33.0
85.0
3010
608T
1. !!>7
16
1416
10
6101
2..45
1604
6.6
16
3011
616T
6.40
1606
1.5.0
32.
3012.
632.T
2.8.0
3013
804T
1.0
10
806T
2..3
18
3014
808T
4.2.
10
810T
6.6
18
301!!>
816T
18.8
32.
3016
832.T
68.0
2.!.._
2.
3900
1608
2.6.5
3907-1
1610
42..0
1816
108.0
3905-1
3906-1
NOTE
10
8
10
2.004
10.1
2.008
2.3.0
2.008
41.0
2010
108.0
2.404
14.0
2.406
31.5
2408
58.0
2.410
89.0
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
Transmitter Design
The excellence of a transmitter is a function of the design, and is dependent upon the
execution of the design and the proper choice
of components. This chapter deals with the
study of transmitter circuitry and of the basic
components that go to make up this circuitry.
Modern components are far from faultless. Resistors have inductance and distributed capacity. Capacitors have inductance and resistance, and inductors have resistance and
distributed capacity. None of these residual
attributes show up on circuit diagrams, yet
they are as much responsible for the success
or failure of the transmitter as are the necessary and vital bits of resistance, capacitance
and inductance. Because of these unwanted
attributes, the job of translating a circuit on
paper into a working piece of equipment often
becomes an impossible task to those individuals who disregard such important trivia.
Rarely do circuit diagrams show such pitfalls
as ground loops and residual inductive coupling between stages. Parasitic resonant circuits are rarely visible from a study of the
schematic. Too many times radio equipment is
rushed into service before it has been entirely
checked. The immediate and only too apparent
results of this enthusiasm are transmitter instability, difficulty of neutralization, r.f. wandering all over the equipment, and a general
"touchiness" of adjustment. Hand in glove
with these problems go the more serious ones
of TVI, key-clicks, and parasitics. By paying
attention to detail, with a good working knowledge of the limitations of the components,
and with a basic conception of the actions of
ground currents, the average amateur will be
able to build equipment that will work "just
like the book says."
The twin problems of TVI and parasitics
are an outgrowth of the major problem of overall circuit design. If close attention is paid
to the cardinal points of circuitry design, the
secondary problems of TVI and parasitics
will in themselves be solved.
18-1
Resistors
356
357
Resistors
+5
+4
....... ~
+3
w
u+ 2
z
;!+ I
~
U)
w
a:
- '"
;
...::::..
0
I
:'!:
w- 2
z<( -3
--:--.
+4
A
w 31':-,.
u +
~ +2.
.......,
~I
"'
\..L RESISTOR
w
a:
l-RESISTOR 8
I~ t:r I-"'
.......
"z -
"
b,
<(
J: -3
1""-...
+I
U)
["--.,
U)
f.
-4
-4
-5
-30
-20
-10
10
30
20
40
!tO
60
70
BO
90
-~~0
100
-~
~ ~
ro
~~I~
DEGREES CENTIGRADE
DEGREES CENTIGRADE
Figure 1
COMPOSITION RESISTORS
COMPOSITION RESISTORS
Figure 2
0
.9.'
r---..~
Ul
::;
<(
f--
U)
.5
U)
'"'----~~~
~~
w
a:
w
~...J
.2
>
w
a:
.Li:
~ I~ ~ !,;"_REsiSTOR c
r--- t:SESISTOR 0
,.............. y
'\
"'
~
~
~
RESISTOR B ~
~RESISTOR
""-...
......
L::::--::,
.I
0
5
10
FREQUENCY (MC.)
Figure 3
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A RESISTOR
AT A PARTICULAR FREQUENCY
15
358
Transmitter
THE
Design
R AD I 0
RSHUNT
60,;-,------,-------r------.-----~
~
C
RSERIES
1/)
~ of---+-----P.-7"-=~f+----\---H-~.-----1
0
Figure 5
"-
1/)
<
1/)
:::>
0
I
f-
IOI--+-----b''----"tr---.ft-'""--""'--1
10
FREQUENCY (MC.)
Figure 4
18-2
Capacitors
Capacitors
HANDBOOK
CONDENSER
LEAD LENGTHS
RESONANT FREQ.
.Uf MICA
NONE
.~
MC.
NONE
23.~
MC.
t"
f'
10
MC.
~~
MC .
24
MC.
.UF CERAMIC
f'
.02
.01
.UF MICA
.001
NONE
..
22.0
MC .
MC.
.001
JJF CERAMIC
cJ.:
90
MC.
.01
JJF CERAMIC
14.!:1
MC.
Figure 6
SELF-RESONANT FREQUENCIES OF
VARIOUS CAPACITORS WITH
RANDOM LEAD LENGTH
35 9
tors are used as plate bypass units in a modulated transmitter they will cause acoustical
noise. Otherwise they are excellent for general r-f work.
A recent addition to the varied line of capacitors is the coaxial _or "Hyp~s~" type _of
capacitor. These capacitors ex~Iblt supenor
by-passing qualities at frequencies up to 200
Me. and the bulkhead type are especially effective when used to filter leads passing
through partition walls between two stages.
Even though air is the perfect
dielectric, air capacitors exhibit
losses because of the inherent
resistance of the metallic parts that make up
the capacitor. In addition, the leakage loss
across the insulating supports may become of
some consequence at high frequencies. Of
greater concern is the inductance of the capacitor at high frequencies. Since the capacitor must be of finite size, it will have tie-rods
and metallic braces and end plates, all of which
contribute to the inductance of the unit. The
actual amount of the inductance will depend
upon the physic,al size of the capacitor and
the methbd used to make contact to the stator
and rotor plates. This inductance may be cut
to a minimum value by using as small a capacitor as is practical, by using insulated tierods to prevent the formation of closed inductive loops in the frame of the unit, and by
making connections to the centers of the plate
assemblies rather than to the ends as is com-
Variable Air
Capacitors
Figure 7
TYPES OF CERAMIC AND MICA CAPACITORS SUITABLE FOR HIGH-FREQUENCY
BYPASSING
The Centralab 858S (7000 ppfd) Is recommended far screen and plate circuits of tetrode tubes.
360
Transmitter
Design
18-3
THE
R AD I 0
Inductors
HANDBOOK
361
~
C
DISTRIBUTED
@
Figure 8
Coil Placement
Insulation
~2~rr----,-----~~TT----.-----.----.
J:
0
~
61.5
w
u
~
w
a.
1.0
::; H-----+----\-t-1--+------+\r-V-+--/'-=--l
w
.::
~ t!====!===t===J;==~::!==:::j30
.I
10
I~
20
FREQUENCY (MC.)
Figure 9
362
Transmitter
Design
ox
R AD I 0
BOX
Figure 10
18-4
THE
Grounds
At frequencies of 30 Me. and below, a chassis may be considered as a fixed ground reference, since its dimensions are only a fraction
of a wavelength. As the frequency is increased
above 30 Me., the chassis must be considered
as a conducting sheet on which there are
points of maximum current and potential. However, for the lower amateur frequencies, an
object may be assumed to be at ground potential when it is affixed to the chassis.
In transmitter stages, two important current
loops exist. One loop consists of the grid circuit and chassis return, and the other loop
consists of the plate circuit and chassis return. These two loops are shown in figure lOA.
It can be seen that the chassis forms a return
for both the grid and plate circuits, and that
ground currents flow in the chassis towards
the cathode circuit of the stage. For some
years the theory has been to separate these
ground currents from the chassis by returning
all ground leads to one point, usually the
cathode of the tube for the stage in question.
This is well and good if the ground leads are
of minute length and do not introduce cross
couplings between the leads. Such a technique
is illustrated in figure lOB. wherein all stage
components are grounded to the cathode pin
of the stage socket. However, in transmitter
ents prevent such close grouping. It is necessary to spread the components of such a
stage over a fairly large area. In this case it
is best to ground items directly to the chassis
at the nearest possible point, with short, direct
grounding leads. The ground currents will
flow from these points through the low induct
ance chassis to the cathode return of the
stage. Components grounded on the top of the
chassis have their ground currents flow through
holes to the cathode circuit which is usually
located on the bottom of the chassis, since
such currents travel on the surface of the chassis. The usual "top to bottom" ground path
is through the hole cut in the chassis for the
tube socket. When the gain per stage is relatively low, or there are only a small number
of stages on a chassis this universal grounding system is ideal. It is only in high gain
stages (i-f strips) where the "gain per inch"
is very high that circulating ground currents
will cause operational instability.
lntercoupl ing of It is important to prevent inGround Currents tercoupling of various differ-
18-5
HANDBOOK
363
Shielding
HOLES FOR
METER STUDS
tAETER
LEAD
Figure llA
SIMPLE METER SHIELD
HOLE
INTERNAL GROUND
L_
CURRENTS
' ~II'
jJdVIll
Figure 11 B
Use of cooxiol connectors on electrically
tight box prevents escape of ground currents
from interior of box. At the same time external fields are not conducted into the interior
of the box.
Internal Leads
364
T~~T
Transmitter
THE
Design
FIELD STRENGTH
IN.UV
12000
10000
830
4
800
ISO
70
140
600
110
12
25
TRACE
O~Oc.l
I
I
..LCI
J......reLDED HOOK-uP WIRE
j_iJ~R
:1:
TC1
:;:Cz
RFC
"'f{Cz
~I
..L
~
1:
SHIELD
~I
~I
~II
lc4 '!!!' Ic4 ~ fez ' I
_LCI
10
II
,--C~~D!Q~C~A~R----------,
RFC
..,LS:I
RFC
~I
...lC3 ,m, ..J..S:3 ;.tELDEDiWI~
T
czl
L - - - - - " - - - - - _ : :__ _J
R 1-
10001l. CARBON
C3 - .0 I SPRAGUE HI-PASS
CJ-
75JJ.UFCERAMIC
FEED-THROUGH
FEED-THROUGH
R AD I 0
was operated near this frequency marked instability was noted, and the filaments of the
810 tubes increased in brilliance when plate
voltage was applied to the amplifier, indicating the presence of r.f. in the filament circuit.
Changing the filament by-pass capacitors to
.01-(Lfd. lowered the filament resonance frequency to 2.2 Me. and cured this effect. A
ceramic capacitor of .01-fLfd. used as a filament by-pass capacitor on each filament leg
seems to be satisfactory from both a resonant
and a TVI point of view. Filament by-pass
capacitors smaller in value than .01-fLfd.
should be used with caution.
Various parasitic resonances are also found
in plate and grid tank circuits. Push-pull tank
circuits are prone to double resonances, as
shown in figure 14. The parasitic resonance
circuit is usually several megacycles higher
than the actual resonant frequency of the full
tank circuit. The cure for such a double resonance is the inclusion of an r-f choke in the
center tap lead to the split coil.
Figure 12
LEAD LEAKAGE WITH VARIOUS
LEAD FILTERING SYSTEMS
(COURTESY W1DBM)
may pick up fundamental and harmonic currents if they are located in a strong field of
flux. Any lead forming a closed loop with itself will pick up such currents, as shown in
figure 13. This effect is enhanced if the lead
happens to be self-resonant at the frequency
at which the exciting energy is supplied. The
solution for all of this is to by-pass all internal power leads and control leads at each
end, and to shield these leads thei! entire
length. All filament, bias, and meter leads
should be so treated. This will make the job
of filtering the leads as they leave the box
much easier, since normally "cool" leads
within the box will not have picked up spurious currents from nearby "hot" leads.
Chassis Material
Figure 13
SHIELDED
COMPARTt.AEN
Y TIGHT
T
18-6
Parasitic Resonances
ELECTRICALLY-TIGHT
COMPARTMENT
RADIATION
Fl ELD
BULKHEAD TYPE
~Y-PASS CAPACITOR
"
"'IZS\T\
-:l cLOOP rII 1---f
II
Parasitic
HANDBOOK
Figure 14
DOUBLE RESONANCE EFFECTS IN PUSHPULL TANK CIRCUIT MAY BE ELIMINATED BY THE INSERTION OF ANY
R-F CHOKE IN THE COIL CENTER
TAP LEAD
18-7
Parasitic Oscillation
in R-F Amplifiers
Parasitics (as distinguished from self-oscillation on the normal tuned frequency of the
amplifier) are undesirable oscillations either
of very high or very low frequencies which
may occur in radio-frequency amplifiers.
They may cause spurious signals (which
are often rough in tone) other than normal harmonics, hash on each side of a modulated carrier, key clicks, voltage breakdown or flashover, instability or inefficiency, and shortened
life or failure of the tubes. They may be damped
and stop by themselves after keying or modulation peaks, or they may be undamped and
build up during ordinary unmodulated transmission, continuing if the excitation is removed. They may result from series or parallel resonant circuits of all types. Due to neutralizing lead length and the nature of most
parasitic circuits, the amplifier usually is not
Oscillations
365
investigation uses a beam-tetrode tube, negative resistance can exist in the screen circuit
366
Transmitter
Design
THE
R AD I 0
NC
RFC1
RFC2.
GRID
"TANK
PLATE
"TANK.,
+
R.F. CIRCUIT
CURE
Figure 15
18-8
Elimination of V-H-F
Parasitic Oscillations
V-h-f parasitic oscillations are often difficult to locate and difficult to eliminate since
their frequency often is only moderately above
the desired frequency of operation. But it may
be said that v-h-f parasitics always may be
eliminated if the operating frequency is appreciably below the upper frequency limit for the
tubes used in the stage. However, the elimination of a persistent parasitic oscillation on
a frequency only moderately higher than the
desired operating frequency will involve a
sacrifice in either the power output or the
power sensitivity of the stage, or in both.
Beam-tetrode stages, particularly those
using 807 type tubes, will almost invariably
have one or more v-h-f parasitic oscillations
unless adequate precautions have been taken
in advance. Many of the units described in
the constructional section of this edition had
parasitic oscillations when first constructed.
But these oscillations were eliminated in each
case; hence, the expedients used in these
equipments should be studied. V-h-f parasitics
may be readily identified, as they cause a
HANDBOOK
Parasitic
Oscillations
367
PC=er. #
18 E. ON 10011,2W.
CARSON RESISTOR
Figure 16
368
Transmitter
THE
Design
R AD I 0
PC=3 T. #18. ON
52.11,2 W. CAR-
BON RESISTOR
RFC=OHMITE Z-50 OR
EQUIVALENT
Figure 17
SCREEN PARASITIC SUPPRESSION CIR
CUlT FOR TETRODE TUBES
Figure 18
PHOTO OF APPLICATION OF SCREEN
PARASITIC SUPPRESSION CIRCUIT
OF FIGURE 17
18-9
Checking for-Parasitic
Oscillations
Parasitic
HANDBOOK
Oscillations
369
FOR 60 7, ETC.
PC=~r:#te. ON41.n.~zw.
PC=ar.~t-JBE.ON
COMPOSITION RESISTOR
Figure 19
and tested. Therefore it is always wise to follow a definite procedure in checking a new
transmitter for parasitic oscillations.
Parasitic oscillations of all types are most
easily found when the stage in question is
running by itself, with full plate (and screen)
voltage, sufficient protective bias to limit the
plate current to a safe value, and no excitation. One stage should be tested at a time,
and the complete transmitter should never be
put on the air until all stages have been thoroughly checked for parasitics.
To protect tetrode tubes during tests for
parasitics, the screen voltage should be applied through a series resistor which will limit
the screen current to a safe value in case the
plate voltage of the tetrode is suddenly removed when the screen supply is on. The correct procedure for parasitic testing is as follows (figure 20):
1. The stage in question should be coupled
to a dummy load, and tuned up in correct operating shape. Sufficient protective bias should
be applied to the tube at all times. For protection of the stage under test, a lamp bulb
should be added in series with one leg of the
primary circuit of the high voltage power supply. As the plate supply load increases during
a period of parasitic oscillation, the voltage
drop across the lamp increases, and the effective plate voltage drops. Bulbs of various
size may be tried to adjust the voltage under
testing conditions to the correct amount. If a
Variac or Powerstat is at hand, it may be used
in place of the bulbs for smoother voltage control. Don't test for parasitics unless some type
of voltage control is used on the high voltage
supply! When a stage breaks into parasitic
oscillations, the plate current increases violently, and some protection to the tube under
test must be used.
2. The r-f excitation to the tube should now
be removed. When this is done, the grid, screen
Figure 20
370
Transmitter
Design
It is common experience
to develop an engineering model of a new
equipment that is apparently free of parasitics and then find troublesome oscillations showing up in production
units. The reason for this is that the equipment
has a parasitic tendency that remains below
the verge of oscillation until some change in
a component, tube gain, or operating condition
raises the gain of the parasitic circuit enough
to start oscillation.
In most high frequency transmitters there
are a great many resonances in the tank circuits at frequencies other than the desired
Tendency in Tetrode
Amplifiers
Figure 21
oscillator
and vacuum
tube
sitic
stage
gain
over
100kc-200mc
region.
CHAPTER NINETEEN
19-1
TV Set
Overloading
Types of Television
Interference
emissions
(3)
371
372
THE
R AD I 0
TO TV ANTENNA
COAX
FITTING
L2 }
TO ANTENNA
TERMINALS
OF TV SET
C2
Figure 1
Figure 2
The arrangement at (A) has proven to be effective in eliminating the condition of gen
era/ blocking as cousec/ by a 28-Mc. transmitter in the vicinity of a TV receiver. The
tunecl circuits L1-C1 are resonated separate
ly to the frequency of transmission. The adjustment may be clone at the station, or it
may be occomp/ishec/ at the TV receiver by
tuning for minimum interference on the TV
screen.
c3
must be readjusted whenever the band of operation is changed, or even when moving from
one extreme end of a band to the other. Hence,
wavetraps are not recommended except when
operation will be confined to a relatively narrow portion of one amateur band. However, figure 1 shows two of the most common signal
trapping arrangements.
High-pass filters in the
antenna lead of the TV set
have proven to be quite sat is factory as a
means of eliminating TVI of the overloading
type. In many cases when the interfering transmitter is operated only on the bands below
7.3 Me., the use of a high-pass filter in the
antenna lead has completely eliminated all
High-Pass Filters
HANDBOOK
TVI. In some cases the installation of a highpass filter in the antenna transmission line
and an a-c line filter of a standard variety has
proven to be completely effective in eliminating the interference from a transmitter operating in one of the lower f r e que n c y amateur
bands.
In general, it is suggested that commercially manufactured high-pass filters be purchased.
Such units are available from a number of manufacturers at a relatively moderate cost. However, such units may be home constructed;
suggested designs are given in figures 2 and
3. Types for use both with coaxial and with
balanced transmission lines have been shown.
In most cases the filters may be constructed
in one of the small shield boxes which are
now on the market. Input and output terminals
may be standard connectors, or the inexpensive type of terminal strips usually used on
BC and TV sets may be employed. Coaxial
terminals should of course be employed when
a coaxial feed line is used to the antenna. In
any event the leads from the filter box to the
TV set should be very short, including both
the antenna lead and the ground lead to the
box itself. If the leads from the box to the set
have much length, they may pick up enough
signal to nullify the effects of the high-pass
filter.
Blocking from
50-Mc. Signals
Harmonic
Radiation
3 73
Figure 3
SERIES-DERIVED HIGH-PASS FILTER
This filter Is designee/ for use in the
300-ohm transmission line from the TV
antenna to the TV receiver. Nominal cutoff frequency is 36 Me. anc/ maximum rejection is at about 29 Me.
C1 ,C 6 -15-,L4.Lfd. zero-coefficient ceramic
c2,c3,c4,c5 -20-p.,u.fd. zero-coefficient cera
mic
'%,11
on
%, 11
diameter polystyrene
/s"
to
turns
with
whose
19-2
Harmonic Radiation
374
THE
~~~~~~~~E
2ND
42-43
NEW
8TH
9TH
10TH
42-44
6TH
7TH
56-~8.4
63-65.7
70-73
NEW
CHNE
56-57.6
70-72
84-86.4 98-100.8
~R~~CAST
@)
H~NEL CHANNEL
3.9254.46
189-193 210-214.5
FM
BROADCAST
80.86107.8481.69
108.92
CH~NEL CH(SNEL
189
FM
CH@EL
218
CHEL CH~NEL
BROADCAST
ABOVE 2.7
t.AC..ONLY
56-59.4 84-89.1
168-178.2 196-207.9
CH~NEL
CHANNEL
CHNEL
100-108
200-216
FM
~@~
BROADCAST
@NEL C@NEL
TV I.F'.
21.45
(TV I. F.)
50.0
I
54.0
5TH
TV LF.
21.0
28.0
I
29.7
4TH
TV I.F
14.0
I
14.4
26.96
1
27 23
3RD
21-21.9
7.0
I
7.3
R AD I 0
>oo
450-4e6
~E
500-540
INTERFERENCE
TO U H-F CHANNELS
Figure 4
HARMONICS OF THE AMATEUR BANDS
Shown are the harmoni~ frequency ranges of the amateur bancls between 7 one/ 54 Me., with the
TV ~hannels (one/ TV 1-f systems) which are most likely to receive interference from these harmomcs. Uncler certain conclitions amateur signals in the 1.8 one/ 3.5 Me. bancls can cause interference as a result of clirect pickup in the vic/eo systems of TV receivers which are not aclequately shielclecl.
Harmonic
HANDBOOK
Interference
375
VIDEO
I
t:
~
I
TV
cHANNEL
I@
TV
!CHANNELl
I@)
I
66
I
I
LOW BAND
SOLJ.ND
~ ~
~
"'
il
TV
I(CHANNEL
I
I
I
I
I
174
"'"':.., ""'"'
"' "'
180
TV
"' "'
TV
"' "'
I
I
I
I@
I
1cHANNEL 1
I
I
186
"'
_<!
TV
cHANNEL
1
1
192
"' "'I
il
I1CHANNEL1
TV
tCHANNEL I
:j
198
([j)
I
204
TV
!CHANNEL
I@
I
TV
1cHANNEL 1
t
I
I
I
I
216
210
HIGH BAND
Figure 5
FREQUENCIES OF THE V-H-F TV CHANNELS
Showing the frequency ranges of TV channels 2 through 13, with the picture carrier and sound
carrier frequencies also shown.
Isolating
the Source of
the Interference
Figure 6
Crystal-diode wavemeter suitable for checking high-intensity harmonics in TV region.
376
THE
R AD I 0
relatively low powered and adequately shielded, it will be found that the interference drops
materially when the antenna is removed and a
dummy load substituted. It will also be found
in such an average case that the interference
will stop when the exciter only is operating.
It should be made clear at this
point that the level of power
used at the transmitter is not of
great significance in the basic harmonic reduction problem. The difference in power level
between a 20-watt transmitter and one rated
at a kilowatt is only a matter of about 17 db.
Yet the degree of harmonic attenuation required to eliminate interference caused by
harmonic radiation is from 80 to 120 db, depending upon the TV signal strength in the
vicinity. This is not to say that it is not a
simpler job to eliminate harmonic interference
from a low-power transmitter than from a kilo
waa equipment. It is simpler to suppress harmonic radiation from a low-power transmitter
simply because it is a much easier problem to
shield a low-power unit, and the filters for the
leads which enter the transmitter enclosure
may be constructed less expensively and
smaller for a low-power unit.
Transmitter
Power Level
19-3
Low-Pass Filters
Figure 7
LOWPASS FILTER SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS
HANDBOOK
Low
Pass
Filters
377
available commercially from several manufacturers. Alternatively, filters in kit form are
available from sever a 1 manufacturers at a
somewhat lower price. Effective filters may
be home constructed, if the test equipment is
available and if sufficient care is taken in the
construction of the assembly.
Figures 7, 8 and 9 illustrate
high-performance low-pass
filters which are suitable
for home construction. All are constructed in
slip-cover aluminum boxes (ICA no. 29110)
with dimensions of 17 by 3 by 2% inches. Five
aluminum baffle plates have been installed in
the chassis to make six shielded sections
within the enclosure. Feed-through bushings
between the shielded sections are Johnson no.
135-55.
Both the (A) and (B) filter types are designed for a nominal cut-off frequency of 45
Me., with a frequency of maximum rejection
at about 57 Me. as established by the terminating half-sections at each end. Characteristic impedance is 52 ohms in all cases. The
alternative filter designs diagrammed in figure
7B have provision for an additional rejection
trap in the center of the filter unit which may
be designed to offer maximum r e j e c t ion in
channel 2, 4, 5, or 6, depending upon which
channel is likely to be received in the area in
question. The only components which must be
changed when changing the frequency of the
maximum rejection notch in the center of the
filter unit are inductors L 3 , L 4 , and L 5 , and
capacitor C 3 A trimmer capacitor has been included as a portion of C 3 so that the frequency
of maximum rejection can be tuned accurately
to the desired value. Reference to figures 5
and 6 will show the amateur bands which are
Construction of
LowPass Filters
Figure 8
PHOTOGRAPH OF THE (B) FILTER WITH
THE COVER IN PLACE
Figure 9
PHOTOGRAPH OF THE (B) FILTER WITH COVER REMOVED
The mic/-section in this filter is ocljustecl for maximum rejection of channel 4. Note that the main
coils of the filter are mountec/ at an angle of about 45 clegrees so that there will be minimum
inductive coupling from one settion to the next through the holes in the aluminum partitions.
Mounting the coifs in this mann"' was founc/ to give a m"asurab/., improv.,ment in th" attenuation characteristics of the filter.
378
THE
R AD I 0
Figure 10
Using Low-Pass
Filters
HANDBOOK
Broadcast
Interference
379
Figure 11
HALF-WAVE FILTER
FOR THE 28-MC. BAND
Showing one possible type
of construction of a 52-ohm
half-wave filter for relative
ly low power operation on
the 28-Mc. bane/.
Half-Wave Filters
19-4
Broadcast
Interference
380
BROADCAST
RECEIVER
THE
BROADCAST
RECEIVER
R AD I 0
BROADCAST
RECEIVER
Figure 13
Figure 12
WAVE-TRAP CIRCUITS
The circuit at (A) is the most common or
rongement, but the circuit at (B) may give
improved results under certain conditions.
Manufactured wove traps for the desired bond
of operation may be purchased or the traps
may be assembled from the data given in
figure !4.
off the air. This is one reason why narrowband FM has become so popular with phone
enthusiasts who reside in densely populated
areas.
Depending upon whether it is
traceable directly to causes
within the station or within
the receiver, broadcast interference may be
divided into two main classes. For example,
that type of interference due to transmitter
over-modulation is at once listed as being
caused by improper operation, while an inter
fering signal that tunes in and out with a
broadcast station is probably an indication of
cross modulation or image response in the receiver, and the poorl ydesigned input stage
of the receiver is held liable. The various
types of interference and recommended cures
will be discussed in the following paragraphs.
Interference
Classifications
HANDBOOK
BAND
COIL, L
Wavetraps
CAPACITOR, C
1.8 Me.
3.5 Me.
7.0 Me.
50-JJ.JJ.fd. var.
14 Me.
21
Me.
28 Me.
so
Me.
v2u
Figure 14
COIL AND CAPACITOR TABLE FOR
AMATEUR-BAND WAVETRAPS
BROADCAST
RECEIVER
Figure 15
MODIFICATION OF THE FIGURE 13
CIRCUIT
In this circuit arrangement the parallel-tunecl
tank is inductively coup/eel to the ante~na
/eacl with a 3 to 6 turn link instead of berng
placecl directly in series with the antenna
leacl.
Transmission via
Overmodulation
381
Capacitive Coupling
16.)
38 2
THE
R AD I 0
AVC
Figure 16
HANDBOOK
Auto
Rectification
383
Spurious
Emissions
Stray Receiver
Rectification
2 TO fOMEG.
Figure 17
CIRCUITS FOR ELIMINATING AUDIOSTAGE RECTIFICATION
384
THE
R AD I 0
METAL 60X
BAND
3.5 Me.
COIL, L
17 turns
no. 14 enameled 1 00-tt.ufd.
l-inch diameter
l-1j4-inch length
11
7.0 Me.
CAPACITOR, C
variable
turns
no. 14 enameled
2Vrinch
1 00-JL.ufd.
diameter
1 V2 -inch length
14 and
21 Me.
4 turns
no. 10 enameled 1 00-JLJLfd.
3-inch diameter
1 Va-inch length
27 and
28 Me.
3 turns
1j4-inch o.d.
copper tubing 1 00-,u.ufd.
'2.-inch diameter
l-inch length
variable
TO A. C.
LINE
c
c
TO TRANSMITTE.R
OR RECEIVER
~------~~~~~~~~~SH=I~E=~~O=B~R=A~IO~~~~--
L--}-J
Figure 19
variable
variable
Figure 18
COIL AND CAPACITOR TABLE
FORA-CLINE TRAPS
Wh en radio-frequency energy
from a radio transmitter enters a
broadcast receiver through the
a-c power lines, it has either been fed back
into the lighting system by the offending transmitter, or picked up from the air by over-head
power lines. Underground lines are seldom responsible for spreading this interference.
To check the path whereby the interfering
signals reach the line, it is only necessary to
replace the transmitting antenna with a dummy antenna and adjust the transmitter for maximum output. If the interference then ceases,
overhead lines have been picking up the energy. The trouble can be cleared up by installing a wave-trap or a commercial line filter in
the power lines at the receiver. If the receiver
is reasonably close to the transmitter, it is
very doubtful that changing the direction of
the transmitting antenna to right angles with
the overhead lines will eliminate the trouble.
If, on the contrary, the interference continues when the transmitter is connected to
the dummy antenna, radio-frequency energy is
being fed directly into the power line by the
transmitter, and the station must be inspected
to determine the cause.
One of the following reasons for the trouble
will usually be found: ( 1) the r-f stages are
not sufficiently bypassed and/ or choked, (2)
the antenna coupling system is not performing
efficiently, (3) the power transformers have
no electrostatic shields; or, if shields are present, they are ungrounded, (4) power lines are
running too close to an antenna or r-f circuits
carrying high currents. If none of these causes
Power-Line
Pickup
~------~i-~~-,~~~~~S~H~IE~~~O~B~R~A~IO~~~----+
RESONANT POWER-LINE
WAVE-TRAP CIRCUIT
The resonant type of power-line filter is
more effective than the more conventional
"brute force .. type of I ine filter, but requires
tuning to the operating frequency of the
transmitter.
HANDBOOK
The amateur cannot be held responsible
when his carrier is deliberately tuned in on
an all-wave receiver. Neither is he account
able for the width of his signal on the receiver
dial, or for the strength of image repeat points,
if it can be proven that the receiver design
does not afford good selectivity and image re
jection.
If he so desires, the amateur (or the owner
of the receiver) might sharpen up the received
signal somewhat by shortening the receiving
antenna. Set retailers often supply quite a
sizeable antenna with all-wave receivers, but
most of the time these sets perform almost as
well with a few feet of inside antenna.
The amateur is accountable for harmonics
of his carrier frequency. Such emissions are
unlawful in the first place, and he must take
all steps necessary to their suppression. Prac
tical suggestions for the elimination of har
monies have been given earlier in this chap
ter under Television Interference.
In addition to those types
of interference aIr e ad y
discussed, there are two more which are com
mon to superhet receivers. The prevalence of
these types is of great concern to the ama
teur, although the responsibility for their ex
istence more properly rests with the broadcast
receiver.
The mechanism whereby image production
takes place may be explained in the following
manner: when the first detector is set to the
frequency of an incoming signal, the high-fre
quency oscillator is operating on another fre
quency which differs from the signal by the
number of kilocycles of the intermediate fre
quency. Now, with the setting of these two
stages undisturbed, there is another signal
which will beat with the high-frequency oscillator to produce an i-f signal. This other signal is the so-called image, which is separated
from the desired signal by twice the inter
mediate frequency.
Thus, in a receiver with 175-kc. i.f., tuned
to 1000 kc.: the hf oscillator is operating on
1175 kc., and a signal on 1350 kc. (1000 kc.
plus 2 x 175 kc.) will beat with this 1175 kc.
oscillator frequency to produce the 175-kc. i-f
signal. Similarly, when the same receiver is
tuned to 1400 kc., an amateur signal on 1750
kc. can come through.
If the image appears only a few cycles or
kilocycles from a broadcast carrier, heterodyne
interference will be present as well. Other
wise, it will be tuned in and out in the manner
of a station operating in the broadcast band.
Sharpness of tuning will be comparable to that
of broadcast stations producing the same a-vc
voltage at the receiver.
Image Interference
lmaqe
Interference
38 5
CONSTANT K TYPE
:-H:UT
o-J.___J_o
M- DERIVED TYPE
Figure 20
386
ANT.
L1
L2
~TO RECEIVER
I' !2 C3 !4
ANT. POST
GND.
Figure 21
c3
c2.
c4.
fixed mica capacitors, former of 5% tolerance. With some receivers, better results
will be obtained with o 200 ohm carbon re
sistor inserted between the filter and on
tenno post on the rece1"ver, With other receivers the effectiveness will be improved
with o 600 ohm carbon resistor placed from
the antenna post to the ground post on the
receiver. The filter s h o u I d be placed as
close to the receiver terminals as possible.
19-5
HI-FI Interference
CHAPTER TWENTY
20-1
Power Systems
It is probable that the average amateur station that has been in operation for a number
of years will have at least two transmitters
available for operation on different frequency
bands, at least two receivers or one receiver
and a converter, at least one item of monitoring or frequency measuring equipment and
probably two, a v.f.o., a speech amplifier, a
desk light, and a clock. In addition to the
above 8 or 10 items, there must be an outlet
available for a soldering iron and there should
be one or two additional outlets available for
plugging in one or two pieces of equipment
which are being worked upon.
It thus becomes obvious that 10 or 12 outlets connected to the 115-volt a-c line should
be available at the operating desk. It may be
practicable to have this number of outlets installed as an outlet strip along the baseboard
at the time a new home is being planned and
constructed. Or it might be well to install
the outlet strip on the operating desk so as
to have the flexibility of moving the operating
desk from one position to another. Alternatively, the outlet strip might be wallmounted
just below the desk top.
Power Drain
Per Outlet
387
388
THE
R AD I 0
V.f.O .. CLOCK
6~~~E:~~T~~~-ETC. TO
FROM LINE
PLAN
Figure 1
THE PLAN {A) POWER SYSTEM
A-c line power from the main fuse box in the
house is run separately to the receiving
equipment ancl to the transmitting equipment.
Separate switches ancl fuse blacks then are
available for the transmitters ancl for the
PLAN
Figure 2
THE PLAN {B) POWER SYSTEM
HANDBOOK
not drop more than 5 volts (assuming a 117volt line) under load and the wiring does not
overheat, the wiring is adequate to supply the
transmitter. About 600 watts total drain is the
maximum that should be drawn from a 117-volt
lighting outlet or circuit. For greater power,
a separate pair of heavy conductors should be
run right from the meter box. For a 1-kw. phone
transmitter the total drain is so great that a
230-volt "split" system ordinarily will be required. Most of the newer homes are wired with
this system, as are homes utilizing electricity
for cooking and heating.
With a three-wire system, be sure there is
no fuse in the neutral wire at the fuse box. A
neutral fuse is not required if both "hot" legs
are fused, and, should a neutral fuse blow,
there is a chance that damage to the radio
transmitter will result.
If you have a high power transmitter and do
a lot of operating, it is a good idea to check
on your local power rates if you are on a
straight lighting rate. In some cities a lower
rate can be obtained (but with a higher "minimum") if electrical equipment such as an
electric heater drawing a specified amount
of current is permanently wired in. It is not
required that you use this equipment, merely
that it be permanently wired into the electrical
system. Naturally, however, there would be no
saving unless you expect to occupy the same
dwelling for a considerable length of time.
The outlet strips which have
been suggested for installation
in the baseboard or for use on the rear of a desk
are obtainable from the large electrical supply
houses. If such a house is not in the vicinity
it is probable that a local electrical contractor
can order a suitable type of strip from one of
the supply house catalogs. These strips are
quite convenient in that they are available in
varying lengths with provision for inserting
a-c line plugs throughout their length. The
a-c plugs from the various items of equipment
on the operating desk then may be inserted
in the outlet strip throughout its length. In
many cases it will be desirable to reduce the
equipment cord lengths so that they will plug
neatly into the outlet strip without an excess
to dangle behind the desk.
Outlet Strips
Contactors and
Relays
Transmitter
Control
389
390
THE
~~<rt~--~
I
~~~Q~~~
115V.A.C.
LINE
TO FILAMENT TRANSFORMERS
230V.A.C.
SINGLE PHASE
WITH GROUNDED
NEUTRAL
TO Fl LAMENT TRANSFORMERS
Figure 3
FULL-VOLTAGE/HALF-VOLTAGE
POWER CONTROL SYSTEMS
The circuit at (A) is for use with a 175-volt
o-c line. Transformer T is of the stanclarcJ
type having two 115-volt primaries; these
primaries are connected in series lor halfvoltage output when the power control relay
Kt is energizecl but the hl-lo relay K2 is not
operatecl. When both relays ore energizecl the
full output voltage is obtoinecl. At (B) is a
circuit for use with a stanclarcJ 230-volt resi
clence I ine with grounclecJ neutral. The two
relays control the output of the power sup
plies the some as at (A).
R AD I 0
HANDBOOK
Transmitter
Control
3 91
,--------,
,
I
INTERLOCKS
TOH.V.
POWER SUPPLY
~~cci'~
115V.A.C.
LINE
I ] }IN TRANSMITTER
I
TRANSMITTER
1
FILAMENT
TRANSFORMERS
TO FILAMENT
TRANSFORMERS
EXTERNAL VARIAC
OR POWERSTAT
Figure 4
Figure 5
20-2
Transmitter
Control Methods
392
THE
R AD I 0
r - - - - - - Q R E C E I V E R POWER
,------oTRANSFORMER C.T.
PROTECTIVE
INTERLOCKS
TRANSMITRECEIVE SWITCH
TUNE-UP
SWITCH
INDICATOR LIGHTS
r1
r1
e.3v.
EXCITER H.V.
TRANSFORMER
Figure 6
HANDBOOK
11~
Safety
, - - - - -ATOPERAriNGPOSlTION-I
RECEIVE
TRANSMIT
.LL
3 93
---,
I
STOP
Precautions
I
I
I
PROTECTIVE
INTERLOCKS
OVERLOAD)'
RELAY
CONTACTS
~~t-----1--------------t-----cHd~:N~N;J~:A
Q--1~---i----~RELAY
EXCITER H.V.
HIGH VOLTAGE
TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORM R
Figure 7
button momentarily to light the transmitter filaments and start the time-delay relay in its cy
de. When the standby light comes on it is only
necessary to touch the TRANSMIT button to
put the transmitter on the air and disable the
receiver. Touching the RECEIVE button will
turn off the transmitter and restore the receiver.
After a period of operation it is only necessary
to touch the STOP button at either the trat\s
20-3
Safety Precautions
394
THE
Exposed Wires
and Components
LJ
riL. TRANS.
1..--{D.P.O.T.
v. suPPLY
------------------~
MAIN 11~
R AD I 0
SWITCH
Figure 8
COMBINED MAIN SWITCH AND
SAFETY SIGNAL
When shutting clown the transmitter, throw
the main switch to neutral. If work is to be
clone on the transmiHer, throw the switch all
the way to "pilot," thus turning on the green
pilot lights on the panel ana on each chassis, one/ insuring that no voltage can exist
on the primary of any transformer, even by
virtue of a short or acciclental grouncJ.
HANDBOOK
For 100 per cent protection, just obey the
following rule: never work on the transmitter
or reach inside any protective cover except
when the green pilots are glowing. To avoid
confusion, no other green pilots should be used
on the transmitter; if you want an indicator
jewel to show when the filaments are lighted,
use amber instead of green.
Filter capacitors of good quality hold their charge for some
time, and when the voltage is more than 1000
volts it is just about as dangerous to get across
an undischarged 4-p.fd. filter capacitor as it is
to get across a high-voltage supply that is
turned on. Most power supplies incorporate
bleeders to improve regulation, but as these
are generally wire-wound resistors, and as
wire-wound resistors occasionally open up
without apparent cause, it is desirable to incorporate an auxiliary safety bleeder across
each heavy-duty bleeder. Carbon resistors will
not stand much dissipation and sometimes
change in value slightly with age. However,
the chance of their opening up when run well
within their dissipation rating is very small.
To make sure that all capacitors are bled, it
is best to short each one with an insulated
screwdriver. However, this is sometimes awkward and al-ways inconvenient. One can be virtually sure by connecting auxiliary carbon
bleeders across all wire-wound bleeders used
on supplies of 1000 volts or more. For every
500 volts, connect in series a 500,000-ohm
1-watt carbon resistor. The drain will be negligible (l rna.) and each resistor will have to
dissipate only 0. 5 watt. Under these conditions the resistors will last indefinitely with
little chance of opening up. For a 1500-volt
supply, connect three 500,000-ohm resistors in
series. If the voltage exceeds an integral number of 500 volt divisions, assume it is the next
higher integral value; for instance, assume
1800 volts as 2000 volts and use four resistors.
Do not attempt to use fewer resistors by
using a higher value for the resistors; not over
500 volts should appear across any single
1-watt resistor.
In the event that the regular bleeder opens
up, it will take several seconds for the auxiliary bleeder to drain the capacitor~ down to a
safe voltage, because of the very high resistance. Therefore, it ill best to allow 10 or 15
seconds after turning off the plate supply before attempting to work on the t'ransmitter.
If a 0-1 d-e milliammeter is at hand, it may
be connected in series with the auxiliary
bleeder to act as a high voltage voltmeter.
Safety Bleeders
"Hot" Adjustments
Transmitter
Keying
395
20-4
Transmitter Keying
396
THE
Key-Click
Elimination
Location of
Keyed Stoge
R AD I 0
Figure 9
CENTER-TAP KEYING WITH CLICK
FILTER
The constants shown obove are suggested as
starting values; considerable variation in
these values can be expected for optimum
keying of amplifiers of different operating
conditions. It is suggested that a keying relay be substituted for the key in the circuit
above wherever practicable.
Keyer Circuit
Requirements
HANDBOOK
Cathode
3 97
Keying
TO
CATHODE OF
KEYED STAGE
E
STANCOR PA8421
2.K,2W
L__ _ _
H.V. SUPPLY
Figure 10
VACUUM TUBE KEYERS FOR CENTER-TAP KEYING CIRCUITS
The type A keyer is suitable far keying stages running up to 1250 volts on the plate. Two 2A3
or 6A3 tubes can safely key 160 milliamperes of cathode current. The simple 6Y6 keyer in fig
ure B is for keying stages running up to 650 volts on the plate. A single 6Y6 can key 80 milliamperes. Two in parallel may be used for plate currents under 160 ma. If softer keying is clesirecl, the 500-!"-!"-fcl. mica condenser should be increased to .001 !"'fcl.
20-5
Cathode Keying
3 98
THE
R AD I 0
PC
-BLOCKING
BIAS
+L.V.
+H.V.
Figure 11
Figure 12
20-6
Figure 13
Grid circuit, or blocked grid keying is another effective method of keying a c-w transmitter. A basic blocked grid keying circuit is
shown in figure 11. The time constant of the
keying is determined by the RC circuit, which
also forms part of the bias circuit of the tube.
\\-hen the key is closed, operating bias is developed by the flow of grid current through R1.
When the key is open, sufficient fixed bias is
applied to the tube to block it, preventing the
stage from functioning. If an un-neutralized
Screen
HANDBOOK
Grid
Keying
399
20-7
Figure 14
SINGLE-STAGE SCREEN GRID KEYER
FOR TETRODE TUBES
Figure 15
TOP VIEW OF SCREEN
GRID KEYER SHOWN IN
FIGURE 16
400
RADIO
THE
6AG7
vomf~}
""'-._
-110
TIME-+
-110
373
375
-27~
-275
IOK
lOW
Figure 16
TWO-STAGE SCREEN GRID KEYER UNIT
the W1DX keyer, this keyer turns on the exciter a moment before the tetrode stage is
turned on. The tetrode stage goes off an instant before the exciter does. Thus any keying chirp of the oscillator is effectively removed from the keyed signal.
By listening in the receiver one can hear
the exciter stop operating a fraction of a second after the tetrode stage goes off. In fact,
during rapid keying, the exciter may be heard
as a steady signal in the receiver, as it has
appreciable time lag in the keying circuit. The
clipping effect of following stages has a definite hardening effect on this, however.
20-8
Differential
HANDBOOK
Keying
401
VACUUM
TUBE
KEYER
(F!G.lO)
Figure 18
I---
---------l
KEY IS DEPRESSED
DURING THIS TIME
I
I
f.-TRANSMITTER IS "ON THE---!
AIR" DURING THIS TIME.
Figure 17
TIME SEQUENCE OF A
DIFFERENTIAL KEYER
402
OSCILLATOR
BUFFER# I
BUFFER# 2.
1K
t-------~- +300
v.
50 K
2W
OUTPUT
CONTROL
R1
'--------<>---'!; 100 K
2W
-120V.
Figure 19
V2
BUFFER
V3
DRIVER
100 K
VFO "HOLD"
-sov.
Figure 20
conducting--and
then continue operating
until atter V2 and V3 have stopped conducting. Potentiometer R 1 adjusts the "hold"
time for VFO operation after the key is opened.
CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE
Radiation, Propagation
and Transmission Lines
Radio waves are electromagnetic waves
similar in nature but much lower in frequency
than light waves or heat waves. Such waves
represent electric energy traveling through
space. Radio waves travel in free space with
the velocity of light and can be reflected and
refracted much the same as light waves.
21-1
Radiation from an
Antenna
Sources other
than Antennas
403
4 04
THE
--
-,~oLTA!iE
',
', ----t--I
...........
.,.,""
,."""
CENTER
,c~RENT
......
'~
--ex"
t--HALF-wAVE ANTENNA
',,
'ICDI--
i '', ,
''
' ',
'
VOLTAGE'...,
--
Figure 1
Directivity of
Rodiation
R AD I 0
21-2
HANDBOOK
Antenna
Characteristics
405
Figure 2
ANTENNA POLARIZATION
The polarization (electric fielc{} of
the radiation from a resonant dipole
such as shown at (A) above is parallel to the length of the radiator. In
the case of a resonant slot cut in a
sheet of metal ancl usee! as a raclia
tor, the polarization (of the elec
tric fielcl) is perpendicular to the
length of the slot. In both cases,
however, the polarization of the
racliatecl fielcl is parallel to the po
tential gradient of the radiator; in
the case of the a/pole the electric
lines of force are from end to encl,
while in the case of the slot the
fielcl is across the sicles of the
slot. The metal/ ic sheet containing
the slot may be formed into a cylinder to make up the radiator shown
at (C). With this type of radiator
the racliatec! fielcl will be horizon
tally polarized even though the
radiator is mounted vertically.
"'
l
~I1
0
8
"
a:
"'z
0
METALLIC SH!ET
ELECTRIC
fiELD
(POLARIZATION)
VERTICAL
:::;
1;
ELECTRIC FIELD
(POLARIZATION)
HORIZONTAL
I
J
4 06
THE
=--A
300,000
A=-Fkc
Now that we have a simple conversion formula for converting wavelength to frequency
and vice versa, we can combine it with our
wavelength versus antenna length formula, and
we have the following:
Length of a half-wave radiator made from
wire (no. 14 to no. 10):
3. 5-Mc. to 30-Mc. bands
Length in feet =
468
Freq. in Me.
50-Mc. band
Length in feet =
Length in inches
460
Freq. in Me.
II
"'
I
eJ
z
z
UJ
f-
a:
0
"'>-
'
~
~ ...........
a:
!>0 60
200
300
400
600
---
800 1000
Length in inches =
Figure 3
492
Half-wavelength"'
Half-wavelength =
Freq. in Me.
5905
5500
in feet
in inches
Freq. in Me.
3000
Freq. in Me.
144-Mc. band
2000
5600
Freq. in Me.
!--...
40
R AD I 0
HANDBOOK
A harmonic operated antenna is somewhat
longer than the corresponding integral number
of dipoles, and for this reason, the dipole
length formula cannot be used simply by multiplying by the corresponding harmonic. The
intermediate half wave sections do not have
end effects. Also, the current distribution is
disturbed by the fact that power can reach
some of the half wave sections only by flowing
through other sections, the latter then acting
not only as radiators, but also as transmission
lines. For the latter reason, the resonant length
will be dependent to an extent upon the method
of feed, as there will be less attenuation of
the current along the antenna if it is fed at or
near the center than if fed towards or at one
end. Thus, the antenna would have to be somewhat longer if fed near one end than if fed near
the center. The difference would be small,
however, unless the antenna were many wavelengths long.
The length of a center fed harmonically operated doublet may be found from the formula:
L =
(K-.05) x 492
Radiation
Resistance
407
~---------------0,--------------~
~-----------------0,------------------~
Figure 4
Freq. in Me.
number of ~ waves on
antenna
L = length in feet
where K
Under conditions of severe current attenuation, it is possible for some of the nodes, or
loops, actually to be slightly greater than a
physical half wavelength apart. Practice has
shown that the most practical method of resonating a harmonically operated antenna accurately is by cut and try, or by using a feed
system in which both the feed line and antenna
are resonated at the station end as an integral
system.
A dipole or half-wave antenna is said to
operate on its fundamental or first harmonic.
A full wave antenna, 1 wavelength long, operates on its second harmonic. An antenna with
five half-wavelengths on it would be operating
on its fifth harmonic. Observe that the fifth
harmonic antenna is 2!6 wavelengths long, not
5 wavelengths.
Most types of antennas operate
most efficient! y when tuned or
resonated to the frequency of
operation. This consideration of course does
not apply to the rhombic antenna and to the
parasitic elements of arrays employing parasitically excited elements. However, in practical! y every other case it will be found that increased efficiency results when the entire antenna system is resonant, whether it be a simple dipole or an elaborate array. The radiation
efficiency of a resonant wire is many times
that of a wire which is not resonant.
Antenna
Resonance
21-3
Radiation Resistance
and Feed-Point Impedance
4 08
R AD I 0
THE
t6000
10000
/DIAMETER=
9000
8000
+400 0
7000
+300 0
(1
::;
I
~
~
6000
z
~
sao0
~
~
0::
1-
0a_
z
~
400 0
DIAMETER=
0::
1-
0
UJ
"-
z
0a.
2000
DIAMETER=-,&,
1000
0
0.15..\
v
0.5>..
IJ
1'\.\
If
'
J
.
/
1.0>.
1.5>..
\\
.\.
~
2.0A
II
//
PI
}/_
v/
3000
I
yoiAMETER=M
/(
+100 0
U)
-;;('\
..--'\
r/DIAMETER=~
-100
OI
/?Z
~II
II
I
-200 0
-3000
II
I
I
I
I
ll
~-4
II
I
I
"-
IO~OOO
+200 0
(f)
-DIAMETER=
I
I
I
U)
-400 0
2.5),
FigureS
-5000
-fiCO
0.15),
0.5)..
1.0.>..
1.5)..
2.0>..
2.5>..
Figure 6
The Marconi
Antenna
Antenna
Impedance
Antenna
HANDBOOK
HEIGHT IN WAVELENGTHS OF CENTER OF VERTICAL
HALF-WAVE ANTENNA ABOVE PERFECT GROUND
4
.!1
.e
.1
.7!1
.25
1\.
~
VERTICAL
80
:I
1\
~ 80
~
~
If)
iii
a:
'I.
70
,.....
1\
I
I
"'
~f-
r-..
\
00
a"'
~
<
~1'/lt~'l.':i"'-
f-"'
40
i5
a:
30
.1
.2
.3
.4
.s
.e
.1
.e
.t
1.0
Figure 7
Impedance
409
and the feed point reactance change more slowly with overall radiator length (or with frequency with a fixed length) as the conductor
diameter is increased, indicating that the effective "Q" is lowered as the diameter is increased. However, in view of the fact that the
damping resistance is nearly all "radiation
resistance" rather than loss resistance, the
lower Q does not represent lower efficiency.
Therefore, the lower Q is desirable, because
it permits use of the radiator over a wider frequency range without resorting to means for
eliminating the reactive component. Thus, the
use of a large diameter conductor makes the
overall system less frequency sensitive. If the
diameter is made sufficiently large in terms of
wavelengths, the Q will be low enough to qualify the radiator as a "broad-band" antenna.
The curves of figure 7 indicate the theoretical center-point radiation resistance of a halfwave antenna for various heights above perfect
ground. These values are of importance in
matching untuned radio-frequency feeders to
the antenna, in order to obtain a good impedance match and an absence of standing waves
on the feeders.
Above average ground, the
actual radiation resistance
of a dipole will vary from the exact value of
figure 7 since the latter assumes a hypothetical, perfect ground having no loss and perfect
reflection. Fortunately, the curves for the radiation resistance over most types of earth will
correspond rather closely with those of the
chart, except that the radiation resistance for
a horizontal dipole does not fall off as rapidly
as is indicated for heights below an eighth
wavelength. However, with the antenna so
close to the ground and the soil in a strong
field, much of the radiation resistance is actually represented by ground loss; this means
that a good portion of the antenna power is
being dissipated in the earth, which, unlike
the hypothetical perfect ground, has resistance.
In this case, an appreciable portion of the
radiation resistance actually is loss resistance. The type of soil also has an effect upon
the radiation pattern, especially in the vertical
plane, as will be seen later.
The radiation resistance of an antenna generally increases with length, although this increase varies up and down about a constantly
increasing average. The peaks and dips are
caused by the reactance of the antenna, when
its length does not allow it to resonate at the
operating frequency.
Ground Losses
Center-fed
Feed Point
Impedance
Antennas have a certain loss resistance as we 11 as a radiation resistance. The loss resistance defines the power lost in the antenna due to ohm-
Antenna
Efficiency
410
THE
R AD I 0
Ground
Resistance
21-4
Antenna Directivity
HANDBOOK
....ov
Antenna
..~ rE>
..
..
!""'-- L"'-
~.3'
R\
..
....
11.1
1/
.7
i/
\!'il7 f:(~
......_
i\
I\
~
1--- ...\
I~
I
1/
r-
.
..
~\
~
./
..."I\
_,I--
..
g .
d
a:
~
~
~
~ 1.0
1.3
~1.2
J
g
. ,
'I\
1\\
:;
\
.......
a a
J
u
12
a e
\\
2
"'
Figure 8
VERTICAL-PLANE DIRECTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL DOUBLETS ELEVATED 0.6 WAVELENGTH AND ABOVE TWO TYPES OF
GROUND
H 1 represents a horizontal doublet over typi
cal farmland. H2 over salt water. V1 Is a
vertical pattern of radiation from a vertical
doublet over typical farmland,
over salt
water. A salt water ground is the closest
approach to an extensive ideally perfect
ground that will be met in actual practice.
v2
4 11
r-- I-...
Directivity
412
THE
R AD I 0
Figure 9
VERTICAL RADIATION
PATTERNS
Showing the vertical racliation
patterns for half-wave antennas
(or colinear half-wave or ex
tenclecl half-wave antennas) at
different heights above average
grouncl one/ perfect grouncl. Note
that such antennas one-quarter
wave above ground concentrate
most racliation at the very high
angles which are useful for com
municotion only on the lower fre
quency bancls. Antennas one-half
wave above g r o u n c/ are n o t
shown, but the elevation pattern
shows one lobe on each sicle ot
an angIe of 30 above horizontal.
POWER OUTPUT
VERTICAL RADIATION
PATTERNS
Showing vertical-plane racliation
patterns of a horizontal single
section flottop beam with one
eighth wave spacing (solicl
curves) one/ a horizontal half.
wave antenna ( clashecl curves)
when both are 0.5 wavelength
(A) one/ 0.75 wavelength (B) a
bove grouncl.
GAIN IN FIELD STRENGTH
HANDBOOK
Antenna
Bandwidth
41 3
Figure 11
COMPARATIVE VERTICAL
RADIATION PATTERNS
Showing the vertical radiation
patterns of a horizontal singlesection flat-top beam (A), an
array of two stacked horizontal
in-phase half-wave elementshalf of a "Lazy H"-(B), and
a horizontal dipole (C). In each
case the top of the antenna system is 0.75 wavelength above
ground, as shown to the left of
the curves.
21-5
21-6
Propagation of
Radio Waves
Bandwidth
Figure 12
414
"',,
"'"~
''
''
',
'-.
,
@GROUND-REFLECTE~
~
WAVE
R AD I 0
-. -..._.._@DIRECT WAVE
':\.'
'
.._ --
--:::~ --~=----=~--=::::-=---=-=-
@SURFACE WAVE
figure 13
GROUND-WAVE SIGNAL PROPAGATION
The illustration above shows the three components of the grounc/ wave: (A), the surface
wave; (B), the clirect wave; ancl (C), the
grouncl-reflectecl wave. The clirect wave ancl
the grouncl-reflectecl wave combine at the
receiving antenna to make up the space
wave.
Intense bombardment of
the upper regions of
the atmosphere by radiations from the sun results in the formation
of ionized layers. These ionized layers, which
form the ionosphere, have the capability of
reflecting or refracting radio waves which impinge upon them. A radio wave which has been
propagated as a result of one or more reflec
tions from the ionosphere is known as an
ionospheric wave or a sky wave. Such waves
make possible long distance radio communication. Propagation of radio signals by iono
spheric waves is discussed in detail in Sec
tion 21-8.
21-7
THE
Ground-Wove
Communication
11
HANDBOOK
GROUND- REFLECTED
WAVES
Ground
0 2
03
RECEIVING
ANTENNA
AT 01 FFERENT
HEIGHTS
Figure 14
Wave
Communication
415
Conditions Leading to
Tropospheric
Stratification
Duct Formation
416
THE
R AD I 0
II
<:>
REFRACTIVE INDEX
Figure 15
Stratospheric
Reflection
aurora-type dx. These conditions reach a maximum somewhat after the sunspot cycle peak,
possibly because the spots on the sun are
nearer to its equator (and more directly in line
with the earth) in the latter part of the cycle.
Ionospheric storms generally accompany magnetic storms. The normal layers of the ionosphere may be churned or broken up, making
radio transmission over long distances difficult or impossible on high frequencies. Unusual conditions in the ionosphere sometimes
modulate v-h-f waves so that a definite tone or
noise modulation is noticed even on transmitters located only a few miles away.
A pecularity of this type of auroral propagation of v-h-f signals in the northern hemisphere
is that directional antennas usually must be
pointed in a northerly direction for best results
for transmission or reception, regardless of
the direction of the other station being contacted. Distances out to 700 or 800 miles have
been covered during magnetic storms, using
30 and 50 Me. transmitters, with little evidence of any silent zone between the stations
communicating with each other. Generally,
voice-modulated transmissions are difficult or
impossible due to the tone or noise modulation
on the signal. Most of the communication of
this type has taken place by c. w. or by tone
modulated waves with a keyed carrier.
21-8
Ionospheric
Propagation
HANDBOOK
Ionospheric
/F2
/F1
200
uo
MIDDAY
100
"'
w
-'
:JE
50
:::;:
~
0
200
VD
)F2
1I
'-'
w
I
150
100
IONIZATION DENSITY-
Figure 16
IONIZATION DENSITY IN THE IONOSPHERE
Showing typical ionization density of the
ionosphere in mid-summer. Note that the F 1
and D layers disappear at night, and that the
density of the E Ioyer falls to such o low
value that it is ineffective.
which the sky wave can undergo dc:'pends upon its frequency, and the amount of ionization
in the ionosphere, which is in turn dependent
upon radiation from the sun. The sun increases
the density of the ionosphere layers (figure 16)
and lowers their effective height. For this
reason, the ionosphere acts very differently
at different times of day, and at different times
of the year.
The higher the frequency of a radio wave,
the farther it penetrates the ionosphere, and
the less it tends to be bent back toward the
earth. The "lower the frequency, the more easily
the waves are bent, and the less they penetrate the ionosphere. 160-meter and SO-meter
signals will usually be bent back to earth
even when sent straight up, and may be considered as being reflected rather than refract
ed. As the frequency is raised beyond about
5,000 kc. (dependent upon the critical frequency of the ionosphere at the moment), it is
found that waves transmitted at angles higher
than a certain critical angle never return to
earth. Thus, on the higher frequencies, it is
necessary to confine radiation to low angles,
since the high angle waves simply penetrate
the ionosphere and are lost.
The F2 Layer
417
MIDNIGHT
) E
50
Propagation
reflection regions of the ionosphere is called the F 2 layer. This layer has
Critical Frequency
418
36
32
...... I'\.
0
28
1\
\
WINTER
SUNSPOT-
MAXIMUM
24
.22
1\
~20
~I 8
\
"--+
u.
~12
&
4
"''
a:
...
SUMMER
-SUNSPOTMINIMUM
....... ,_....
1\.
........... f.---
12
14
16
16
20
22
24
LOCAL TIME
Figure 17
TYPICAL CURVES SHOWING CHANGE IN
AT MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM
M.U.F.
POINTS IN SUNSPOT CYCLE
Skip Distance
'\
10
RA0 I 0
I
II
THE
Cycles in
Ionosphere Activity
Fading
HANDBOOK
17 0
150
14 0
130
::<120
::0
"'
!
I
I
II 0
f- 100
a:
::i
~
80
70
5
::;
<1)
419
or-
2 ob.
1\
\
-~
Of-- -~
0 3 Of-- -~
5
Cycle
\
I\
\
\
1/
II
90
o60
Sunspot
Ml1'~UM
16 0
a:
11-Year
::>
~-
I :
"1"'-. ..,~~
--:u
oL
42
44
46
48
50
52
TRANSMITTER
EF
54
58
YEAR
Figure 18
THE YEARLY TREND OF THE 11-YEAR
SUNSPOT CYCLE. RADIO CONDITIONS IN
GENERAL WILL IMPROVE DURING 19551958 AS THE CYCLE ADVANCES
Figure 19
420
THE
R AD I 0
upon striking
mountain range, for instance,
the reradiation or reflected energy is scattered,
some of it being directed back towards the
transmitter, thus providing another mechanism
for producing a signal within the skip zone.
Meteors and
"Bursts"
21-9
Transmission Lines
Transmission
HANDBOOK
ever, mechanical or electrical considerations
often make one type of transmission line better
adapted for use to feed a particular type of
antenna than any other type.
Transmission lines for carrying r-f energy
are of two general types: non-resonant and
resonant. A non-resonant transmission line
is one on which a successful effort has been
made to eliminate reflections from the termination (the antenna in the transmitting case
and the receiver for a receiving antenna) and
hence one on which standing waves do not
exist or are relatively small in magnitude. A
resonant line, on the other hand, is a transmission line on which standing waves of appreciable magnitude do appear, either through
inability to match the characteristic impedance
of the line to the termination or through intentional design.
The principal types of transmission line in
use or available at this time include the openwire line (two-wire and four-wire types), two
wire solid-dielectric line ("Twin-Lead" and
similar ribbon or tubular types), two-wire polyethylene-filled shielded line, coaxial line of
the solid-dielectric, beaded, stub-supported,
or pressurized type, rectangular and cylindrical
wave guide, and the single-wire feeder operated against ground. The significant characteristics of the more popular types of transmission line available at this time are given
in the chart of figure 21.
21-10
Non-Resonant
Transmission Lines
Impedance
-~
6.
.1 .8 .9 1.0
Lines
421
2.
Figure 20
Two-Wire
Open Line
and resist
capacitance
422
THE
R AD I 0
db/100FEET
VSWR
=t.O
30 MC 100 MC 300 MC
0.1!1
0.3
0.8
2.2
~.3
(7/28 CONDUCTORS)
TUBULAR "TWIN-LEAD"
:~~-~~(~~p~~rtJc.
~';?
F~~
FT.
v
o.oe-o...
0.82..,
8..,
REMARKS
BASED UPON 4"' SPACING BELOW ~0 MC.; 2'" SPACING ABOVE~ MC. RADIATION
LOSSES INCLUDED. CLEAN, LOW LOSS CERAMIC INSULATION ASSUMED. RADIATION
HIGH ABOVE 1~ MC.
FOR CLEAN, DRY LINE. WET WEATHER PERFORMANCE RATHER POOR. BEST LINE IS
SL.IGHTLY CONVEX. AVOID LINE THAT HAS CONCAVE DIELECTRIC. SUITABLE FOR
L.OW POWER TRANSMITTING APPLICATIONS. LOSSES INCREASE AS LINE WEATHERS.
HANDLES400WATTS AT30MC.IF VSWR IS LOW.
CHARACTERISTICS SIMILAR TO RECEIVING TYPE RIBBON LINE EXCEPT FOR MUCH
BETTER WET WEATHER PERFORMANCE.
TYPE 14-271)
(~~~~ETJ6C ,3{~Z7~f
o.e~
2.3
~.4
0.79
8.1
1.1
2.7
8.0
0.77 ...
10..,
2.0
~-0
11.0
0.88"4'
19..,
1.5
3.9
8.0
0.71-t
10..,
1.0
2.1
4.2
o.ee
29.5
1.9
3.0
o.&8
20.5
...
7/21 CONDUCTOR.
o.e5
o.ee
29..5
WILL HANDLE 7.0 KW. AT 30 MC. IF VSWR IS LOW. 0.87" 0.0. 0.19" DIA. CONDUCTOR
1.95
4.1
8.0
o.ee
28.5
1.9
3.8
7.0
o.ee
21
2.0
4.0
7.0
o.ee
22
RG-22/U SHIELDED
PAIR (9.5 OHMS)
1.7
3.0
5.5
o.ee
18
2.0
3.~
0.1
(300 OHMS)
N"" 20 CONDUCTOR.
FIGURE 21
Z0
= 276
2S
log 10 d
Where:
S is the exact distance between wire centers
in some convenient unit of measurement, and
d is the diameter of the wire measured in the
same up.its as the wire spacing, s_
2S
Since expresses a ratio only, the units
d
of measurement may be centimeters, millimeters, or inches. This makes no difference
in the answer, so long as the substituted
values for S and dare in the same units.
The equation is accurate so long as the
wire spacing is relatively large as compared
to the wire diameter.
Ribbon and
Tubular Trans
mission Line
THE
Transmission
R AD I 0
ribbon and tubular configuration, with characteristic impedance values from 75 to 300
ohms. Receiving types, and transmitting types
for power levels up to one kilowatt in the h-f
range, are listed with their pertinent characteristics, in the table of figure 21.
Several types of coaxial cable
have come into wide use for
feeding power to an antenna system. A crosssectional view of a coaxial cable (sometimes
called concentric cable or line) is shown in
figure 22.
As in the parallel-wire line, the power lost
in a properly terminated coaxial line is the
sum of the effective resistance losses along
the length of the cable and the dielectric
losses between the two conductors.
Of the two losses, the effective resistance
loss is the greater; since it is largely due to
the skin effect, the line loss (all other conditions the same) will increase directly as the
square root of the frequency.
Figure 22 shows that, instead of having two
conductors running side by side, one of the
conductors is placed inside of the other. Since
the outside conductor completely shields the
inner one, no radiation takes place. The conductors may both be tubes, one within the
other; the line may consist of a solid wire
within a tube, or it may consist of a stranded
or solid inner conductor with the outer conductor made up of one or two wraps of copper
shielding braid.
In the type of cable most popular for military and non-commercial use the inner conductor consists of a heavy stranded wire, the
outer conductor consists of a braid of copper
wire, and the inner conductor is supported
within the outer by means of a semi-solid
dielectric of exceedingly low loss characteristics called polyethylene. The Army-Navy
designation on one size of this cable suitable
for power levels up to one kilowatt at frequencies as high as 30 Me. is AN/RG-8/U.
The outside diameter of this type of cable is
approximately one-half inch. The characteristic impedance of this cable type is 52 ohms,
but other similar types of greater and smaller
power-handling capacity are available in impedances of 52, 75, and 95 ohms.
When using solid dielectric coaxial cable
it is necessary that precautions be taken to
insure that moisture cannot enter the line. If
the better grade of connectors manufactured
for the line are employed as terminations, this
condition is automatically satisfied. If connectors are not used, it is necessary that
some type of moisture-proof sealing compound
be applied to the end of the cable where it
will be exposed to the weather.
Nearby metallic objects cause no loss, and
coaxial cable may be run up air ducts or eleCoaxial Line
423
Lines
204
vi
::;
J:
Zo= 138
w
u
138
100
EJT
70
z
~
D1
_l
:::;;
52
f-
30
<
a:
<
r
u
COAXIAL OR
CONCENTRIC LINE
!:
a:
w
LOG 10
170
Ot=INSIOE DIAMETER OF
OUTER CONDUCTOR
J
D=oUTSIOE DIAMETER CF
INNER CONDUCTOR
oL-~L+~~LLLUL-~--~
.a.3& I
3.21
10
15
RATIO OF DIAMETERS
30
ry
Figure 22
Standing Waves
424
THE
R AD I 0
<.or----------------------------------
Semi-Resonant
Parallel-Wire Lines
SWR= 1,0
ZL= Zo
SWR = 1.5
~
0
0.5
OR
:~
SWR =co ZL = 0
0.33 Zo
OR co
Figure 23
21-11
Tuned or
Resonant Lines
Tuned
HANDBOOK
amplitude, in turn, depends upon the mismatch
at the line termination. A line of no. 12 wire,
spaced 6 inches with good ceramic or plastic
spreaders, has a surge impedance of approximately 600 ohms, and makes an excellent
tuned feeder for feeding anything between 60
and 6000 ohms (at frequencies below 30 Me.).
If used to feed a load of higher or lower impedance than this, the standing waves become
great enough in amplitude that some loss will
occur unless the feeder is kept short. At frequencies above 30 Me., the spacing becomes
an appreciable fraction of a wavelength, and
radiation from the line no longer is negligible.
Hence, coaxial line or close-spaced parallelwire line is recommended for v-h-f work.
If a transmission line is not perfectly matched, it should be made resonant, even though
the amplitude of the standing waves (voltage
variation) is not particularly great. This prevents reactance from being coupled into the
final amplifier. A feed system having moderate
standing waves may be made to present a nonreactive load to the amplifier either by tuning
or by pruning the feeders to approximate resonance.
Usually it is preferable with tuned feeders
to have a current loop (voltage minimum) at the
transmitter end of the line. This means that
when voltage- feeding an antenna, the tuned
feeders should be made an odd number of quarter wavelengths long, and when current-feeding
an antenna, the feeders should be made an
even number of quarter wavelengths long. Actually, the feeders are made about 10 per cent of
a quarter wave longer than the 4:alculated
value (the value given in the tables) when
they are to be series tuned to resonance by
means of a capacitor, instead of being trimmed
and pruned to resonance.
When tuned feeders are used to feed an antenna on more than one band, it is necessary
to compromise and make provision for both
series and parallel tuning, inasmuch as it is
impossible to cut a feeder to a length that
will be optimum for several bands. If a voltage
loop appears at the transmitter end of the line
on certain bands, parallel tuning of the feeders will be required in order to get a transfer
of energy. It is impossible to transfer energy
by inductive coupling unless current is flowing. This is effected at a voltage loop by the
Lines
425
21-12
Line Discontinuities
CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO
22-1
End-Fed Half-Wave
Horizontal Antennas
426
End-Fed
Antennas
Center-Fed
_____.,
IANY NUMBER OF HALF-WAVES--!
FROM TRANSMITTER
Antennas
427
Figure 1
THE END-FED HERTZ ANTENNA
Showing the manner in which on encl-fec/ Hertz
antenna may be feel through a low-impeclonce
line one/ low-pass filter by using a resonant
tonk circuit as at (A), or through the use of
a reverse-connectecl pi network os at (B).
Some harmonic-attenuating provision (in addition to the usual low-pass TVI filter) must be
included in the coupling system, as an endfed antenna itself offers no discrimination
against harmonics, either odd or even.
The end-fed Hertz antenna has rather high
losses unless at least three-quarters of the
radiator can be placed outside the operating
room and in the clear. As there is rf voltage
at the point where the antenna enters the
operating room, the insulation at that point
should be several times as effective as the
insulation commonly used with low-voltage
feeder systems. This antenna can be operated
on all of its higher harmonics with good efficiency, and can be operated at half frequency
against ground as a quarter-wave Marconi.
As the frequency of an antenna is raised
slightly when it is bent anywhere except at a
voltage or current loop, an end-fed Hertz antenna usually is a few per cent longer than a
straight half-wave doublet for the same frequency, because, ordinarily, it is impractical
to bring a wire in to the transmitter without
making several bends.
The Zepp Antenna
System
22-2
428
THE
R AD I 0
t~-------1
STUB-FED
END-FED TYPES
~0.9> X/2-------l
!--o.9> '-'2----t-
TUNED DOUBLET
300-6000HM
LINE
OPEN
QUARTER-WAVE
STUB-FED
300-600.C.. LINE
t+--~0.9> X/2----i
Figure 2
ALTERNATIVE
METHODS OF
FEEDING A
HALF-WAVE DIPOLE
----1
......
FOR DELTA
f---o.9> X/2
-,
~~~~~~~~PENED
TWINLEAD
"FOLDED DIPOLE"
2"'0R6"
FEEDER
SPREADERS
2-WIRE DOUBLET
OR ~FOLDED DIPOLE"
CO-AX FED
DOUBLET
~
DOUBLET
DIMENSIONS
SEE CHAP.19
DELTAMATCHEO
DOUBLET
o=14':bOF
TOTAL LENGTH
OFF-CENT
FED
N14WIRE
i 75 fi TWIN LEAD
. ANY LENGTH
CENTER-FED TYPES
THE
R AD I 0
Multi-Wire
Doublets
Multi-wire
Doublets
429
430
THE
IlL.
r-
300-0HM RIBBON
ii}~ED
l
VERTICAL
R AD I 0
T
094>.12
STUB-FED
VERTICAL
L-C- FED
VERTICAL
r~
4
i
1--------
404
fMc.
---------1
----
300-0HM RIBBON
\
l
30
FMC.
Figure 3
FOLDED DIPOLE WITH SHORTING
STRAPS
The impeclance match one/ banclwiclth characteristics of a folclecl clipole may be improvecl
by shorting the two wires of the ribbon a c/is
tance out from the center equal to the veloci
ty factor of the ribbon times the half-length
of the clipole as shown at (A}. An alternative
arrangement with bent clown encls for space
conservation is illustratecl at (B).
Figure 4
HALF-WAVE VERTICAL ANTENNA SHOWING ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF FEED
22-3
The Half-Wave
Vertical Antenna
HANDBOOK
Vertical
~2
TO VERTICAL WHIP
Figure 5
THE LOW-FREQUENCY GROUND PLANE
ANTENNA
The radials of the ground plane antenna
should lie in a horizontal plane, although
slight departures from this caused by nearby
objects is allowable. The whip may be
mounted on a short post, or on the roof of a
building, The wire radials may slope clown
Figure 6
80 METER LOADED GROUND PLANE
ANTENNA
Number of turns in loacllng coil to be acljustecl
until antenna system resonates at cleslrecl
frequency in 80 meter bane/,
guy
22-4
4 31
Antennas
432
THE
R AD I 0
Figure 7
22-5
The Marconi
Antenna
sible above ground. Raising the maximum-current point in the radiator above ground has
two desirable results: The percentage of lowangle radiation is increased and the amount of
ground current at the base of the radiator is
reduced, thus reducing the ground losses.
To estimate whether a 1 o ad in g coil will
proba?ly be required, it is necessary only to
note If the length of the antenna wire and
ground lead is over a quarter wavelength; if
so, no loading coil is needed, provided the
series tuning capacitor has a high maximum
capacitance.
Amateurs primarily interested in the higher
frequency bands, but who like to work 80 meters occasionally, can usually manage to resonate one of their antennas as a Marconi by
working the whole system, feeders and all
against a water pipe ground, and resorting t~
a loading coil if necessary. A high-frequencyrotary, zepp, doublet, or single-wire-fed antenna will make quite a good SO-meter Marconi
if high and in the clear, with a rather long
feed line to act as a radiator on 80 meters.
Where two-wire feeders are used, the feeders
should be tied together for Marconi operation.
With a quarter-wave antenna and a ground, the antenna current generally is
measured with a meter placed in the antenna
circuit close to the ground connection. If this
Importance of
Ground Connection
HANDBOOK
Marconi
.!>..
Figure 8
LOADING THE
MARCONI ANTENNA
The various loading systems
are cliscussec/ in the accomponying text.
.l>.
.l>.
l l l
-::'
-=
Water-Pipe
Grounds
LOADING.
COILS
Antenna
4 33
.. HAT"'
LESS
THAN
-t
-::'
-=
-=
-::'
434
THE
R AD I 0
'
6"FEEOER
SPREAOERS
-.2"Ft:EOER
RESONANT OR
SPREADERS
RESONANT L!NI!
NON-RESONANT LINE
Figure 10
TWIN-LEAD MARCONI ANTENNA FOR THE
80 AND 160 METER BANDS
~FT.
_!_FT.
Ft.~c.
_L
Figure 9
THREE EFFECTIVE SPACE CONSERVING
ANTENNAS
The arrangements shown at (A) and (B) are
satisfactory where resonant leerl line can be
used. However, non-resonant 75-ohm feed
line may be used in the arrangement at (A)
when the dimensions in wavelengths are as
shown. In the arrangement shown at (B) low
standing waves will be obtained on the feed
line when the overall length of the antenna
is a half wave. The arrangement shown at
(C) may be tuned for any reasonable length
of flat top to give a minimum of standing
waves on the transmission Iin e.
22-6
Space-Conserving
Antennas
HANDBOOK
Space
Conserving
Antennas
435
FIGURE A
CUTOFF SHIELD AND OUTER
JACKET A.S SHOWN. ALLOW
DIELECTRIC TO EXTEND PART
WAY TO OTHER CABLE. COVER
ALL EXPOSED SHIEL.D AND
DIELECTRIC ON BOTH CABLES
WITH A CONTINUOUS WRAPPING OF SC.OTCH ELECTRICAL
TAPE TO EXCLUDE MOISTURE.
R~-8/U,
ANY LENGTH
DIMENSIONS SHOWN HERE ARE FOR THE 40 METER BAND. THIS ANTENNA MAY BE BUILT FOR OTHER BANDS BY USING DIMENSIONS THAT
ARE MULTIPLES OR SUBMULTIPLES OF THE DIMENSIONS SHOWN~
BALUN SPACING IS 1.5 ON ALL BAND$.
DIMENSIONS SHOWN HERE ARE FOR THE MJ METER BAND. THIS ANTENNA MofY BE BUILT FOR CTTHER BANOS BY USING DIMENSIONS THAT
ARE MULTIPLES OR SUBMULTIPLES OF THE DIMENSIONS SHOWN.
BALUNSPACIN~ IS 1.50N ALL BANDS.
Figure 11
Figure 12
Marconi Antenna
436
~:1
THE
f'bl bfd
3.5
3.0
3. 7
FREQUENCY
3.8
3.8
RA0 I 0
r----ANTNNA~
80 METERS
L =13'&"
C = 400.lJJJF
PHENOL.IC Bl..OCKS,-t-tiJ"'/,1
SEE nc;. 12.
4.0
40 t.4TERS
L=7'3"
C ::: 2.00 .U.U F
("c)
Figure 13
SWR CURVE OF 80-METER BROAD-BAND
DIPOLE
Figure 14
22-7
Multi-Band Antennas
The l4-Wave
Folded Doublet
HANDBOOK
Multi-band
Antennas
4 37
6000HM LINE:
TO TRANSMITTER
Figure 15
THE
This
satisfactory operation with
line for operation with the
the fundamental frequency
switch closed on twice
a 600-ohm feecl
switch open on
ancl with the
frequency.
SHORTED END
L =33 FT.
"
"A9.6 FT.
96FT.
Figure 16
AUTOMATIC BANDSWITCHING STUB FOR
THE THREE-QUARTER WAVE FOLDED
DOUBLET
The antenna of Figure 15 may be usecl with
a shortecl stub line in place of the switch
normally usee/ for seconcl harmonic operation.
many other antenna types, but it is particularly convenient when it is desired to install an
antenna in a hurry for a test, or for field-day
work. The flat top of the radiator should be
as high and in the clear as possible. In any
event at least three quarters of the total wire
length should be in the clear. Dimensions for
optimum operation on various amateur bands
are given in addition in figure 17.
The end- fed Zepp has long
been a favorite for multi-band
operation. It is shown in figure 18 along with recommended dimensions
for operation on various amateur band groups.
The End-Fed
Zepp
~Ll" ~~C
FORtSEETABLEBELOW-------oi
L-SEE BELOW
BANDS
L,
L= 137'
L= 138'
L1zo
' "'
14 Me
' "'
FROM
XMTR.
Figure 17
TUNING
2e Me
14 Me
TYPE OF
SERIES
I
PARALLEL I
L=1ae
L1
END-FED ZEPP
FIGURE 18
~I
SERIES
PARALLEL
PARALLEL
4 38
THE
J'H
L= 90' FOR 10-40 METER OPERATION
......
~-----------------L~------------------~
BANDS
L1
L,
'
MC
JJJJF
I~~ET~A~~~~~:~~:TNEDL~:F
MC
14 MC
'
1, MC
14 MC
r-17--
1200 OHMS
PARALLEL
PARALLEL
PARALLEL
"PARALLEL
1200 OHMS
L~,~~"~'~'~'"~"~'----~~
I~
SERIES
TYPE OF
TUNING
3.9 MC
PHONE
14 MC
Figure 19
R AD I 0
PARALLEL
1200 OHMS
1200 OHMS
~
PARALLEL
PARALLEL
PARALLEL
PARALL.1..
1a00 OH~S
1200 OHMS
1200 OHMS
Since this antenna type is an unbalanced radiating system, its use is not recommended with
high-power transmitters where interference to
broadcast listeners is likely to be encountered.
The r-f voltages encountered at the end of
zepp feeders and at points an electrical half
wave from the end are likely to be quite high.
Hence the feeders should be supported an adequate distance from surrounding objects and
sufficiently in the clear so that a chance encounter between a passerby and the feeder is
unlikely.
The coupling coil at the transmitter end of
the feeder system should be link coupled to
the output of the low-pass TVI filter in order
to reduce harmonic radiation.
A three-eighths wavelength
Marconi antenna may be
o p era ted on its harmonic
frequency, providing good two band performance from a simple wire. Such an arrangement
for operation on 160-80 meters, and 80-40 meters is shown in figure 19. On the fundamental
(lowest) frequency, the antenna acts as a
three-eighths wavelength series-tuned Marconi.
On the second harmonic, the antenna is a current-fed three-quarter wavelength antenna operating against ground. For proper operation,
the antenna should be resonated on its second
harmonic by means of a grid-dip oscillator to
the operating frequency most used on this particular band. The Q of the antenna is relatively
low, and the antenna will perform well over a
frequency range of several hundred kilocycles.
The overall length of the antenna may be
varied slightly to place its self-resonant frequency in the desired region. Bends or turns
in the antenna tend to make it resonate higher
in frequency, and it may be necessary to
lengthen it a bit to resonate it at the chosen
frequency. For fundamental operation, the
series condenser is inserted in the circuit, and
the antenna may be resonated to any point in
the lower frequency band. As with any Marconi
The Two-Band
Marconi Antenna
CENTER-FED ANTENNA
DIMENSIONS
Figure 20
FOR CENTER-FED MULTIBAND ANTENNA
type antenna, the use of a good ground is essential. This antenna works well with transmitters employing coaxial antenna feed, since
its transmitting impedance on both bands is in
the neighborhood of 40 to 60 ohms. It may be
attached directly to the output terminal of such
transmitters as the Collins 32V and the Viking
II. The use of a low-pass TVI f i 1 t e r is of
course recommended.
For multi-band operation,
the center fed antenna is
without doubt the best
compromise. It is a balanced system on all
bands, it requires no ground return, and when
properly tuned has good rejection properties
for the higher harmonics generated in the transmitter. It is well suited for use with the various
multi-band 150-watt transmitters that are currently so popular. For proper operation with
these transmitters, an antenna tuning unit
must be used with the center-fed antenna. In
fact, some sort of tuning unit is necessary for
any type of efficient, multi-band antenna. The
use of such questionable antennas as the "offcenter fed" doublet is an invitation to TVI
troubles and improper operation of the transmitter. A properly balanced antenna is the
best solution to multi-band operation. When
used in conjunction with an antenna tuning
unit, it will perform with top efficiency on all
of the major amateur bands.
Several types of center-fed antenna systems
are shown in figure 20. If the feed line is made
up in the conventional manner of no. 12 or no.
The Center-Fed
Multi-Band Antenna
HANDBOOK
Multi-band
Antennas
4 39
~-----------------134' ----------------~
If-- I
I'
SPREADER
SPREADER,~
;ANTENNA TUNER
OR
"'MATCHBOX
I Cf~:~AL
Rl
!TRANSMITTER
Figure 21
MUL Tl BAND ' ANTENNA USING FAN
DIPOLE TO LIMIT IMPEDANCE EXCUR
SIONS ON HARMONIC FREQUENCIES
Figure 22
FOLDED TOP DUAL-BAND ANTENNA
440
THE
R AD I 0
~-------------L--------------~
US0-80 METERS
L=-70'
V=>2'
Figure 23
HANDBOOK
Low
Frequency
441
Discone
Q4.0
"'~>
~-
z
1i
z
c(
3.5
3.0
2. 5
2.0
E.. 1.5
I
L= 18'
S= JON R= 18'
H= 15'7"
11.10, 6, 2 METERS
D:: 8'
L= 12
S = 6"
R= 12'
D= 6' L=9'6"
S=4" R;9'6 11
H=e3"
H= IO' 5"
Figure 24
DIMENSIONS OF LOW-FREQUENCY DISCONE ANTENNA FOR LOW FREQUENCY
CUTOFF AT 13.2 MC., 20.1 MC., AND
26 MC.
The Discone is a vertically polarized radiator, proclucing an omniclirectional pattern
similar to a ground plane. Operation on sev ..
era/ amateur bands with low SWR on the coaxial feed line is possible. Additional in
formation on LF Discone by W2RYI in July,
1950 CQ magazine.
t::1:
U U ~ M ~
FREQUENCY (Me)
['- ~
DIMENSIONS
D= 12'
Figure 25
1
20, 15,11,10,6 METERS
'<~
442
THE
R AD I 0
VOLTAGE CURVES
CENTER
----------r~--+~~AN~TE~NN~AW~IR~E--~--
FEEDER
Figure 27
Figure 26
MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION
METER DISCONE
OF
20.
22-8
Matching Non-Resonant
Lines to the Antenna
HANDBOOK
Matching
1+---------L ---------o{
MATCHING SECTION
NON-RESONANT
LINE
Figure 28
THE DELTA-MATCHED DIPOLE
ANTENNA
7 he dimensions for the portions of the an
tenna are given in the text.
Standing Waves
Systems
44 3
Lreet
467.4
F megacycles
175
Dreet
F megacycles
147.6
Ereet
F megacycles
Multi-Wire Doublets
444
THE
R AD I 0
DRIVEN ELEMENT
+
MOVEABLE CLAMP
r--
\_
GAMMA ROD
RESONATING CONDENSER
"TWIN-LEAD" FLAT-TOP OR
CONDUCTORS SPACED 1" TO 12"
3000HMS
ANY LENGTH
Figure 30
TME
) ) D"'"
ELEM"'
300-600
OHM FEEDERS
RESONATING--" ,j
CDNDE'5'RS
II'
t.j
300-600
OHM FEEDERS
Figure 29
FOLDED-ELEMI:NT MATCHING SYSTEMS
Drawing (A) above shows o half-wove made
up to two parallel wires. If one of the wires
is broken as in (B) oncl the feeder connected,
the feed-point impedance is multipl iecl by
four; such an antenna is commonly callecl a
11
folclecl doublet. 11 The feed-point impedance
for o simple hoff-wove doublet feel in this
manner is approximately 300 ohms, depending upon antenna height. Drawing (C) shows
how the feed-point impedance can be multipi iecl by o factor greater than four by making
the hoff of the element that is broken smaller
in diameter than the unbroken hoff. An extension of the principles of (B) and (C) is
the arrangement shown at (D) where the section into which the feeders ore connected is
considerably shorter than the driven element.
This system is most convenient when the
driven element is too long (such as for o
28-Mc. or 14-Mc. array) for o convenient
mechanical arrangement of the system shown
at (C).
A method of matching a balanced low-impedance transmission line to the driven element of a para
sitic array is the T match illustrated in figure
29D. This method is an adaptation of the
multi-wire doublet principle which is more
practicable for lower-frequency parasitic arrays such as those for use on the I4-Mc. and
28-Mc. bands. In the system a section of tubing of approximately one-half the diameter of
the driven element is spaced about four inches below the driven element by means of
clamps which hold the T-section mechanically
and which make electrical connection to the
driven element. The length of the T-section
is normally between I5 and 30 inches each
side of the center of the dipole for transmission lines of 300 to 600 ohms impedance, assuming 28-Mc. operation. In series with each
leg of the T-section and the transmission line
is a series resonating capacitor. These two
capacitors tune out the reactance of the T-
HANDBOOK
section. If they are not used, the T-section
will detune the dipole when the T-section is
attached to it. The two capacitors may be
ganged together, and once adjusted for minimum detuning action, they may be locked. A
suitable housing should be devised to protect
these capacitors from the weather. Additional
information on the adjustment of the T-match
is given in the chapter covering rotary beam
antennas.
An unbalanced version of
the T -match may be used
to feed a dipole from an unbalanced coaxial
line. Such a device is called a Gamma Match,
and is illustrated in figure 30.
The length of the Gamma rod and the spacing of it from the dipole determine the impedance level at the transmission line end of the
rod. The series capacitor is used to tune out
the reactance introduced into the system by
the Gamma rod. The adjustment of the Gamma
Match is discussed in the chapter covering
rotary beam antennas.
By connecting a resonant
section of transmission line
(called a matching stub) to either a voltage or
current loop and attaching parallel-wire nonresonant feeders to the resonant stub at a
suitable voltage (impedance) point, standing
waves on the line may be virtually eliminated.
The stub is made to serve as an auto-transformer. Stubs are particularly adapted to
matching an open line to certain directional
arrays, as will be described later.
Matching
r-o------t
Systems
ANTENNA----------J
SHORTING BAR
1 - - - - - - - - - j-ANTENNA--------i
t STUB
Matching Stubs
445
SHORTINC'; BAR
1 - - - - - - - - tANTENNA - - - - - - - - 1
~EEDER TAPS NEAR
END Of STUB
tsTUB
Voltage Feed
Current Feed
r---t----t
SHORTING BAR
Figure 31
MATCHING-STU"B APPLICATIONS
An end-fed half-wove antenna with a quarter
wave shorted stub is shown at (A). (B) shows
the use of a half-wave shorted stub to feed
a relatively low impedance point such as the
center of the driven element of a parasitic
array, or the center of a half-wave dipole.
The use of an open-ended quarter-wave stub
to feed a low impedance is illustrated at
(C). (D) shows the conventional use of a
shorted quarter-wave stub to voltage feed
446
THE
Stub Length
(Electrical)
!4-*-1 !4-etc.
wavelengths
l-2-1-1 l-2-2-etc.
wavelengths
Current-Fed
Radiator
Open
Stub
Shorted
Stub
Voltage-Fed
Radiator
Shorted
Stub
Open
Stub
R AD I 0
ZMs =
ZA ZL
where
ZMs =Impedance of matching section.
ZA = Antenna resistance.
ZL = Line impedance.
Quarter-Wave
Matching
Transformers
so
75
100
~Feed-Line
300
77
95
110
150
173
480
98
120
139
190
220
600
110
134
155
212
245
Impedance
Quarter
Wave
Transformer
Impedance
Johnson-Q
Feed System
HANDBOOK
Matching
- - - - - L FEET=~
----------1
Za=~
Zz
Center to
Center
Spacing
in Inches
1
1.25
1.5
1.75
2
Systems
Impedance
in Ohms
for Y:!"
Diameters
170
188
207
225
248
447
Impedance
in Ohms
11
for Y4
Diameters
250
277
298
318
335
SL
UNTUNED LINE
ANY LENGTH
Figure 32
HALF-WAVE RADIATOR FED
BY "Q BARS"
The Q matching section is simply a quarterwave transformer whose impedance is equal
value of impedance.
Transmission Line
Z1
Figure 33
COLLINS TRANSMISSION LINE MATCHING
SYSTEM
A wide-band system for matching a 52-ohm
coaxial I ine to a ba/ancec/ 300-ohm I ine over
a 4: I wicle frequency range.
448
r=~
Z;,
Where N is the number of sections. In the
above case,
r=~
zl
Impedance between sections, as Z 2 3 , is r
times the preceding section. Z 2 3 = r X Z, and
Z 3 4 = r X Z 2 3
Mid-frequency (m):
m=
+ F2
F,
2
7
+ 30
18.5 Me.
14 +54
34 Me.
2
and one-quarter wavelength= 5.5 feet.
The impedances of the sections are:
Z2
Z3
=V Z, ~< Z
=VZ Z
2 3
2 3 X
Z4 = V Z 3 4
3 4
Z5
Generally, tbe larger number of taper sections the greater will be the bandwidth of the
system.
22-9
THE
Antenna
Construction
R AD I 0
HANDBOOK
Antenna
449
Construction
"1 t,..
Figure 34
1XO
"1 l
TV
2.X4
Masts
Guy Wires
450
Supports
Painting
THE
R AD I 0
lnsulatlor
HANDBOOK
Antenna
22-10
Coupling
Systems
451
Figure 35
ANTENNA COUPLING SYSTEM
The harmonic suppressing antenna coupling system illustratecl above is lor use when the antenna transmission I ine has a low stanJing-wave ratio, anJ when the characteristic impeclance of
the antenna transmission line is the same as the nominal impeclonce ol the low-pass harmonic-
attenuating filter.
452
THE
R AD I 0
Figure 36
HANDBOOK
Pi-Network
Coupling
Systems
453
COAX. TO
RECEIVER
TO ANTENNA
FEEDUNE OR
TO ANTENNA
COUPLER
Figure 37
TUNED-LINK OUTPUT CIRCUIT
Capacitor C should be acljustecl so as to tune out the lncluctlve reactance of the coupling link,
L. Loading of the ompllfler then Is var/ecl by physically varying the coupling between the plate
tank of the final amp/ lfler ancl the antenna coup/ ing I Ink,
PI-Network
Coupling
Tuning of a pi-network
coupling circuit such as
illustrated in figure 38 is
accomplished in the following manner: First
remove the connection between the output of
the amplifier and the harmonic filter (load).
Tune C 2 to a capacitance which is large for
the band in use, adding suitable additional caTuning the
Pi-Section Coupler
COAX TO
RECEIVER
TO FEED LINE
OR ANTENNA
COUPLER
Figure 38
P~NETWORK
ANTENNA COUPLER
The design of,plnetwork output circuits is cliscussecl in Chapter Thirteen, The aclclitiona/ output
end shunting capacitors selected by switch S are for use on the fower frequency ronges. /ncluc
tor L may be selectee/ by a tap switch, it may be continuously variable, or plug-in Inductors
may be usee/.
454
THE
RA0 I 0
PARALLEL-WIRE
LINE TO ANTENNA
SINGLE-WIRE
HERTZ ANTENNA
OR FEEDER
ZEPP
FEEDERS
51 N!;L.E-WIRE
NTENNA OR
FEEDL.INE
COAX. LINE
TO ANTENNA
Figure 39
ended output stage down to the 50-ohm impedance of the usual harmonic filter and its subsequent load.
In a pi network of this type the harmonic
attenuation of the section will be adequate
when the correct value of C, and L are being
used and when the r e sonant dip in C 1 is
sharp. If the dip in C 1 is broad, or if the plate
current persists in being too high with C 2 at
maximum setting, it means that a greater value
22-11
Antenna Couplers
As stated in the previous section, an antenna coupler is not required when the impedance
of the antenna transmission line is the same
as the nominal impedance of the harmonic fil-
HANDBOOK
ter, assuming that the antenna feed line is being operated with a low standing-wave ratio.
However, there are many cases where it is desirable to feed a multi-band antenna from the
output of the harmonic filter, where a tuned
line is being used to feed the antenna, or
where a long wire without a separate feed line
is to be fed from the output of the harmonic
filter. In such cases an antenna coupler is required.
Some harmonic attenuation will be provided
by the antenna coupler, particularly if it is
well shielded. In certain cases when a pi network is being used at the output of the transmitter, the addition of a shielded antenna coupler will provide sufficient harmonic attenuation. But in all normal cases it will be necessary to include a harmonic filter between the
output of the transmitter and the antenna coupler. When an adequate harmonic filter is being used, it will not be necessary in normal
cases to shield the antenna coupler, except
from the standpoint of safety or convenience.
The function of the antenna
coupler is, basically, to
transform the impedance of
the antenna system being used to the correct
value of resistive impedance for the harmonic
filter, and hence for the transmitter. Thus the
antenna coupler may be used to resonate the
feeders or the radiating portion of the antenna
system, in addition to its function of impedance transformation.
It is important to remember that there is
nothing that can be done at the antenna coupler which will eliminate standing waves on
the antenna transmission line. Standing waves
are the result of reflection from the antenna,
and the coupler can do nothing about this condition. However, the antenna coupler can resonate the feed line (by introducing a conjugate
impedance) in addition to providing an impedance transformation. Thus, a resistive impedance of the correct value can be presented to
the harmonic filter, as in figure 36, regardless
of any reasonable value of standing-wave ratio
on the antenna transmission line.
Function of an
Antenna Coupler
Types of
Antenna Couplers
Antenna
Couplers
455
Figure 40
PI-NETWORK
ANTENNA COUPLER
An arrangement such as illustrated
above is convenient for feecling an
encl-fecl Hertz antenna, or a ranc/om
length of wire for portable or emer
gency operation, from the nominal
value of impedance of the harmonic
filter.
Several general methods for using the inductively-coupled resonant type of antenna coupler are illustrated in figure 39. The coupling
between the link coil L and the main tuned circuit need not be variable; in fact it is preferable that the correct link size and placement
be determined for the tank coil which will be
used for each band, and then that the link be
made a portion of the plug-in coil. Capacitor
C then can be adjusted to a pre-determined
value for each band such that it will resonate
with the link coil for that band. The reactance
of the link coil (and hence the reactance of the
capacitor setting which will resonate the coil)
should be about 3 or 4 times the impedance of
the transmission line between the aritenna coupler and the harmonic filter, so that the link
coupling circuit will have an operating Q of
3 or 4. The use of capacitor C to resonate with
the inductance of the link coil L will make it
easier to provide a low standing-wave ratio
to the output of the harmonic filter, simply by
adjustment of the antenna-coupler tank circuit
to resonance. If this capacitor is not included,
the system still will operate satisfactorily, but
the tank circuit will have to be detuned slightly from resonance so as to cancel the inductive reactance of the coupling link and thus
provide a resistive load to the output of the
harmonic filter. Variations in the loading of
the final amplifier should be made by the coupling adjustment at the final amplifier, not at
the antenna coupler.
The pi-network type of antenna coupler, as
shown in figure 40 is useful for certain applications, but is primarily useful in feeding a
single-wire antenna from a low-impedance
transmission line. In such an application the
operating Q of the pi network may be somewhat
lower than that of a pi network in the plate circuit of the final amplifier of a transmitter, as
shown in figure 38. An operating Q of 3 or 4
456
THE
RADIO
~INGLE
PARALLEL-WIRE TO
TO
4000 M, ANTENNA
RECEIVER
WIRE
ANTENNA
r------------
~2.1l
COAXIAL
~~~~
::jF===:=J
XMTR
""t:.....+I
I
I
115 V. TO RELAY
COIL
______ j
Figure 42
TO
TRANSMITTER THROUGH
HARMONIC FILTER
Figure 41
ALTERNATIVE COAXIAL ANTENNA
COUPLER
This circuit is recommenclecl not only as beIng most desirable when coaxial lines with
low s. w. r. are being userl to feerl antenna
systems such as rotatable beams, but when
It also Is cles/recl to feecl through open-wire
line to some sort of multi-bancl antenna for
the lower frequency ranges. The tunecl clr
cult of the antenna coupler is operative only
when using the open-wire feerl, ancl then It
Is In operation both for transmit anrl receive.
HANDBOOK
Single-wire
Antenna
52 n INPUT
FROM XMTR
Figure 43
Tuner
457
L1
L1- ;~5~!-'~~J<;*(~i:~D~~"j
TAP AT 15 T., 2.7 T.,
Cl-JOHNSON 35020
C2-CENTRALA8 TYPE 822
FROM POINT A
Figure 44
SCHEMATIC, SINGLE-WIRE
ANTENNA TUNER
Tuner
Adjustments
Figure 45
REAR VIEW OF
TUNER SHOWING
PLACEMENT OF
MAJOR COMPONENTS.
Rotary inductor is driven by Johnson 116-208-
Figure 46
CLOSE-UP OF SWR BRIDGE
Simple SWR briclge is mountecl
below the chassis of the tuner.
Carbon resistors are mounted to
two copper rings to form low
inductance
one-ohm
resistor.
Bridge capacitors lorm triangular
configuration
for lowest I eocl
lncluctance. Balancing capacitor
C2 is at lower right.
CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE
23-1
Directive Antennas
459
460
;--...~--.
THE
R AD I 0
~
DOUBLE HOP
.
r-f---
~"
~
~
~--
'll
SINGLE HOP
liJUI
30
50
100
300 500
~~
"" T<IJ
1000
3000
10000
Figure I
use a directive antenna than to increase transmitter power, if more than a few watts of power
is being used.
Directive antennas for the high-frequency
range have been designed and used commercially with gains as high as 23 db over a simple dipole radiator. Gains as high as 35 db are
common in direct-ray microwave communication
and radar systems. A gain of 23 db represents
a power gain of 200 times and a gain of 35 db
represents a power gain of almost 3500 times.
However, an antenna with a gain of only 15 to
20 db is so sharp in its radiation pattern that
it is usable to full advantage only for pointto-point work.
The increase in radiated power in the desired direction is obtained at the expense of
radiation in the undesired directions. Power
gains of 3 to 12 db seem to be most practicable for amateur communication, since the
width of a beam with this order of power gain
is wide enough to sweep a fairly large area.
Gains of 3 to 12 db represent effective trans
mitter power increases from 2 to 16 times.
There is a certain optimum
vertical angle of radiation
for sky-wave communicabeing dependent upon distance,
of day, etc. Energy radiated at
lower than this optimum angle
while radiation at angles much
Horizontal Pattern
vs. Vertical Angle
Figure 2
FREE-SPACE FIELD PATTERNS OF
LONG-WIRE ANTENNAS
The presence of the earth distorts the fielcl
pattern in such a manner that the azimuth
pattern becomes a function of the elevation
angle.
HANDBOOK
Long
Wire
Radiators
461
...
1/)
:X:
t;
z
12
IU
.J
~
z
a:
..
Figure 3
DIRECTIVE GAIN OF
LONG-WIRE ANTENNAS
lL_
10
:X:
t;
IU
.J
IU
/'
lL
1/
~
~
2
......
~""
........
0
12.3"'
10
There is an enormous variety of directive antenna arrays that can give a substantial power gain in the de sired direction of transmission or reception. However, some are more
effective than others requiring the same space.
In general it may be stated that long-wire antennas of various types, such as the single
long wire, the V beam, and the rhombic, are
less effective for a given space than arrays
composed of resonant elements, but the longwire arrays h ave the significant advantage
that they may be used over a relatively large
frequency range while resonant arrays are usable only over a quite narrow frequency band.
The horizontal radiation pattern of such antennas depends upon the vertical angle of radiation being considered. If the wire is more
than 4 wavelengths long, the maximum radiation at vertical angles of 15 to 20 (useful
for dx) is in line with the wire, being slightly
greater a few degrees either side of the wire
than directly off the ends. The directivity of
the main lobes of radiation is not particularly
sharp, and the minor lobes fill in between the
main lobes to permit working stations in nearly all directions, though the power radiated
broadside to the radiator will not be great if
the radiator is more than a few wavelengths
long. The directive gain of long-wire antennas,
in terms of the wire length in wavelengths is
given in figure 3.
23-2
Types of
Directive Arrays
462
THE
R AD I 0
4>.
4-k->-
FREQUENCY
1.>-
IN MC.
1t>-
2>.
2.9
2.8
33
34
50
52.
87
89
2.1.4
21.2
2.1.0
45
45 1/4
45 112
88
88 1/4
88 112
91 112
91 3/4
92.
14.2
14.0
87 112.
158 1/2
102.
2t>-
3>.
Jt>-
84
87
101
104
118
12.2
135
140
152.
157
teo 1/2.
11503/4
181
185 1/2.
185 3/4
209 1/2
115
138 f/2.
138 3,A.
137
186
209 3/4
2.10
1 14 1/2
114 3/4
103 1/2.
137
139
171
174
2.08
209
2.40
2.44
275
270
310
314
7.3
7.15
7.0
137
2.08
207
2.07 1/2
278
277
2.77 1/2.
348
347
348
418
417
418
488
487
468
555
557
558
825
82.7
828
4.0
3.6
3.6
3.5
240
2.52
268
2.74
362
381
403
414
485
511
540
555
818
840
678
890
730
770
812
835
853
900
950
877
971
1030
1090
1120
1100
1180
...
480
504
532
725
783
605
972.
1020
12.30
1280
1475
138
138 1/2
2.0
1.8
1080
One of the most practical methods of feeding a long-wire antenna is to bring one end of
it into the radio room for direct connection to
a tuned antenna circuit which is link-coupled
through a harmonic-attenuating filter to the
transmitter. The antenna can be tuned effec
tively to resonance for operation on any hat
monic by means of the tuned circuit which is
connected to the end of the antenna. A ground
is sometimes connected to the center of the
tuned coil.
If desired, the antenna can be opened and
current-fed at a point of maximum current bt
means of low-impedance ribbon line, or by a
quarter-wave matching section and open line.
23-3
1220
The V Antenna
14 0
.,
12.0
~100
..,
a:
~. 0
z
o/)
Figure 4
f\
',~
40
r--
2.0
..
--
to
12
HANDBOOK
The
463
Antenna
13
2
I
I&J
>
<
~
IL
.J
10
<
a:
J:
I&J
E "'
f;
Cl)
.J
I&J
Ill
Figure 5
2
I
0
0
2345871
10
11
12
Figure 6
DIRECTIVE GAIN OF A "V" BEAM
This curve shows the approximate directive
gain of a V beam with respect to a half-wave
antenna locotecl the some distance above
ground, In terms of the sicle length L.
L=>6 = oo
L=2>-
6 = 70
L=4>.
6 = ~2.
L =8>-
2.80'
271 1
6= 39.
2.8000
2.9000
34'8 11
89'8"
140'
33'6"'
67'3"
13~'
2.1100
2.1300
4!1'9"
45'4"
91'9'1
91'4 ..
183'
182.'
14050
141 so
142.50
69'
68'6"
68'2 1
139'
138'
137'
7020
I 38 1 2'
278 1
558 1
1120 1
7100
72.00
138'8"'
134'10"
2.75'
271
552.'
545'
1106'
f 090 I
279 1
277'
2.75'
306'
36!1 1
558'
555'
552'
464
THE
23-4
The Rhombic:
Antenna
...'',_,
RA0 I 0
2.0
''
'-'
S~'N a
1.4
'-'
The terminated rhombic or diamond is probably the most effective directional antenna
that is practical for amateur communication.
This antenna is non-resonant, with the result
that it can be used on three amateur bands,
such as 10, 20, and 40 meters. When the antenna is non-resonant, i.e., properly terminated, the system is undirectional, and the
wire dimensions are not critical.
When the free end is terminated
with a resistance of a value
between 700 and 800 ohms the
backwave is eliminated, the forward gain is
increased, and the antenna can be used on
several bands without changes. The terminating resistance should be capable of dissipating one-third the power output of the transmitter, and should have very little reactance.
For medium or low power transmitters, the
non-inductive plaque resistors will serve as
a satisfactory termination. Several manufacturers offer special resistors suitable for terminating a rhombic antenna. The terminating device should, for technical reasons, present a
small amount of inductive reactance at the
point of termination.
A compromise terminating device commonly
used consists of a terminated 250-foot or
longer length of line, made of resistance wire
which does not have too much resistance per
unit length. If the latter qualification is not
met, the reactance of the line will be excessive. A 250-foot line consisting of no. 25
nichrome wire, spaced 6 inches and terminated
with 800 ohms, will serve satisfactorily. Because of the at ten u at ion of the line, the
lumped resistance_ at the end of the line need
dissipate but a few watts even when high power is used. A half-dozen 5000-ohm 2-watt carbon resistors in parallel will serve for all except very high power. The attenuating line
may be folded back on itself to take up less
room.
The determination of the best value of terminating resistor may be made while receiving,
if the input impedance of the receiver is approximately 800 ohms. The value of resistor
which gives the best directivity on reception
will not give the most gain when transmitting,
but there will be little difference between the
two conditions.
The input resistance of the rhombic which
is reflected into the transmission line that
feeds it is always somewhat less than the
terminating resistance, and is around 700 to
750 ohms when the terminating resistor is 800
ohms.
Rhombic
Termination
::I:1.2
'-'
1.0
0.9
o.
0.,
o.
0.,
64
1!16
6&-
12J::TILTANGU:
.0.
"
24
23
22
"
~:!
~~
!\!111~~~~~~i~:~4_~~4-~T~
1
tz
te
ze
2.&"'
Figure 7
angle.
The antenna should be fed with a non-resonant line having a characteristic impedance
of 650 to 700 ohms. The four corners of the
rhombic should be at I east one-half wavelength above ground for the lowest frequency
of operation. For three-band operation the
proper tilt angle for the center band should
be observed.
The rhombic antenna transmits a horizontally-polarized wave at a relatively low angle
above the horizon. The an g I e of radiation
(wave angle) decreases as the height above
ground is increased in the same manner as
with a dipole antenna. The rhombic should
not be tilted in any plane. In other words, the
poles should all be of the same height and
the plane of the antenna should be parallel
with the ground.
HANDBOOK
The
Rhombic
Antenna
465
Figure 8
TYPICAL RHOMBIC
ANTENNA DESIGN
The antenna system illustratecl above may be usee/
over the frequency range from
7 to 29 Me. without change.
The directivity of the system
may be reversed by the sys
tem c/iscussec/ in the text.
TERMINATING LINE
OF 250' OF N 2.&
NICHROME SPACED 6"
AND &00-0HM 16 -WATT
CARBON RESISTOR AT
END. 8 2-WATT 100-0HM
RESISTORS IN SERIES
23-5
Stacked-Dipole
Arrays
f7
"''"
~"
r-
.J
I"""
Ci , ..
Figure 9
~ 13
I-'
~12
IL1 f
10
J:
a:
IU
>
Ill
:;;
z
'/
1--:::!-"
IL
1
,.
s e 1
a v to
tt
12 t3 14 1s te 11 11 tt zo
466
I-s ---1
...
...
L1
THE
RA0 I 0
Lz
L1
Lz
PLANE OF WIRES
END VIEW
Figure 11
~-.....----s=+
\
I
, _ ... /
IN PHASE
{LAZY H. STERBA CURTAIN)
Figure 10
RADIATION PATTERNS OF A PAIR OF
DIPOLES OPERATING WITH IN-PHASE
EXCITATION, AND WITH EXCITATION
180 OUT OF PHASE
If the clipoles are orientecl horizontally most
of the directivity will be In the vertical
plane; if they are orientecl vertically most
of the directivity will be in the horizontal
plane.
In-Phase
Spacing
Out of Phase
Spacing
HANDBOOK
Colinear
lo------nk---~ 1------
2.&.S
L1
L2.
8' eu
17'
2.1.2.
2.2.'8"
23'3"
11'8"
14. 2.
33'8"'
34 1 7 11
17' 3
7,
I~
67'
88'8''
12.0'
133'
34'4"
12a'
81
138'5"
88'2"
8N
Co linear
Arrays
1--Ne)---ool~-
800
467
_ __j
F(MC) - - - - - - - ,
nfff.fu
L3
16'8N
4.0
3.8
Arrays
+ ----- ~------~
A B
GAl N APPRO X. 3 DB
Figure 12
DOUBLE EXTENDED ZEPP ANTENNA
For best results, antenna sloou/c/ be tunec/ fa
op&ratlng fr&qu&ncy by m&ans of gric/-c/lp
oscillator.
TWO
GAIN APPRO X. 3 DB
Figure 13
Figure 14
PRE-CUT LINEAR ARRAY FOR 40-METER
OPERATION
468
THE
L1
R AD I 0
L1
Spaced Half
Wave Antennas
L2
L1
L3
QUARTER-WAVE STUB
L1
L2
23-6
Broadside Arrays
L1
L1
Stacked
Dipoles
Figure 15
HANDBOOK
L>
Broadside
Arrays
469
L3
tsTUB
GAl N APPRO X. 6 DB
GAIN APPROX. 8 DB
Figure 16
GAIN APPROX. 6 DB
The X-Array
L,
68'2"
65'10"
34'1"
33'8"
33'4"
22'9"
22'3"
17'7"
17'
16'6"
9'7"
9'3"
8'10"
39.8"
39"
38.4"
Lo
70'
67'6"
35'
34'7"
34'2"
23'3"
22'9"
17'10"
17'7"
17'
9'10"
9'5"
9'1"
40.5"
40"
39.5"
L.,
35'
33'9"
17'6"
17'3"
17'
11 '8"
11 '5"
8'11"
8'9"
8'6"
4'11"
4'8"
4'6"
20.3"
20"
19.8"
470
THE
R AD I 0
- - L -----.ofe-~ 0 -+~
1--r
i:::::=::::;::;:,;:=:::::J
DIMENSION L
10M.
ISM.
et
13'
2.0/IOM.
t7eu
DIMENSIONS
GAIN APPROX. I DB
s
p
0
SJ
70
Figure 17
THE X-ARRAY FOR 28 MC., 21 MC.,
OR 14 MC.
The entire array (with the exception of the
75-ohm feecl I ine) is constructed of 300-ohm
ribbon line. Be sure phasing lines (P) are
polecl correctly, as shown.
Figure 18
DOUBLE-BRUCE ARRAY FOR 10,
15, AND 20 METERS
If a 600-ohm feecl line Is usecl, the 20-meter
array will a/so perform on 10 meters as a
Sterba curtain, with an approximate gain of
9 clb.
THE
The "Bi-Square"
Broadside Array
HANDBOOK
Broadside
SL
...
8'7
EACH
INTS OF MAXIMUM
CURRENT
'
471
//
----
EFLECTOR
C=50JJJJF
TUNE FOR MINIMUM
'
Arrays
STUB=10*
..14 E.
SPACED 3"
GAl N APPRO X. 4 DB
Figure 20
472
DIMENSIONS
10M.
THE
l~t.A.
R AD I 0
D2
02
52ll.
COAXIAL LINE
20M,
Figure 21
THE "SIX-SHOOTER" BROADSIDE ARRAY
The "Six-Shooter"
Broadside Array
The "Bobtail"
Bidirectional
Broadside Curtain
Figure 22
"BOBTAIL"
BIDIRECTIONAL BROAD
SIDE CURTAIN FOR THE 7-MC. OR THE
4.0-MC. AMATEUR BANDS
This simple vertically .polarized array pro
vides low angle radiation and response with
comparatively low pole heights, and is very
effective far dx work on the 7-Mc. band or
the 4.0-Mc. phone bond. Because of the
phose relationships, radiation from the hori
zontol portion of the antenna is effectively
suppressed. Very little current flows in the
ground lead to the coupling tonk; so an elob
orate ground system is not required, and the
length of the ground lead. is not critical so
long as it uses heavy wife ancl is reason
ably short.
HANDBOOK
Normally the antenna tank will be located
in the same room as the transmitter, to facilitate adjustment when changing frequency. In
this case it is recommended that the link COU"
pled tank be located across the room from the
transmitter if much power is used, in order to
minimize rf feedback difficulties which might
occur as a result of the asymmetrical high im
pedance feed. If tuning of the antenna tank
from tbe transmitter position is desired, flexible shafting can be run from the antenna tank
condenser to a control knob at the transmitter.
The lower end of the driven element is quite
"hot" if much power is used, and the lead-in
insulator should be chosen with this in mind.
The ground connection need not have very low
resistance, as the current flowing in the
ground connection is comparatively small. A
stake or pipe driven a few feet in the ground
will suffice. However, the ground lead should
be of heavy wire and preferably the length
should 'not exceed about 10 feet at 7 Me. or
about 20 feet at 4 Me. in order to minimize
reactive effects due to its inductance. If it is
impossible to obtain this short a ground lead,
a piece of screen or metal sheet about four
feet square may be placed parallel to the earth
in a convenient location and used as an arti
ficial ground. A fairly high C/L ratio ordinari
ly will be required in the antenna tank in order
to obtain adequate coupling and loading.
23-7
End-Fire Directivity
By spacing two half-wave dipoles, or colinear arrays, at a distance of from 0.1 to 0.25
wavelength and driving the two 180 out of
phase, directivity is obtained through the two
wires at right angles to them. Hence, this type
of bidirectional array is called end fire. A better idea of end-fire directivity can be obtained
by referring to figure 10.
Remember that end fire refers to the radiation with respect to the two wires in the array
rather than with respect to the array as a
whole.
The vertical directivity of an end-fire bi
directional array which is oriented horizontal
ly can be increased by placing a similar end
fire array a half wave below it, and excited in
the same phase. Such an array is a combina
tion broadside and end- fire affair.
A very effective bidirectional
end-fire array is the Kraus or
8JK Flat-Top Beam. Essentially, this antenna consists of two close
spaced dipoles or colinear arrays. Because of
the close spacing, it is possible to obtain the
Beam
Endfire
Arrays
473
474
THE
CENTER FED
R AD I 0
TO CENTER
Or I'I.AT TOP
1-SECTION
lT
1-SECTION
=:dtJr,
liNG
!>.TuJ
2-SECTION
STU& OF FEEDERS
CONNECT AT F F
3-SECTION
4-SECTION
FIGURE 23
A ('hl
A ('h)
A ( 34)
FREQUENCY~
__
S _ _ _L_,_ _L__ _ _La
____X..
____M__
7.0-7.2Mc. "A/8
7.2~ "A/8
14.0-14.4
"A/8
14.0-14.4 .15">.
14.0-14.4 .20"A
14.0-14.4
"A/4
28.0-29.0 .15">.
28.0-29.0
"A/4
29.0-30.0 .15">.
29.0-30.0 V4
approx.
approx.
approx~
13'11'~~ 22'1o----=r2'~10'27'45'_3_'_
17'4' ~3"ii" 20'8' - - - 8'10" ~--8-'-25'43'--:v12'7" ~ ~ 1'6' __7_'_----r5'24'--1,~~~ 10'4' ---~ 1'6' __5_'_13'22'--2-,5'i)'"' ~ 14'6" 12'2'
9'8'- ----zr7' 1'6' __7_'_15' 23' --1-,----sr4" ~ 14'6" li)i(jT - - - ~ 1'6' --5-,- 1 3 ' """21' --2,5~ ~
Dimension chart for flat-top beam antennas. The meanings of the symbols are as follows:
L,, L, L, and L., the lengths o/ the sides of the flat-top sections as shown. L 1 is leniCth
of the sides of single-section center-fed, L, single-section end-fed and 2-section center-fed, L, 4-section
center-fed and end-sections of 4-section end-/ed,' and L, middle sections of 4-section end-fed.
S, the spacing between the flat-top wires.
M, the wire length from the outside to the center o/ each cross-o,er.
D, the spacing lengthwise between sections.
A (Y.), the approximate length for a quarter-wa"e stub.
A ('/2 ), the approximate length /or a hal/-wa"e stub.
A (%),the approximate length for a three-quarter wa"e stub.
X, the approximate distance abo"e the shorting wire o/ the stub /or the connection of a 600-ohm
line. This distance, as gi,en in the table, is approximately correct only /or 2-section flat-tops.
For single-section types it will be smaller and /or J. and 4-section types it will be larger.
The lengths gi,en /or a hal/-wa"e stub are applicable only to single-section center-fed flat-tops. To
be certain o/ sufficient stub length, it is ad,isable to make the stub a fool or so longer than shown in
the table, especially with the end-fed types. The lengths, A, are measured from the point where the
stub connects to the flat-top.
Both the center and end-fed types may be used hori~ontally. Howe,er, where a "ertical antenna is
desired, the flat-tops can be turned on end. In this case, the end-fed types may be more con,enient,
feeding from the lower end.
HANDBOOK
Triplex
Figure 24
THE TRIPLEX FLAT-TOP BEAM
ANTENNA FOR 10, IS AND 20
METERS
475
Beam
,'
/,lo-4...-''"----
MAXIMUM
RADIATION
MAX. RADIATION
4 .5 DB
4.& DB
DIMENSIONS
I
L
/
...
IOM.
ISM. 20M
MATERIAL
,~
2.1'5" 32.'2."
~.n:~u.~ub 3
5'0"
7&
II'
1a
10'7
14'4"
3000HM FUBBON
23-8
The Triplex
Beam
476
CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR
station. Even a much simpler and smaller threeor four-element parasitic array having a gain
of 7 to 10 db will produce a marked improvement in the received signal at the other station.
However, as all v-hf and u-h-f workers
know, the most important contribution of a
high-gain antenna array is in reception. If a
remote station cannot be heard it obviously is
impossible to make contact. The limiting factor in v-h-f and u-h-f reception i s in almost
every case the noise generated within the receiver itself. Atmospheric noise is almost nonexistent and ignition interference can almost
invariably be reduced to a satisfactory level
through the use of an effective noise limiter.
Even with a grounded-grid or neutralized triode
first stage in the receiver the noise contribution of the first tuned circuit in the receiver
will be relatively large. Hence it is desirable
to use an antenna system which will deliver
the greatest signal voltage to the first tuned
circuit for a given field strength at the receiving location.
Since the field intensity being produced at
the receiving location by a remote transmitting
station may be assumed to be constant, the receiving antenna which intercepts the greatest
amount of wave front, assuming that the polarization and directivity of the receiving antenna
is proper, will be the antenna which gives the
best received signal-to-noise ratio. An antenna
which has two square wavelengths effective
24-1
Antenna Requirements
477
478
V-H-F
and
U-H-F
THE
Antennas
RA0 I 0
HANDBOOK
Antenna
Radiator Crass
Sect ian
479
Polarization
TABLE OF WAVELENGTHS
frequency
in Me.
lh Wave
1f2 Wave
free
Space
An ..
tenna
Free
An
Space
tenna
50.0
50.5
51.0
51.5
52.0
52.5
53.0
54.0
59.1
58.5
57.9
57.4
56.8
56.3
55.7
54.7
55.5
55.0
54.4
53.9
53.4
52.8
52.4
s 1.4
118.1
116.9
115.9
114.7
113.5
112.5
111.5
109.5
1.11.0
109.9
108.8
107.8
106.7
105.7
104.7
102.8
144
145
146
147
148
20.5
20.4
20.2
20.0
19.9
19.2
19.1
18.9
18.8
18.6
41.0
40.8
40.4
40.0
39.9
38.5
38.3
38.0
37.6
37.2
235
236
237
238
239
240
12.6
12.5
12.5
12.4
12.4
12.3
11.8
11.8
11.7
11.7
11.6
11.6
25.2
25.1
25.0
24.9
24.8
24.6
23.6
23.5
23.5
23.4
23.3
23.2
14.1
13.9
13.8
13.25
13.1
12.95
420
425
430
7.05
6.95
6.88
6.63
6.55
6.48
24-2
480
V-H-F
and
U-H-F
R AD I 0
THE
Antennas
COAXIAL LINE
TO TRANSMITTER
TO XMTR
LOW Z
TRANSMtSSJON LINE
Figure 1
THREE
NONDIRECTIONAL,
HORIZONTALLY
POLARIZED
ANTENNAS
24-3
Simple Vertical-Polarized
Antennas
HANDBOOK
Vertically
Figure 2
THREE VERTICALLY-POLARIZED
LOW-ANGLE RADIATORS
Shown at (A) is the" sleeve" or" hypodermic" type of radiator. At (B) is shown the
ground-plane vertical, and (C) shows a modi
fication of this antenna system which increases the feed-point impedance to a value
such that the system may be feel directly
from a coaxial line with no standing waves
on the feed/ in e.
Polarized
Arrays
481
Double Skeleton
Cone Antenna
24-4
The Discone antenna is a vertically polarized omnidirectional radiator which has very
broad band characteristics and permits a simple, rugged structure. This antenna presents a
substantially uniform feed-point impedance,
suitable for direct connection of a coaxial
line, over a range of several octaves. Alsq,
the vertical pattern is suitable for ground-wave
4 82
V-H-F
and
U-H-F
THE
Antennas
T
1T
R AD I 0
-fALUMINUMTUBINIO
38"
TYP.
S=
T~r.~
2"X2"X18'
SEMI-LOOSE FIT,
ALUMINUM CROSS-
'
10'
:j
!
20'
Figure 3
GUYS
Figure 4
ating frequency. The antenna then will perform well over a frequency range of at least
8 to 1. At certain frequencies within this
range the vertical pattern will tend to "lift"
slightly, causing a slight reduction in gain at
zero angular elevation, but the reduction is
very slight.
Below the frequency at w hi c h the slant
height of the conical skirt is equal to a freespace quarter wavelength the standing-wave
ratio starts to climb, and below a frequency
approximately 20 per cent lower than this the
standing-wave ratio climbs very rapidly. This
is termed the cut off frequency of the antenna.
By making the slant height approximately equal
to a free-space quarter wavelength at the lowest frequency employed (refer to chart), a
HANDBOOK
Discone
500
0.7 D
400
ll
II
II
II
. 300
<)
::;
,;
u
z
200
18 0
II
::>
160
II
::
Jl
II
I!
D
a:
"'
14 0
'~
-""
"- 12 0
tn
11 0
'3
80
-"
100
:;.: 9 0
-"'
Figure SA
50
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.5
DIN FEET
DESIGN
Figure SB
CHART FOR THE "DISCONE"
ANTENNA
24-5
VSWR of less than 1. 5 will be obtained throughout the operating range of the antenna.
The Discone antenna may be considered
as a cross between an electromagnetic horn
and an inverted ground plane unipole antenna.
It looks to the feed line like a properly terminated high-pass filter.
l'\,
I'
483
Antenna
Helical Beam
Antennas
Most v-h-f and u-h-f antennas are either vertically polarized or horizontally polarized
(plane polarization). However, circularly po
larized antennas have interesting characteristics which may be useful for certain applica
tions. The installation of such an antenna can
effectively solve the problem of horizontal vs.
vertical polarization.
A circularly polarized wave has its energy
divided equally between a vertically polarized
component and a horizontally polarized com
ponent, the two being 90 degrees out of phase.
The circularly polarized wave may be either
"left handed" or "right handed," depending
upon whether the vertically polarized component leads or lags the horizontal component.
A circularly polarized antenna will respond
to any plane polarized wave whether horizontally polarized, vertically polarized, or diagonally polarized. Also, a circular polarized
wave can be received on a plane polarized antenna, regardless of the polarization of the
latter. When using circular! y polarized antennas at both ends of the circuit, however, both
alternative arrangement, one suitable for certain mobile applications, is to fasten the base
handed. This offers some interesting possibilities with regard to reduction of QRM. At
484
V-H-F
and
U-H-F
GROUND SCREEN
RECEIVE
L-----------t
T
D
D=t
s=-t-
G=o.o>.
L= 1.44
R AD I 0
TRANSMIT
..--ROUND OR SQUARE
THE
Antennas
Figure 6
THE "HELICAL BEAM" ANTENNA
This type of clirectional antenna system
gives excellent perlormance over a frequency
range of 1. 7 to 1.8 to 1. Its climensions are
such that it orclinarily is not practicable,
however, for use as a rotatable array on fre
quencies below about 100 Me. The center
concluctor of the fee cl I in e shoulcl pass
through the grouncl screen for connection to
the feecl point. The outer concluctor of the
coaxial line shoulcl be grounclecl to the
ground screen.
the time of writing, there has been no standardization of the "twist" for general amateur
work.
Perhaps the simplest antenna configuration
for a directional beam antenna having circular
polarization is the helical beam popularized
by Dr. John Kraus, WBJK. The antenna consists simply of a helix working against a
ground plane and fed with coaxial line. In the
u-h-f and the upper v-h-f range the physical
dimensions are sufficiently small to permit
construction of a rotatable structure without
much difficulty.
When the dimensions are optimized, the
characteristics of the helical beam antenna
are such as to qualify it as a broad band antenna. An optimized helical beam shows little
variation in the pattern of the main lobe and
a fairly uniform feed point impedance averaging approximately 125 ohms over a frequency
range of as much as 1. 7 to 1. The direction of
"electrical twist" (right or left handed) de
pends upon the direction in which the helix is
wound.
A six-turn helical beam is shown schemati
cally in figure 6. The dimensions shown will
give good performance over a frequency range
of plus or minus 20 per cent of the design frequency. This means that the dimensions are
not especially critical when the array is to be
Brood-Bond
144 to 225 Me.
Helical Beam
Helical
HANDBOOK
D ............................ 22
S ......................... 16~
G.......................... 53
Tubing o.d ................. 1
Beam
Antenna
485
in.
in.
in.
in.
DRIVEN DIPOLE
SUPPORT IN~
MEMBER
High-Band
TV Coverage
24-6
The Corner-Reflector
and Horn-Type Antennas
The corner-reflector antenna is a good directional radiator for the v-h-f and u-h-f region.
The antenna may be used with the radiating
element vertical, in which case the directivity
is in the horizontal or azimuth plane, or the
system may be used with the driven element
Figure 7
horizontal in which case the radiation is horizontally polarized and most of the directivity
is in the vertical plane. With the antenna used
as a horizontally polarized radiating system
the array is a very good low-angle beam array
although the nose of the horizontal pattern is
still quite sharp. When the radiator is oriented
vertically the corner reflector operates very
satisfactorily as a direction-finding antenna.
Design data for the corner-reflector antenna
is given in figure 7 and in the chart CornerReflector Design Data. The planes which make
up the reflecting corner may be made of solid
sheets of copper or aluminum for the u-h-f
bands, although spaced wires with the ends
soldered together at top and bottom may be
used as the reflector on the lower frequencies.
Freq.
Band, Me.
90
60
60
60
60
144
220
420
so
so
R
110"
110"
38"
24.5"
13"
82"
11S"
40"
2S"
14"
140"
140"
48"
30"
18"
A
200"
230"
100"
72"
36"
Feed
lmped.
Approx.
Gain, db
10
12
12
12
12
230"'
230"
100"
72"
18"
18"
3"
72
70
70
70
J6"
screen
70
S"
V-H-F
486
and
U-H-F
THE
Antennas
~D
R AD I 0
~"'" ~-~O'~,
l
J
jO
ANGLE BETWEEN
SIDES OF HORN=&O"
0
450-QHM LINE
>..
400
420
2X
390
line.
Figure 9
Figure 8
TWO TYPES OF HORN ANTENNAS
The "two siclecJ horn" of Figure 88 may be
feel by means of an open-wire transmission
24-7
VHF Horizontal
Rhombic Antenna
HANDBOOK
VHF
Rhombic
TOP VIEW
75 0
70 0
...J
"z
<(
650
'J
f-
60 0
::;
::>
::;
550
f-
a..
0
50 0
487
.,
.,
=TILT ANGLE
10>.
SIDE LENGTH, 5
~-----------L------------~
Figure 10
V-H-F RHOMBIC ANTENNA DESIGN
CHART
The optimum tilt angle (see figure II} for
"zero-angle" radiation Jepencls upon the
length of the sicles,
Figure 11
V-HF RHOMBIC ANTENNA
CONSTRUCTION
The Termination
6 METERS
2 METERS, HIGH
AND LOW BAND BAND TV, AND
TV
1 V4 METERS
(side)
(length)
(Width)
90'
32'
166' 10"
59' 4"
67' 4"
23' 11"
TABLE I.
488
V-H-F
and
U-H-F
Antennas
sistors in series. If 2-watt resistors are employed, this termination also is suitable for
transmitter outputs of 10 watts or less. For
higher powers, however, resistors having greater dissipation with negligible reactance in the
upper v-h-f range are not readily available.
For powers up to several hundred watts a
suitable termination consists of a "lossy"
line consisting of stainless steel wire (cottesponding to no. 24 or 26 B&S gauge) spaced 2
inches, which in turn is terminated by two
390-ohm 2-watt carbon resistors. The dissipative line should be at least 6 wavelengths
long.
THE
R AD I 0
022" D-A=o
A-23f A-R-o
R= 25"
~~fts-t"
R- REFLECTOR
40"L0NG
FLATTEN ENOS OF
TUBING AND DRILL
FOR 6/32 SCREWS
24-8
Multi-Element V-H-F
Beam Antennas
The rotary multi-element beam is undoubtedly the most popular type of v-h-f antenna in
use. In general, the design, assembly and tuning of these antennas follows a pattern similar
to the larger types of rotary beam antennas
used on the lower frequency amateur bands.
The characteristics of these low frequency
beam antennas are discussed in the next chapter of this Handbook, and the information contained in that chapter applies in general to the
v-h-f beam antennas discussed herewith.
The simplest v-h-f beam for
the beginner is the three-element Y agi array illustrated in
figure 12. Dimensions are
given for Yagis cur for the 2-meter and 1 ~
meter bands. The supporting boom for the Yagi
may be made from a smoothed piece of 1" x 2
wood. The wood should be reasonably dry and
should be painted to prevent warpage from exposure to sun and rain. The director and reflector are cut from lengths of ~ 11 copper tubing, obtainable from any appliance store that
does service work on refrigerators. They should
be cut to length as noted in figure 12. The elements should then be given a coat of aluminum
paint. Two small holes are drilled at the center
of the reflector and director and these elements
are bolted to the wood boom by means of two
1 11 wood screws. These screws should be of
the plated, or rust-proof variety.
The driven element is made of a 78" length
of ~ 11 copper tubing, the ends bent back upon
each other to form a folded dipole. If the tubing is packed with fine sand and the bending
points heated over a torch, no trouble will be
had in the bending process. If the tubing does
collapse when it is bent, the break may be repaired with a heavy-duty soldering iron. The
A Simple Three
Element Beam
Antenna
75 HM
TV LINE
Figure 12
SIMPLE 3-ELEMENT BEAM FOR 2 AND
1\4 METERS
VHF
HANDBOOK
Parasitic
Arrays
489
r'""
I
~~~:
MAIN BOOMS-
ELEMENTS-
Fl LE END TO FIT
eon BOOM
60"
AS SHOWN, ANTENNA IS
HORIZONTALLY POLARIZED .
.....___
PULL TO SWJ NG MAIN BOOM 90
FOR VERTICAL POLARITY.
CONTROL CORDS
RG-8/U CABLE
TO RIG.
Figure 13
CONSTRUCTIONAL
DRAWING
OF
AN
EIGHT-ELEMENT
TIPPABLE
144-MC.
ARRAY
490
V-H-F
and
U-H-F
Antennas
THE
R AD I 0
Figure 14
THE EIGHT-ELEMENT 144-MC. ARRAY IN A HORIZONTAL POSITION
HANDBOOK
The ends of the folded dipoles are made in
the following manner: Drive a length of dowel
into the short connecting lengths of aluminum
tubing. Then drill down the center of the dowel
with a clearance hole for the connecting screw.
Then shape the ends of the connecting pieces
to fit the sides of the element ends. After assembly the junctions may be dressed with a
file and sandpaper until a smooth fit is obtained.
The mas~ used for supporting the array is a
30-foot spliced 2 by 2. A large discarded ball
bearing is used as the radial load bearing and
guy-wire termination. Enough of the upper-mast
corners were removed with a draw-knife to permit sliding the ball bearing down about 9 feet
from the top of the mast. The bearing then was
encircled by an assembly of three pieces of
dural ribbon to form a clamp, with ears for
tightening screws and attachment of the guy
wires. The bearing then was greased and covered with a piece of auto inner tube to serve
as protection from the weather. Another junkbox bearing was used at the bottom of the mast
as a thrust bearing.
The main boom s were made from %-inch
aluminum electrical conduit. Any size of small
tubing will serve for making the elements.
Note that the main boom is mounted at the balance center and not necessarily at the physical center. The pivot bolt in the offset head
should be tightened sufficiently that there will
be adequate friction to hold the array in position. Then an additional nut should be placed
on the pivot bolt as a lock.
In connecting the phasing sections between
the T-junction and the centers of the folded
dipoles, it is important that the center conductors of the phasing sections be connected
to the same side of the driven elements of the
antennas. In other words, when the antenna is
oriented for horizontal polarization and the
center of the coaxial phasing section goes to
the left side of the top antenna, the center
conductor of the other coaxial phasing section
should go to the left side of the bottom antenna.
This highly effective rotary array for the 144 Me.
amateur band was designed by the staff of the Experimental Physics Laboratory, The Hague, Netherlands for
use at the 2 meter experimental station PE1PL.
The array consists of 10 half wave radiators
fed in phase, and arranged in two stacked rows
of five radiators. 0.2 wavelength behind this
plane of radiators is a reflector screen, measThe "Screen Beam"
for 2 Meters
uring approximately 15' x 9' in size. The antenna provides a power gain of 15 db, and a
front to back ratio of approximately 28 db.
VHF
Parasitic
Arrays
4 91
1 9"
r3r~"
i6
POLYTHENE
~:t"--j
t'3fj
lJ
.--<:'2 DIA.
I
=-DIPOLE
CORNER
BRACES
CROSS
WIRES
!"
DIA.
Figure 15
492
V-H-F
and
U-H-F
THE
Antennas
R AD I 0
WOOD BLOCK
~RADIATOR
==
Figure 16
THE MOUNTING BLOCK FOR EACH SET
OF ELEMENTS
Figure 18
HORIZONTAL RADIATION PATTERN OF
THE PE1PL ARRAY. THE FRONT-TO
BACK RATIO IS ABOUT 28 db IN AMPLITUDE, AND THE FORWARD GAIN AP
PROXIMATELY 15 db.
C1 &. C2=so.u1JF
APPROX,
"
Figure 17
THE MATCHING UNIT IN DETAIL FOR
THE PE1PL BEAM DESIGN, WHICH AL
LOWS THE USE OF 72-0HM COAX
HANDBOOK
VHF
Parasitic
493
Arrays
D11
ELEMENT DIMENSIONS
REFLECTOR
Of RECTORS
SPACING
FROM
144MC.
145MC-
41"
404
401&
4016
36-t"
3"
36.
36~
36
:t''
t!-"
2 METER BAND
LENGTH
ELEMENT
(OIAM, 1/8 ... )
DIAM.
GAIN= 16.1 DB
146MC.
3"
7"
147 MC,
01 POLE
3"
19"
01
= 7"
0.2= 14.5
DRIVEN ELEMENT
I
1t
Ls
03= 22"
04=- 38"
36.5"
.A~CLEARANCE
BOOM
!="OR SOL T
:uA
~NSULAT!NG
PLATE
HOLE
-I
/I
Ds= 70"
De=
102 ...
07= 134
-LArreN
De= tee,..
TUBING
AT ENOS.
09=t96"
010=230"
011=242"
Figure 19
CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE
Rotary Beams
The rotatable antenna array has become almost standard equipment for operation on the
28-Mc. and 50-Mc. bands and is commonly used
on the 14-Mc. and 21-Mc. bands and on those
frequencies above 144 Me. The rotatable array
offers many advantages for both military and
amateur use. The directivity of the antenna
types commonly employed, particularly the
unidirectional arrays, offers a worthwhile reduction in interference from undesired directions. Also, the increase in the ratio of lowangle radiation plus the theoretical gain of
such arrays results in a relatively large increase in both the transmitted signal and the
signal intensity from a station being received.
A significant advantage of a rotatable antenna array in the case of the normal station is
that a relatively small amount of space is required for erection of the antenna system. In
fact, one of the best types of installation uses
a single telephone pole with the rotating structure holding the antenna mounted atop the pole.
To obtain results in all azimuth directions
from fixed arrays comparable to the gain and
directivity of a single rotatable three-element
parasitic beam would require several acres of
surface.
There are two normal configurations of radiating elements which, when ~o~izontally polarized will contribute to obtammg a low angle
of r~diation. These configurations are the endfire array and the broadside array. The con-
4 94
25-1
Unidirectional
Parasitic End-Fire Arrays
(Yogi Type)
25-2
Parasitic
;/
4
Cii
e.
1/
~n.-- t-r-----....
-;?
IYA~ ~
..............
'
3
<( 2
"
0,1
~95
Arrays
0.1.5
0.2.
0.2..5
[.7
17
!.----"_.......
~v
0.1
0.1.5
0.2
o.z
ELEMENT SPACING(>.)
Figure 1
Figure 2
4 96
Rotary
R AD I 0
THE
Beams
476
= --
40
.0.
1'--. ........
"~ 'P
~ ~-"_j),.
c?~R
0.1
0.1~
0.2
O.Z!J
ELEMENT SPACING(:>-)
(PARASITIC ELEMENT TUNED FOR MAXIMUM GAIN)
Fi{lure 3
FMc.
450
= --
FMc.
Me.
Figure 4
25-3
HANDBOOK
0.2 wavelength between elements becomes
possible. Four-element arrays are quite common on the 28-Mc. and 50-Mc. bands, and five
elements are sometimes used for increased
gain and discrimination. As the number of elements is increased the gain and front-to-hack
ratio increases but the radiation resistance decreases and the bandwidth or frequency range
over which the antenna will operate without
reduction in effectiveness is decreased.
Material for
Elements
Parasitic
Arrays
4 97
4 98
TYPE
Rotary
LENGTH
3-ELEMENT
473
F(MC)
501
F lMC)
3-ELEMENT
-nee)
F(MC)
4-ELEMENT
5-ELEMENT
J.U_
F(MC)
F(MC)
THE
Beams
LENGTH
LENGTH
445
.f" (MC)
--
--
~
F (MC)
F(MC)
F(MC)
F(MC)
F(MC)
F(MC)
F(MC)
WEEN ELEMENTS
R AD I 0
.1!>-.1!>
7.5
20
--
.2!>-.25
8.5
35
--
.2-.2-.2
~
F(MC)
...
10.0
20
15
FigureS
DESIGN CHART FOR PARASITIC ARRAYS (DIMENSIONS GIVEN IN FEET)
Stocking of
Yagi Arrays
25-4
HANDBOOK
Stacked
Vagi
Arrays
4 99
!--o.2 >--+-o.n----j
FEEDER LINE
DIRECTIONAL
DIRECTIONAL
GAIN ABOUT 12 DB
WITH 2 SECTIONS
FEEDER LINE
1~
GAIN ABOUT
DB
WITH 3 SECTIONS
GAl N ABOUT 17 DB
Figure 6
STACKED YAGI ARRAYS
It Is possible to attain a relatively large amount of gain over a limited bandwidth with stacked
yogi arrays, The two-sect/on array at (A) will give a gain of about 12 db, while adding a third
section will bring the gain up to about 15 db. Adding two additional parasitic directors to each
section, as at (C) will bring the goin up ta about 17 db.
Me. and 14-Mc. bands since it is only necessary to suspend a wire below the driven element proper. The wire may be spaced below
the self-supporting element by means of several
500
Rotary
THE
Beams
R AD I 0
FOR D1=1"
D2=.zs~=16
S= ,.
FOR 0= 1"
#12;1~E3 u ~= 11
YOKE MATCH
FOR 0~ 1
s = 2" B..Eu.c__=14
#12.WIRE
FOR 0= 1"
S= 1.5~=18
#12 WIRE
FORD= 1
S= '.
#I WIRE
RRAD.
R~~D~
=24
FORD= 1 11
#12
~7R~- ~ =32
Figure 7
DATA FOR
FOLDED-ELEMENT
MATCHING SYSTEMS
RFEED= 9
RRAD.
HANDBOOK
Matching
Systems
501
~----------------L----------------~
DELTA MATCH
"T* MATCH
Figure 8
AVERAGE DIMENSIONS
FOR THE DELTA AND
"T" MATCH
D1=3Dz
Transformation ratio
z
z.
= ( 1 +~ )
502
Rotary
Beams
THE
R AD I 0
Figure 9
ALTERNATE FEED
METHODS WHERE THE
DRIVEN i:LEMENT MAY
BE BROKEN IN THE
CENTER
@ROTARY LINK
COUPLING
COIL SPACED
APPROX. 0.~"
COILS 10
DIAMETER
The
HANDBOOK
Gamma
Match
"'FLAT LINE
SWR=1.o
503
RESONANT
SECTION
~
ANY ANTEN
TO TRANSMITTER
.SIMPLE OR CO PLEX
MATCHING STUB
Figure II
Figure 10
If an open-wire line is
used to fe~d a low impedance radiator, a section of the transmission
line may be employed as a matching stub as
shown in figure 11. The matching stub can
transform any complex impedance to the characteristic impedance of the transmission line.
While it is possible to obtain a perfect match
and good performance with either an open stub
or a shorted one by observing appropriate dimensions, a shorted stub is much more readily
adjusted. Therefore, the following discussion
will be confined to the pro b 1 em of using a
closed stub to match a low impedance load to
a high impedance traqsmission line.
If the transmission line is so elevated that
adjustment of a "fundamental" shorted stub
cannot be accomplished easily from the ground,
then the stub length may be increased by exactly one or two electrical half wavelengths,
without appreciably affecting its operation.
While the correct position of the shorting
bar and the point of attachment of the stub to
the line can be determined entirely by experimental methods, the fact that the two adjustments are interdependent or interlocking makes
such a cut-and-try procedure a tedious one.
Much time can be saved by determining the approximate adjustments required by reference to
a chart such as figure 12 and using them as a
starter. Usually only a slight "touching up"
will produce a perfect match and flat line.
The Matching Stub
504
Rotary
THE
Beams
ne
1138
7/311
1/311
5131
""
c.
'-
'-
ao::J
w
w
aoo
.)/J'I"
so;:
.........
DIRECTIONAL
70~
"
! ....
90
R AD I 0
1-
~"i)O...
-"Nc~,.~
40~
,.,.,r;;;::;.
'1'-1(
,......,,
>O.J
.J
tow~Ro to'}o
2131
20~
a:
GAIN ABOUT 6 DB
FEED LINE
I 01-
..
0 .J
8 9 10 W
SWR
Figure 12
FEED LINE
25-5
Figure 13
Unidirectional
Driven Arrays
HANDBOOK
linear system which will give approximately
the same gain as the system of figure 13A, but
which requires less boom length and greater
total element length. Figure 13C illustrates
the familiar lazy-H with driven reflectors (or
directors, depending upon the point of view)
in a combination which will show wide bandwidth with a considerable amount of forward
gain and good front-to-hack ratio over the entire frequency coverage.
Three p r act i c a b 1 e
types of unidirectional
stacked broadside arrays are shown in figure 14. The first type,
shown at figure 14A, is the simple "lazy H"
type of antenna with parasitic reflectors for
each element. (B) shows a simpler antenna array with a pair of folded dipoles spaced onehalf wave vertically, operating with reflectors.
In figure 14C is shown a more complex array
with six half waves and six reflectors which
will give a very worthwhile amount of gain.
In all three of the antenna arrays shown the
spacing between the driven elements and the
reflectors has been shown as one-quarter wavelength. This has been done to eliminate the
requirement for tuning of the reflector, as a
result of the fact that a half-wave element
spaced exactly one-quarter wave from a driven
element will make a unidirectional array when
both elements are the same length. Using this
procedure will give a gain of 3 db with the reflectors over the gain without the reflectors,
with only a moderate decrease in the radiation
resistance of the driven element. Actually,
the radiation resistance of a half-wave dipole
goes down from 73 ohms to 60 ohms when an
identical half-wave element is placed onequarter wave behind it.
A very slight increase in gain for the entire
array (about 1 db) ma.r be obtained at the expense of lowered radiation resistance, the necessity for tuning the reflectors, and decreased
bandwidth by placing the reflectors 0.15 wavelength behind the driven elements and making
them somewhat longer than the driven elements.
The radiation resistance of each element will
drop approximately to one-half the value obtained with untunedhalf-wave reflectors spaced
one-quarter wave behind the driven elements.
Antenna arrays of the type shown in figure
14 require the use of some sort of lattice work
for the supporting structure since the arrays
occupy appreciable distance in space in all
three planes.
Unidirectional Stacked
Broadside Arrays
Feed Methods
Driven
Arrays
505
25-6
Bi-Directional
Rotatable Arrays
506
Rotary
THE
Beams
R AD I 0
STUB
BROADSIDE HALF-WAVES
WITH REFLECTORS
GAIN APPROX. 7 DB
Figure 14
BROADSIDE ARRAYS
WITH PARASITIC
REFLECTORS
25-7
Construction of
Rotatable Arrays
Bi-directional
HANDBOOK
507
Arrays
STUB
Figure 15
OF ELEMENTS
:>
..
Radiating
Elements
5 08
Rotary
LINE OF
Beams
/- -
THE
-<--?"ncr-~
~~N~S~~~~~~~
R AD I 0
LINE OF
ELEMENT
RADIATOR
HOSE CLAMP
12'CENTERSECTION
"-SLIT CENTER SECTION TUBE
3 AT EACH END.
OXEN-YOKE CLAMP
LADDER
ADJUSTABLE
Tl P
TYPICAL ELEMENT
Figure 16
~ELEMENT
"PLUMBER~
- - _ 2 X 4 BOLTED TO LADDER BY
2 PIECES OF ANGLE IRON STOCK
Figure 17
(A) OXEN-YOKE CLAMP IS DESIGNED FOR
"Plumber's
Delight"
It is characteristic of
the conventional type of
multi-element parasitic
array such as discussed previously and ourlined that the centers of all the elements are at
zero r-f potential with respect to ground. It is
therefore possible to use a metallic structure
without insulators for supporting the various
elements of the array. A typical three element
array of this type is shown in figure 16. In this
particular array, U-bolts and metal plates have
been employed to fasten the elements to the
boom. The elements are made of telescoping
sectwns of aluminum tubing. The tips of the
inner sections of tubing are split, and a tubing
clamp is slipped over the joint, as shown in
the drawing. Before assembly of the joint, the
mating pieces of aluminum are given a thin
coat of Penetrox-A compound. (This antioxidizing paste is manufactured by Burndy Co.,
Norwalk, Conn. and is distributed by the
General Electric Supply Co.) When the tubes
are relesaoped and the clamp is tightened, an
air-tight seal is produced, reducing corrosion
to a minimum.
The boom of the parasitic array may be made
from two or three sections of steel TV mast,
or it may be made of a single section of aluminum irrigation pipe. This pipe is made by
Reynolds Aluminum Co., and others, and may
often be purchased via the Sears, Roebuck Co.
mail-order department. Three inch pipe may be
Construction
HANDBOOK
driven onto a wooden dowel, as shown in
figure 178. The element may then be mounted
upon an aluminum support plate by means of
four ceramic insulators. Metal based insulators,
such as the Johnson 135-67 are recommended,
since the all-ceramic types may break at the
mounting holes when the array is subjected
to heavy winds.
25-8
Although satisfactory results may be obtained by pre-cutting the antenna array to the
dimensions given earlier in this chapter, the
occasion might arise when it is desired to
make a check on the operation of the antenna
before calling the job complete.
The process of tuning an array may fairly
satisfactorily be divided into two more or less
distinct steps: the actual tuning of the array
for best frontto-back ratio or for maximum for
ward gain, and the project of obtaining the
best possible impedance match between the
antenna transmission line and the feed point
of the array.
The actual tuning of the array
for best front-toback ratio or
maximum forward gain may best
be accomplished with the aid of a low-power
transmitter feeding a dipole antenna (polarized
the same as the array being tuned) at least
four or five wavelengths away from the antenna being tuned and located at the same elevation as that of the antenna under test. A calibrated field-strength meter of the remote-indicating type is then coupled to the feed point
of the antenna array being tuned. The transmissions from the portable transmitter should
be made as short as possible and the call sign
of the station making the test should be transmitted at least every ten minutes.
It is, of course, possible to tune an array
with the receiver connected to it and with a
station a mile or two away making transmis
sions on your request. But this method is more
cumbersome and is not likely to give complete
satisfaction. It is also possible to carry out
the tuning process with the transmitter connected to the array and with the field-strength
meter connected to the remote dipole antenna.
In this event the indicating instrument of the
remote-indicating field-strength meter shouid
be visible from the position where the elements
are being tuned. However, when the array is
being tuned with the transmitter connected to
it there is always the problem of making con
Tuning the
Array Proper
Tuning
the
509
Array
DRIVEN
ELEMENT~
+-MOVEABLE
SHORTING
BAR
~RID
DIP "ETER
Figure 18
OF
ANTENNASCOPE
AND
METER
GRID-DIP
IMPORTANT NOTE
BE SURE THAT THE PI PES FIT
WITHOUT BINDING AS THERE
IS SOME VARIATION INDIAMETERS OF TH SIZES USED.
:::0
0
1>1
l~~
MAST UP TO
FULL HEIGHT
'<
lXI
7-8FT.
TWO 3/8" OR 1/2" MACHINE
SCREWS ABOUT 1.12'"' LONG
THROUGH BEARING PIECE
AND TAPPED INT01'"' PIPE.
7T08FT.
r,
II
,.1_
II
I'D
1>1
"'
/'~~~~J~:!~~~~~:~JJ~1".ti:~GE.
~~~::;:=~
OAAWI
II
111PtPE LOWERS TO
II INSTALL ANTENNA OR
II ADJUST
II
II
IL
~~- .... ~
....
:::t:
HANDBOOK
Tuning
cess of tuning the array is made a substantially separate process as just described. After
the tuning operation is complete, the resonant
frequency of the driven element of the antenna
should be checked, directly at the center of
the driven element if practicable, with a griddip meter. It is important that the resonant frequency of the antenna be at the center of the
frequency band to be covered. If the resonant
frequency is found to be much different from
the desired frequency, the length of the driven
element of the array should be altered until
this condition exists. A relatively small change
in the length of the driven element will have
only a second order effect on the tuning of the
parasitic elements of the array. Hence, a moderate change in the length of the driven element may be made without repeating the tuning
process for the parasitic elements.
When the resonant frequency of the antenna
system is correct, the antenna transmission
line, with impedance-matching device or network between the line and antenna feed point,
is then attached to the array and coupled to a
low-power exciter unit or transmitter. Then,
preferably, a standing-wave meter is connected
in series with the antenna transmission line
at a point relatively much more close to the
transmitter than to the antenna. However, for
best indication there should be 10 to 15 feet
of line between the transmitter and the standing-wave meter. If a standing-wave meter is
not available the standing-wave ratio may be
checked approximately by means of a neon
lamp or a short fluorescent tube if twin transmission line is being used, or it may be checked with a thermomilliammeter and a loop, a
neon lamp, or an r-f ammeter and a pair of
clips spaced a fixed distance for clipping onto
one wire of a two-wire open line.
If the standing-wave ratio is below 1. 5 to 1
the
Array
511
Figure 19
the end of the 1'14inc:h pipe, It is relatively easy to waterproof thi:s assembly through the roof
since the 1 ~-inch pipe is stationary at all times. Be sure to use pipe compound on all the joints
ancl then really tighten these joints with a pair of pipe wrenches.
512
Rotary
Beams
THE
RA0 I 0
Raising and
Lowering
the Array
Figure 20
HANDBOOK
Antenna
Control
513
Systems
ANTENNA ROTATOR
CONTROL BOX
---------,
,.--_;S:.:;:O,;:;CK"iET
I
I
SOCKET
PLUG
!~..--~-------,
I
I
I
&-CONTACT JONES PLUGS & SOCKETS
I
ROTARY BEAM CONTROL
SYNCHRO.
L __ - - _:E~R~O~j
r---
I
I
I
I
I
ro 115 v.A.c.
~~~~--+-~
TOGGLE
SWITCH
SOCKET
SOCKET
PLUG
L--
I
-
_j
Figure 21
ating pos1t10n as possible. However, on a particular installation the positions of the current
minimums on the transmission line near the
transmitter may be checked with the array in
the air, and then the array may be lowered to
ascertain whether or not the positions of these
points have moved. If they have not, and in
most cases if the feeder line is strung out back
and forth well above ground as the antenna is
lowered they will not change, the positions of
the last few toward the antenna itself may be
determined. Then the calculation of the matching quarter-wave section may be made, the section installed, the standing-wave ratio again
checked, and the antenna re-installed in its
final location.
25-9
514
Rotary
Beams
25-10
Indication of Direction
25-11
"Three-Band" Beams
traps exert a minimum influence upon the element and it resonates at a frequency determined
by the electrical length of the configuration,
plus a slight degree of loading contributed by
the traps. At some higher frequency (generally
about 1.5 times the lowest operating frequency)
the outer set of traps are in a parallel resonant
condition, placing a high impedance between
the element and the tips beyond the traps.
Thus, the element resonates at a frequency
1.5 times higher than that determined by the
overall length of the element. As the frequency
of operation is raised to approximately 2.0
times the lowest operating frequency, the inner
set of traps become resonant, effectively disconnecting a larger portion of the element from
the driven section. The length of the center
section is resonant at the highest frequency
of operation. The center section, plus the two
adjacent inner sections are resonant at the
intermediate frequency of operation, and the
complete element is resonant at the lowest
frequency of operation.
The efficiency of such a system is determined by the accuracy of tuning of both the
element sections and the isolating traps. In
addition the combined dielectric losses of the
traps affect the overall antenna efficiency.
As with all multi-purpose devices, some compromise between operating convenience and
efficiency must be made with antennas designed
to operate over more than one narrow band of
frequencies. It is a tribute to the designers of
the better multi -band beams that they perform
as well as they do, taking into account the
theoretical difficulties that must be overcome.
,/\ISOLATIN~ TRAPS~
~~
Ll
l~RESiNANT_.f
FEEDPOINTI
~j ~J
AT HI(;HES;FREQUENCY
RESONANT
AT
INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY
RESONANT
AT LOWEST FREQUENCY
Figure 22
CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX
Mobile Equipment
Design and Installation
26-1
Mobile Reception
515
516
Mobile
Equipment
THE
R AD I 0
sary, and it is recommended that a noise clipper be installed without confirming the necessity therefor. It has been found that quiet reception sometimes may be obtained on 75 meters simply by the use of resistor type plugs,
but after a few thousand miles these plugs
often become less effective and no longer do
a fully adequate job. Also, a noise clipper insures against ignition noise from passing
trucks and "un-suppressed" cars. On 10 meters a noise clipper is a "must" in any case.
There are certain things that
should be done to the auto set
when it is to be used with a
converter, and they might as well be done all
at the same time, because "dropping" an auto
receiver and getting into the chassis to work
on it takes quite a little time.
First, however, check the circuit of the auto
receiver to see whether it is one of the few
receivers which employ circuits which complicate connection of a noise clipper or a converter. If the receiver is yet to be purchased,
it is well to investigate these points ahead of
time.
If the receiver uses a negative B resistor
strip for bias (as evidenced by the cathode of
the audio output stage being grounded), then
the additional plate current drain of the converter will upset the bias voltages on the various stages and probably cause trouble. Because the converter is not on all the time, it
is not practical simply to alter the resistance
of the bias strip, and major modification of the
receiver probably will be required.
The best type of receiver for attachment of
a converter and noise clipper uses an r-f stage;
permeability tuning; single unit construction
(except possibly for the speaker); push button
tuning rather than a tuning motor; a high vacuum rectifier such as a 6X4 (rather than an OZ4
or a synchronous rectifier); a 6SQ7 (or miniature or Loctal equivalent) with grounded cathode as second detector, first audio, and a.v.c.;
power supply negative grounded directly (no
common bias strip); a PM speaker (to minimize
battery drain); and an internal r-f gain control
(indicating plenty of built-in reserve gain
which may be called upon if necessary). Many
current model auto radios have all of the foregoing features, and numerous models have most
of them, something to keep in mind if the set
is yet to be purchased.
Modifying the
Auto Receiver
Noise Limiters
Figure I
SERIES-GATE NOISE LIMITER FOR AUTO
RECEIVER
Auto receivers using a 6SQ7, 786, 7X7, or
6AT6 as seconcl c/etector one/ a.v.c, eon be
convertecl to the above circuit with but few
wiring changes. The circuit has the aclvantage of not requiring an aclclitional tube socket for the limiter cliocle.
HANDBOOK
shown. Multi-position tone controls tied in
with the second detector circuit often permit
excessive "leak through." Hence it is recommended that the tone control components be
completely removed unless they are confined
to the grid of the a-f output stage. If removed,
the highs can be attenuated any desired amount
by connecting a mica capacitor from plate to
screen on the output stage. Ordinarily from
.005 to .01 p.fd. will provide a good compromise between fidelity and reduction of background hiss on weak signals.
Usually the switch SW will have to be
mounted some distance from the noise limiter
components. If the leads to the switch are over
approximately 1\1 inches long, a piece of
shield braid should be slipped over them and
grounded. The same applies to the "hot" leads
to the volume control if not already shielded.
Closing the switch disables the limiter. This
may be desirable for reducing distortion on
broadcast reception or when checking the intensity of ignition noise to determine the effectiveness of suppression measures taken on
the car. The switch also permits one to check
the effectiveness of the noise clipper.
The 22,000-ohm decoupling resistor at the
bottom end of the i-f transformer secondary is
not critical, and if some other value already
is incorporated inside the shield can it may be
left a 1 one so long as it is not over 47,000
ohms, a common value. Higher values must be
replaced with a lower value even if it requires
a can opener, because anything over 47,000
ohms will result in excessive loss in gain.
There is some loss in a-f gain inherent in this
type of limiter anyhow (slightly over 6 db),
and it is important to minimize any additional
loss.
It is important that the total amount of capacitance in the RC decoupling (r-f) filter not
exceed about 100 p.p.fd. With a value much
greater than this "pulse stretching" will occur
and the effectiveness of the noise clipper will
be reduced. Excessive capacitance will reduce
the amplitude and increase the duration of the
ignition pulses before they reach the clipper.
The reduction in pulse amplitude accomplishes
no good since the pulses are fed to the clipper
anyhow, but the greater duration of the length
ened pulses increases the audibility and the
blanking interval associated with each pulse.
If a shielded wire to an external clipper is employed, the r-f by-pass on the "low" side of
the RC filter may be eliminated since the capacitance of a few feet of shielded wire will
accomplish the same result as the by-pass
capacitor.
The switch SW is connected in such a man
Mobile
Receivers
517
518
Mobile
Equipment
THE
(OPTIONAL)
eyovc
B+ TO
CONVERTER
B+ TO REST
OF SET.
REGULAR
""'-'-R-CFILTER
~O.UF
B+ 200 TO 250 V.
TO XMTR.
r------------,
10HY.
I
6 V. VIA CONTROL
RELAY IN XMTR.
s+~POWERI
...1. ~:tF.rfN~ ~PEEcH
1 REtE~e~R_L v
I
I
18
"' -
.UF
er
STAGES
I
I
-=
_j
Figure 2
RA0 I 0
Receiver Disabling
on Transmit
HANDBOOK
Mobile
Figure 3
METHOD OF ELIMINATING THE BATTERY
DRAIN OF THE RECEIVER VIBRATOR
PACK DURING TRANSMISSION
If the reeelver ehassis has room for a mlcl
get s.p. c/. t. ref ay, the abave arrangement not
only s//enees the reeelver on transmit but
saves several amperes battery c/rain.
Receiver
Installation
519
520
Mobile
converter end or the set end of the cable between the converter and receiver. This auxiliary trimmer should have a range of about 3
to 50 p.p.fd., and may be of the inexpensive
compression mica type.
With the trimmer cut out and the converter
turned off (by-passed by the "in-out" switch),
peak the regular antenna trimmer on the auto
set at about 1400 kc. Then turn on the convert
er, with the receiver tuned to 1500 kc., switch
in the auxiliary trimmer, and peak this trimmer
for maximum background noise. The auxiliary
trimmer then can be left switched in at all
times except when receiving very weak broadcast band signals.
Some auto sets, particularly certain General
Motors custom receivers, employ a high-Q highimpedance input circuit which is very critical
as to antenna capacitance. Unless the shunt
capacitance of the antenna (including cable)
approximates that of the antenna installation
for which the set was designed, the antenna
trimmer on the auto set cannot be made to hit
resonance with the converter cut out. This is
particularly true when a long antenna cable is
used to reach a whip mounted at the rear of the
car. Usually the condition can be corrected by
unsoldering the internal connection to the antenna terminal connector on the auto set and
inserting in series a 100-p.p.fd. mica capacitor.
Alternatively an adjustable trimmer covering
at least 50 to 150 p.p.fd. may be substituted for
the 100-p.p.fd. fixed capacitor. Then the adjust
ment of this trimmer and that of the regular antenna trimmer can be juggled back and forth
until a condition is achieved where the input
circuit of the auto set is resonant with the converter either in or out of the circuit. This will
provide maximum gain and image rejection
under all conditions of use.
When the receiving installation is used frequently, and
particularly when the receiver is u s e d w i t h t h e car
parked, it is desirable to keep the battery
drain of the receiver-converter installation at
an absolute minimum. A substantial reduction
in drain can be made in many receivers, without appreciably affecting their performance.
The saving of course depends upon the design of the particular receiver and upon how
much trouble and expense one is willing to go
to. Some receivers normally draw (without the
converter connected) as much as 10 amperes.
In many cases this can be cut to about 5 amperes by incorporating all practicable modifications. Each of the following modifications
is applicable to many auto receivers.
If the receiver uses a speaker with a field
coil, replace the speaker with an equivalent
P\1 type.
Reducing Battery
Drain of the
Receiver
THE
Equipment
R AD I 0
HANDBOOK
auto-set combination has not proven very satisfactory. The primary reason for this is the fact
that the relatively sharp i-f channel of the auto
set imposes too severe a limitation on the stability of the high-frequency oscillator in the
converter. And if a crystal-controlled beating
oscillator is used in the converter, only a portion of the band may be covered by tuning the
auto set.
The most satisfactory arrangement has been
found to consist of a separately mounted i.f.,
audio, and power supply system, with the converter mounted near the steering column. The
i-f system should have a bandwidth of 30 to
100 kc. and may have a center frequency of
10.7 Me. if standard i-f transformers are to be
used. The control head may include the 144Mc. r-f, mixer, and oscillator sections, and
some times the first i-f stage. Alternatively,
the control head may include only the h-f oscillator, with a broadband r-f unit included
within the main receiver assembly along with
the i.f. and audio system. Commercially manufactured kits and complete units using this
general lineup are available.
An alternative arrangement is to build a
converter, 10. 7-Mc. i-f channel, and second
detector unit, and then to operate this unit in
conjunction with the auto-set power supply,
audio system, and speaker. Such a system
makes economical use of space and power
drain, and can be switched to provide normal
broadcast-band auto reception or reception
through a converter for the h-f amateur bands.
A recent development has been the VHF
transceiver, typified by the Gonset Communicator. Such a unit combines a crystal controlled transmitter and a tunable VHF receiver
together with a common audio system and
power supply. The complete VHF station may
be packaged in a single cabinet. Various
forms of VHF transceivers are shown in the
construction chapters of this Handbook.
26-2
One-Tube
Converter
Mobile Transmitters
As in the case of transmitters for fixed-station operation, there are many schools of
thought as to the type of transmitter which is
most suitable for mobile operation. One school
states that the mobile transmitter should have
very low power drain, so that no modification
of the electrical system of the automobile will
be required, and so that the equipment may be
521
522
Mobile
Equipment
THE
R AD I 0
10-i FT
l
Figure 6
WHIP RADIATOR FOR 10
METERS
If a whip antenna is made slightly longer
than one-quarter wave it acts as a slightly
better radiator than the usual quarterwave
whip, and it can provide a better match to
the antenna transmission line If tht> react
ance Is tuned out by a series capacitor close
to the base of the antenna. Capacitor C 1 may
be a 100-J.LJ.Lfd. midget variable.
5/16-WAVE
Figure 5
A CENTER LOADED 80-METER WHIP
USING AIR WOUND COIL MAY BE USED
WITH HIGH POWERED TRANSMITTERS
An anti-corona loop is placed at the top
of the whip to reduce loss of power and
burning of tip of antenna. Number of turns
in coil is critical and adjustable, high-Q
coil is refommended. Whip may be used
over frequency range of about 15 kilocycles without retuning.
26-3
Antennas for
Mobile Work
10-Meter Mobile
Antennas
HANDBOOK
A more effective radiator and a better line
rna tch rna y be obtained by making the whip
approximately 10 )i feet long and feeding it
with 75-ohm coax (such as RG-11/U) via a
series capacitor, as shown in figure 6. The
relay and series capacitor are mounted inside
the trunk, as close to the antenna feedthrough
or base-mount insulator as possible. The 10 )ifoot length applies to the overall length from
the tip of the whip to the point where the lead
in passes through the car body. The leads inside the car (connecting the coaxial cable,
relay, series capacitor and antenna lead)
should be as short as possible. The outer conductor of both coaxial cables should be grounded to the car body at the relay end with short,
heavy conductors.
A 100-11p.fd. midget variable capacitor is
suitable for C 1 The optimum setting should
be determined experimentally at the center of
the band. This setting then will be satisfactory over the whole band.
One suitable coupling arrangement for either
a Y.\-wave or 5/16-wave whip on 10 meters is
to use a conventional tank circuit, inductively
coupled to a "variable link" coupling loop
which feeds the coaxial line. Alternatively, a
pi-network output circuit may be used. If the
input impedance of the line is very low and
the tank circuit has a low C/L ratio, it may
be necessary to resonate the coupling loop
with series capacitance in order to obtain sufficient coupling. This condition often is encountered with a Y.\-wave whip when the line
length approximates an electrical half wavelength.
If an all-band center-loaded mobile antenna
is used, the loading coil at the center of the
antenna may be shorted out for operation of
the antenna on the 10-meter band. The usual
type of center-loaded mobile antenna will be
between 9 and 11 feet long, including the center-loading inductance which is shorted out.
Hence such an antenna may be shortened to
an electrical quarter-wave for the 10-meter
band by using a series capacitor as just discussed. Alternatively, if a pi-network is used
in the plate circuit of the output stage of the
mobile transmitter, any reactance presented
at the antenna terminals of the transmitter by
the antenna may be tuned out with the pi-network.
The great majority of mobile
operation on the 14-Mc. band
and below is with center
loaded whip antennas. These
antennas use an insulated bumper or body
mount, with provision for coaxial feed from
the base of the antenna to the transmitter, as
shown in figure 7.
The center-loaded whip antenna must be
The All-Band
Center-Loaded
Mobile Antenna
Mobile
Antennas
523
CAR BODY
UNSHIELDED
LOADING COIL
RG-58/U LINE
TO TRANSMITTER
-----COAXIAL LINE
GROUNDED TO
FRAME OF CAR
ADJACENT TO BASE
OF ANTENNA
Figure 7
THE
CENTER-LOADED
WHIP ANTENNA
The center-loaclecl whip antenna, when provic/eel with a tapped loacllng coil or a series
of coils, may be usee/ over a wicle frequency
range. The loacling coil may be shortecl for
use of the antenna on the 10-meter bane/.
tuned to obtain optimum operation on the desired frequency of operation. These antennas
will operate at maximum efficiency over a
range of perhaps 20 kc. on the 75-meter band,
covering a somewhat wider range on the 40meter band, and covering the whole 20-me ter
phone band. The procedure for tuning the antennas is discussed in the instruction sheet
which is furnished with them, but basically
the procedure is as follows:
The antenna is installed, fully assembled,
with a coaxial lead of RG-58/U from the base
of the antenna to the place where the transmitter is installed. The rear deck of the car
should be closed, and the car should be parked
in a location as clear as possible of trees,
buildings, and overhead power lines. Objects
within 15 or 20 feet of the antenna can exert
a considerable detuning effect on the antenna
system due to its relatively high operating Q.
The end of the coaxial cable which will plug
into the transmitter is terminated in a link of
3 or 4 turns of wire. This link is then coupled
to a grid-dip meter -and the resonant frequency
of the antenna determined by noting the frequency at which the grid current fluctuates.
The coils furnished with the antennas normally are too large for the usual operating frequency, since it is much easier to remove
turns than to add them. Turns then are removed,
one at a time, until the antenna resonates at
the desired frequency. If too many turns have
been removed, a length of wire may be spliced
524
Mobile
THE
Equipment
TO
ANT.
Figure 8
26-4
R AD I 0
Construction and
Installation of Mobile
Equipment
It is recommended that the following measures be taken when constructing mobile equipment, either transmitting or receiving, to ensure trouble-free operation over long periods:
Use only a stiff, heavy chassis unless the
chassis is quite small.
Use lock washers or lock nuts when mounting components by means of screws.
Use stranded hook-up wire except where r-f
considerations make it inadvisable (such as
for instance the plate tank circuit leads in a
v-h-f amplifier). Lace and tie leads wherever
necessary to keep them from vibrating or flopping around.
Unless provided with gear drive, tuning capacitors in the large sizes will require a rotor
lock.
Filamentary (quick heating) tubes should
be mounted only in a vertical position.
The larger size carbon resistors and mica
capacitors should not be supported from tube
socket pins, particularly from miniature sockets. Use tie points and keep the resistor and
capacitor "pigtails" short.
Generally speaking, rubber shock mounts
are unnecessary or even undesirable with passenger car installations, or at least with full
size passenger cars. The springing is sufficien d y "soft" t h at well constructed radio
equipment can be bolted directly to the vehicle
without damage from shock or vibration. Unless shock mounting is properly engineered
as to the stiffness and placement of the shock
mounts, mechanical-resonance "amplification"
effects may actually cause the equipment to
be shaken more than if the equipment were
bolted directly to the vehicle.
Surplus military equipment provided with
shock or vibration mounts was intended for
use in aircraft, jeeps, tanks, gun-firing Naval
craft, small boats, and similar vehicles and
craft subject to severe shock and vibration.
Also, the shock mounting of such equipment
is very carefully engineered in order to avoid
harmful resonances.
To facilitate servicing of mobile equipment,
all interconnecting cables between units
should be provided with separable connectors
on at least one end.
Control Circuits
are
and
the
and
HANDBOOK
Do not attempt to control too many relays,
particularly heavy duty relays with large coils,
by means of an ordinary push-to-talk switch
on a microphone. These contacts are not designed for heavy work, and the inductive kick
will cause more sparking than the contacts on
the microphone switch are designed to handle.
It is better to actuate a single relay with the
push-to-talk switch and then control all other
relays, including the heavy duty contactor for
the dynamotor or vibrator pack, with this relay.
The procedure of operating only one relay
direcdy by the push-to-talk switch, with all
other relays being controlled by this control
relay, will eliminate the often-encountered difficulty where the shutting down of one item of
equipment will close relays in other items as
a result of the coils of relays being placed in
series with each other and with heater circuits.
A recommended general control circuit, where
one side of the main control relay is connected
to the hot 6-volt circuit, but all other relays
have one side connected to ground, is illustrated in figure 9. An additional advantage
of such a circuit is that only one control wire
need be run to the coil of each additional relay, the other side of the relay coils being
grounded.
The heavy-duty 6-volt solenoid-type contactor relays such as provided on the PE-103A
and used for automobile starter relays usually
draw from 1.5 to 2 amperes. While somewhat
more expensive, heavy-duty 6-volt relays of
conventional design, capable of breaking 30
amperes at 6 v o 1 t s d. c., are available with
coils drawing less than 0.5 ampere.
When purchasing relays keep in mind that
the current rating of the contacts is not a fixed
value, but depends upon (I) the voltage, (2)
whether it is a.c. or d.c., and (3) whether the
circuit is purely resistive or is inductive. If
in doubt, refer to the manufacturer's recommendations. Also keep in mind that a dynamotor presents almost a dead short until the armature starts turning, and the starting relay
should be rated at considerably more than the
normal dynamotor current.
Microphones
and Circuits
Control
PUSH-TO-TALK
SWITCH ON MIKE
Circuits
525
PUSH-TO-TALK
RELAY
~~,
g~. } ~
ALTERNATE
CONTROL
SWITCH
MAIN POWER
RELAY
RECEIVER
MUTING
RELAY
ANTENNA
CHANGEOVER
RELAY
ANY
OTHER
RELAYS
Figure 9
button carbon microphone provided with pushto-talk switch are shown in figure 10. Practically all hand-held military-type single-button
526
Mobile
~
~
Equipment
,------:
/ f_fu
~:~G
THE
OF MIKE
PLUG
SHELL
(GROUND)
PRESS-TO-TALK
SWITCH
Figure 10
PE-l03A Dyna
R AD I 0
HANDBOOK
Noise
550
PE-103A
<(
1-
_j
500
>
6 V. INPUT
~
........
1-
::>
Q_
1-
::>
450
400
100
1--
150
~r-...
200
""
250
Suppression
527
300
26-5
Figure 11
Vehicular Noise
Suppression
Ignition Noise
528
Mobile
THE
Equipment
R AD I 0
Body Static
Noise
HANDBOOK
There are several other potential noise sources on a passenger vehicle, but they do not necessarily
give trouble and therefore require attention
only in some cases.
The heat, oil pressure, and gas gauges can
cause a rasping or scraping noise. The gas
gauge is the most likely offender. It will cause
trouble only when the car is rocked or is in
motion. The gauge units and panel indicators
should both be by-passed with the 0.1-fLfd.
paper and 0.00 1-fLfd. mica or ceramic combination previously described.
At high car speeds under certain atmospheric
conditions corona static may be encountered
unless means are taken to prevent it. The receiving-type auto whips which employ a plastic ball tip are so provided in order to minimize
this type of noise, which is simply a discharge
of the frictional static built up on the car. A
whip which ends in a relatively sharp metal
point makes an ideal discharge point for the
static charge, and will cause corona trouble
at a much lower voltage than if the tip were
hooded with insulation. A piece of Vinylite
sleeving slipped over the top portion of the
whip and wrapped tightly with heavy thread
will prevent this type of static discharge under practically all conditions. An alternative
arrangement is to wrap the top portion of the
whip with S catch brand electrical tape.
Generally speaking it is undesirable from
the standpoint of engine performance to use
both spark-plug suppressors and a distributor
suppressor. Unless the distributor rotor clearance is excessive, noise caused by sparking
of the distributor rotor will not be so bad but
what it can be handled satisfactorily by a
noise limiter. If not, it is preferable to shield
the hot lead between ignition coil and distributor rather than use a distributor suppressor.
Miscellaneous
Suppression
529
Locating
Noise Sources
CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN
FIGURE 1
COMPONENT NOMENCLATURE
CAPACITORS:
RESISTORS
EXAMPLE:
250
.01
EXAMPLE:
.001
INDUCTORS:
c;->p~
MtCROHENRI ES = JJH
MILLIHENRIES= MH
HENRIES= H
EXAMPLE!
10
20
'if."S
25
SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS
OR
CONDUCTORS JOiNED
CONDUCTORS CROSSING
BUT NOT JOINED
530
...l.-r-
CHASSIS GROUND
531
times such a comparison is surprising.
When the builder has finished the wiring of
a receiver it is suggested that he check his
wiring and connections carefully for possible
errors before any voltages are applied to the
BROWN-INSULATED
SLACK- NON-INSULATED
BLACK
0
1
2
BROWN
RED
ORANGE
YELLOW
GREEN
BLUE
VIOLET
1!\J!?Jfij
.l. .~.~~OLERANCE
MULTIPLIER
GRAY
WHITE
SECOND RING
END COLOR
THIRD RING
DOT COLOR
SECOND FIGURE
0
MULTIPLIER
NONE
1
2
0
00
4
5
6
4
5
6
,ooo
o.ooo
7
6
7
6
00,000
000,000
0,000,000
00,000,000
000,000,000
3-DOT
.5-DOT
Gt"'";!;;
MUL TIPLlER
TOLERANCE
TEMPERATURE
COEFFICIENT
CAPACITY
~~~.d..---tB\1\ ~mm
TEMP.
COEFF.
1111
It-TOLERANCE
LMuLTIPLIER
ANCE
MULTIPLIER
'--TC MULTIPLIER
RADIAL LEAD
(BAND)
RESISTOR
MULTIPLIER
TEMP. COEFf.l
rrCAPACITY
~~~!
2ND
FIGURE
TOLERANCE
1ST FIGURE
MULTIPLIEJ LTOLERANCE
WHITE (RMA)
BLACK(JAN)
:tH:~n """"'~~
MULTIPLIER
CLASS
JAN &
1948RMA
CODE
SIG. FIGURE
0
IST
MULTIPLIER
~o"~LERANCE
MULTIPLIER
1ST
~RK.VOLr.
EAR
TOLERANCE
NO SIG. FIG.
~ULT1PL1ER
WOR
VOLT.
SIGNIFICANT FIG.
RMA 6-DOT
(oesOLErE)
RONT
(oesocErE)
~MULrlPLIER
TOLERANCE
""""'
RMA 3-DOT
~'}
NO
0
(oesocErEJ
S1G FIGURE
CLASS~
TOLERANCE
MULTIPLIER
3RD 0\(.IT
RMA 4-DOT
RANCE
WORKING VOLTA<;E
(OBSOLErE)
~"'''''''
ULTIPLIER
OLERANCE
BLANK
1ST DIGIT
2.ND DIGIT
ULTI PLI ER
0
1 ST} S!G. FIGURE
COMMERCIAL CODE
ORKING VOLTS
BLA~K~!!II:;;.
BODY
-MULTIPLIER
2ND}
IST S\G.VOLTAGE FIG.
A 2-DIGIT VOLTAGE RATING INDICATES MORE THAN
900 V. ADD 2 ZEROS TO END OF 2 DIGIT NUMBER.
2ND} SIGNIFICANT
1ST
Fl<;URE
Figure 2
follows: Gold=S%, silver= 10%. Absence of the fourth band indicates a 20% tolerance rating.
Tolerance rating of capacitors is determined by the color code. for example: Red=2% green=So/o etc.
The voltage rating of capacitors is obtained by multiplying the color value by IClO. for exa;.,ple:
Orange=3 X 100, or 300 volts.
532
THE RADIO
PRIMARY LEADS - - - - - - B L A C K
IF TAPPED:
COMMON - - - - - - B L A C K
TAP
BLACK/YELLOW
END
BLACK/ REO
CENTER-TAP - - - - - R 0 / YELLOW
WINDIN~
N 1 - - - t ; R E E N
CENTER-TAP-----GREEN/YELLOW
FILAMENT WINDING N 2 ---BROWN
Figure 4
CENTER-TAP-----BROWN/YELLOW
FILAMENT WINDING N 3 - - - S L A T E
CENTER-TAP
SLATE /YELLOW
1-F TRANSFORMERS
providing
many
hours
ol
PLATE LEAD-------BLUE
B+ LEAD
battery,
RED
AUDIO TRANSFORMERS
B+ LEAD ( PRI.)
REO
GREEN OR YELLOW
BLACK
LS
l5K
o.s
sr sus
Figure 5
HANDBOOK
of building and operating their own receiving
and transmitting equipment.
The Transceiver
27-1
Circuitry and
Components
Figure 6
INTERIOR VIEW
OF TRANSISTOR
RECEIVER
The speaker and output
transformer are mounted
Circuitry
533
27-2
A Simple
Transistorized Portable
B-C Receiver
Illustrated in figures 4, 5, and 6 is an easy
to construct two transistor portable broadcast
receiver that is an excellent circuit for the
beginner to build. The receiver covers the
range of 500 kc. to 1500 kc. and needs no
external antenna when used close to a high
power broadcasting station. An external antenna may be added for more distant reception.
The receiver is powered from a single 9-volt
miniature transistor battery and delivers good
speaker volume, yet draws a minimum of current permitting good battery life.
Circuit
Description
534
THE RADIO
winding is placed on coil L1 to achieve an impedance match to the low base impedance of
the transistor. Emitter bias is used on this
stage, and the amplified signal is capacitycoupled from the collector circuit to a 1N34
diode rectifier. The rectifier audio signal is
recovered across the 2K diode load resistor,
which takes the form of the audio volume
control of the receiver. The diode operates in
an untuned circuit, the selectivity of the receiver being determined by the tuned circuit
in the r-f amplifier stage.
The audio signal taken from the arm of the
volume control ( R,) is applied to the base of
the 2N112 r-f amplifier which functions simultaneously as an audio amplifier stage. The
amplified audio signal is recovered across the
2K collector load resistor of the 2N112, and
is capacitively coupled to the base of a 2N21 7
p-n-p audio transistor. This stage is base and
emitter biased, having the output transformer
in the collector circuit. Optimum collector load
for the 2N21 7 is approximately 500 ohms,
and the 2N21 7 develops a maximum audio
signal of 75 milliwatts at this load impedance.
Transformer T, matches the transistor circuit
to the 12 ohm miniature loudspeaker. The
receiver draws a maximum signal current of
11 milliamperes from the 9-volt battery supply.
PLACE CARRIER
HERE OR HERE
"-\ v
AVERA~E
DESIRED
SELECTIVITY
CURVE
RECEIVER
SELECTIVITY
RANGE
MECHANICAL
FILTER
SELECTIVITY
CURVE
-&008~---+~~~~~------------------~~~~~~------~~~~------~--------~
1.
..,/
,,
3 KC
I-
I- e.~ Kc -.j
TO 30 KC WIDE
AT -&0 DB DOWN
1~
Figure 7
BANDWIDTH CURVES OF VARIOUS 1-F SYSTEMS
Bandwidth curves showing: A-Selectivity range ot most medium-priced single-conversion receivers with
crystal filter out ot circuit; 8-ldeo/ selectivity curve tor voke reception; and C-Selectivity curve ot a
455 kc. mechanical filter with a 3.1 kilocycle bandwidth.
HANDBOOK
The 2N21 7 transistor is mounted upon a
second three terminal phenolic strip placed between the tuning capacitor and the loud speaker. Use of a composition-type chassis precludes
the employment of the chassis as a common
ground. A simple bare copper wire is therefore
used as a common "ground" return. This lead
is actually the "B-plus Bus," shown in figure 5.
The lead runs from the positive terminal of
the battery clip, along the lower edge of the
chassis then up to the "ground" terminal of
the "loopstick" coil, L. All components that
normally ground to the metal chassis in a
conventional assembly are attached to this bus.
Be sure to observe the polarity of the electrolytic capacitors and the dry cell. Improper connection of these components can damage the
transistors or other parts of the circuit.
The transistors are the last items to be connected into the assembly. Since the transistors
are heat sensitive, it is necessary to protect them
during the soldering operation. Grasp the transistor lead to be soldered with a long-nose
pliers between the body of the transistor and
the end of the lead. The thermal capacity of
the metal pliers will act as a heat sink, preventing the heat of the iron from damaging
the transistor. Be sure to hold the pliers in
place until the completed joint has had time
to cool. When all wiring is completed and
checked, the 9-volt battery can be inserted in
the clip (observe polarity! ) and the set can
be turned on by means of switch S,. A 0-100
milliampere d-e meter placed temporarily
across the open contacts of switch s, can be
used to check the transistor operating current.
The receiver should play immediately upon
closing S, as the transistors have no warm-up
time. If no external antenna is used, the receiver should be moved about to orient the
"loopstick" coil L, for best pickup of each
individual broadcast station. Adjacent channel
interference can often be eliminated by careful rotation of the set to "null out" the offending signal. Ample loudspeaker volume will be
obtained from local stations without the use
of an external antenna.
Figure 8
455 KC. MECHANICAL
FILTER ADAPTER
Enjoy optimum selectivity and performance
from your present receiver by plugging in
this simple adapter that replaces the first
i-f amplifier tube. The two 68J6 tubes are
at opposite ends ol the chassis with the
mechanical filter between them. Adapter
plug to fit i-f tube socket is shown in
foreground.
Mechanical Filter
27-3
535
A 455 Kc.
Mechanical
Filter Adapter
536
THE RADIO
Figure 9
CONNECTIONS BETWEEN
MECHANICAL FILTER,
ADAPTER AND RECEIVER
Adapter
makes
connections
to first i-f
tuted for the first 4 55 kc. intermediate frequency amplifier tube, without making any
under-chassis changes in the receiver. Simply
connect the adapter to a power source (which
may be your receiver), remove the first i-f
amplifier tube, and insert two short coaxial
cables into the empty tube socket, as shown
in figure 9. These cables carry the i-f signal
to and from the adapter, which are then tucked
away in an unoccupied corner of your receiver
or speaker cabinet.
Selectivity
Considerations
,-
--,
I
I
I
I
L
_ _
_S!:f.l.E!d} _
__.._ __
L--------------:ft-'C:'!5C-ih
~
TO 1-F
_H..lL_Q _ _ ----1
.r----Jf'C;,;o,_...,:'r------------'
~TUBE SOCKET~
GRID PIN
PLATE PIN
c,,
Figure 10
SCHEMATIC OF MECHANICAL FILTER ADAPTER
HANDBOOK
Mechanical Filter
-- ---'
Cs
V1 (OBJO)-A--1!--~~Mt---+
1
TOPIN1
SOCKET
_:L
lOOK
.01
--a:-.-
~c
TO GRID PIN
1-F TUBE SOCKET
Figure 11
OPTIONAL A-V-C CONNECTIONS
FOR THE ADAPTER
537
+-
-~ -~OUTPUT CABLE
rt---1
--
___
A
+SHIELD BOLT
B~
~------------------------~_L
2fX 2-f' X 4" MIN/BOX
Figure 12
CHASSIS DRILLING TEMPLATE FOR ADAPTER
A: #32 drill, B: 9/32" drill, C: 5/8" diameter socket punch, D: 3/4" diameter socket punch
538
THE RADIO
Cable
Assembly
Figure 13
UNDERCHASSIS
VIEW OF THE
ADAPTER
Slug-tuned coil L: is at
left, below the second
stage
68 J6
socket.
Screen bypass capacitor
is placed across socket.
Capacitors Cz and C, may
be seen on each side of
the center shield. Coil L1
is at right of shield. Input cable is at far right.
Output c a b I e passes
through rear wall of
chassis at left. Power
leads pass through center
of shield.
HANDBOOK
stray signal pickup. The smaller components
are now soldered in place, after which the coaxial cable input and output leads are connected. About Ys inch of the outer vinyl jacket
is removed from the cables and the shield
braid is twisted into a single conductor. The
cable ends are brought into the box through
rubber grommets. The twisted cable shield is
soldered to a nearby ground lug and the center conductor is soldered to the correct tube
socket pin. Finally coils L, and L, and their
associated capacitors are placed in position and
wired into the circuit.
Alignment
of the Adopter
Figure 14
OBLIQUE VIEW OF
ADAPTER CHASSIS
Coil Lz is at left near
power plug, with coil Lz
mounted horizontally at
right. Note c, and c,
are placed directly across
pins of mechanical crys ..
tal socket.
Mechanical Filter
539
POLYETHYLEN~
INNER INSULATION
BASE PIN
FROM
OCTAL
SOLDER
Figure 1S
CROSS-SECTION VIEW
OF SIGNAL CABLES
Receiver Tuning
Techniques
27-4
A High
PerEormance
Amateur Band Receiver
Figure 16
filter passband. The proper pitch control setting may be determined by tuning the receiver across a carrier while adjusting the pitch
control so that a beat note on only one side
of zero beat is heard. After marking this setting
of the pitch control, again turn it so the test signal on only the other side of zero beat is heard.
Mark this setting, then try tuning in a single
sideband signal. If intelligible speech cannot
be heard, shift the b-f-o pitch control to the
other setting. Small adjustments of the pitch
control and the tuning of the receiver will
produce the correct voice tones. For best reception, the audio control of the receiver should
be fully advanced, and only enough r-f gain
used to produce a readable signal. Volume is
therefore controlled by the r-f gain control.
For optimum c-w reception, the 0.5 kc. mechanical filter may be used. No changes need be
made to the adapter when filters are changed.
A-N-L
AUDIO
+_.,I~,. o_v_.------------1+!
~
1!s v...f\..J,.._P_o_w_ER--., _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
v
SUPPLY
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
A-VC
BRIDGE
Figure 17
SPEAKER
"TV -TUNER"
-,
~---
I
I
541
R-FCOIL
L1
I
L-8+
B+REG.
Figure 18A
CONVERTED TV-TUNER FORMS "FRONT-END" OF AMATEUR BAND RECEIVER
Several forms of replacement TV -tuners may be purchased from large radio stores, Shown above is typical
"cascode tuner" to be used in this receiver. Check your tuner for circuitry before you modify it. lf output
frequency is unimportant, since i-1 components of tuner are removed. Tuner trimmers permit minor
adjustments to be made to alignment of r-f stages.
A-Oscillator-mixer excitation measuring point on tuner
C,A-B-C-15 p,p,fd. per section. All-Star Products Co., Defiance, Ohio. Model C3.
C.-10 p,p,fd. ceramic. Centralab 8278
c,-15 !LIL Bud LC-1641. (Mounted atop chassis after photographs were taken).
L,-L,-See figure 21 for coil data
NOTES: 1-* SEE FILTER I NSf RUCTION SHEET FOR CAPACITOR SPECIFICATIONS.
2-ALL RESISTORS 1-WATT UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED.
0
::J
_,
0...
.....
2K
R3
::J
en
()
B+HI
14011.
(!)
R1
SEEFIG.18A
<
(!)
.....
en
B+ HI
140
115
'V
v.
~lie=;'---- - -'f~
....
T1
v.
~Rs
S2c
3K
v.
Figure 188
SCHEMATIC OF AMATEUR BAND RECEIVER
The "front-end" circuit is shown in Figure lBA. The tuning capacitors placed across the input and output
circuits of the mechanical filters are determined by the choice of filter. See filter specification sheet.
Type F45SC filters were used in this receiver.
M-0-l d-e milliammeter, l-inch diameter
s,A-8-DPDT rotary switch. Centralab PA-2001 decks, with Centralab PA-302 index assembly
S:AB-C-D-4 pole, 3 position switch. Centralab PA-l0l3
T-lSOO kc. i-t transformer. J. W. Miller Co. Sl2-Wl. Remove turns from primary and secondary to
permit resonance at 1695 kc.
TI-Tt-455 kc. i-f transformer. J. W. Miller Co. l2-Cl, or equivalent
Ta-455 kc. diode transformer. J. W. Miller Co. l2-C2, or equivalent
T,-455 kc. BFO transformer. J. W. Miller Co. ll2-C5, or equivalent
Ts-lS0-0-150 volts at lOO ma. UTC S-51
T.-10 K pri., 4 ohm sec., Stancor A-3879
T.-6.3 volts, 3 amp., Stancor P-6466
....
::J:
m
HANDBOOK
reading on the 0-1 d-e milliammeter connected
between the plates of the 12AU7 triodes.
The selenium rectifier power supply delivers
140 volts at the receiver current drain of 65
milliamperes. The low plate voltage and small
power consumption of the receiver result in a
very low degree of thermal drift. If desired,
the selenium supply may be replaced with a
more conventional supply using a 5Y3-GT
rectifier tube. Plate voltage to the receiver
should be held below 160 volts. Plate voltage
to the 6]6 oscillator section and the 12AU7
S-meter tube is regulated by an OB2 gas regulator.
Plate voltage is removed from the r-f and
audio stages when the receiver is in "standby"
condition. All oscillators are left running continuously to reduce initial warmup drift.
Receiver
Figure 19
TOP VIEW OF
AMATEUR
COMMUNICATION
RECEIVER
M.echani<:al filters are at
/eft with three stage 11
amplifier along rear of
chassis. The TV tuner Is
mounted In chassis cutout to the left ol main
tuning capacitor. Power
supply and audio section
occupy right-hand section ol steel chassis. Six
channels ol tuner are
used to cover the amateur bands between SO
and 6-meters. Six spare
channels may be used to
543
544
THE RADIO
which is then drilled and punched. All major
components with the exception of the TV
turret are mounted in place. The ground connections at each tube socket are made first,
then the filament leads are wired in position.
Use # 14 insulated wire for the filament leads,
as the current drain is quite high. The power
supply should be wired first and tested. It
should deliver approximately 140 volt! across
a 2000 ohm, 10 watt resistor used as a temporary dummy load. When the power supply
section is completed, the audio stages, b-f-o,
S-meter, second detector, and noise limiter
stages can be wired. Operation of the audio
system may be checked by injecting a small
audio signal on pin # 2 of the 12AT7 stage
and checking the volume of the tone in the
loud speaker.
The next step 1s to wire the three i-f amplifiers and the a-v-e circuit. Five terminal
phenolic tie-point strips are mounted in front
of each i-f tube socket. The a-v-e, cathode bias,
and screen dropping resistors are mounted between the socket pins and the terminals of the
strip. The ceramic bypass capacitors are soldered directly between socket pins with the
shortest possible leads. All interconnecting
wiring is done between the terminal strips.
After the i-f strip has been wired up to the
arm of switch s,, segment B, the amplifier
may be tested. Pin # 1 of the first 6BJ6 i-f
tube is temporarily returned to the a-v-e bus
by placing a 100 K resistor across the output
pins of the mechanical filter socket. Switch s,
is adjusted to place the resistor in the circuit.
Figure 20
UNDER-CttASSIS
VIEW OF AMATEUR
BAND RECEIVER
To the /eft of the chassis
are the selenium rectifiers and the filter choke.
At the extreme right is
the mechanical filter selector switch mounted
on two aluminum brackets. The controls along
the panel are (left to
right):
BFO,
AUDIO
GAIN, MAN---AM---CW,
tuning control, TV turret switch, R-F GAIN,
and filter selector switch.
Output transformer is
mounted to back of
chassis.
HANDBOOK
COIL
L1
eM
WI REDIA. 821J1JFD
83 MC.
48.3-
GRID, OSC.: !t T. N 18 E.
82 MC.
Me.
PLATE, OSC.
5T. N 18 E.
L2
26.328.0
Me.
L1
15M
L2
19.319.75
Me.
32.~
MC.
e-w
e-w
e-w
e-w
180!J1JFO.
200.UUFO
40M
ANT: 7 T. N 22. E.
Me.
L1
33t.AC.
e-w
ANT: 9 T. N 22. E.
GRID: 9T. N 2.2. E.
L2
1!t. 7-
115.0~
20M
e-w
WIRE DIA. 75JJlJFD.
COIL
L1
e-w
10M
;)c
L1
Modification
SHUNTY'II NATURAL
SPACING CAPACITY RESONANCE BAND
83MC.
e-w
ANTs 3 T. N 2.2 E.
L2
coupled through a 0.01 ~-tfd. blocking capacitor to the "hot" end of the primary winding
of transformer T. This transformer is adjusted
for maximum output signal. The receiver is
now ready for tuner installation.
GRfO:!>T, N18E.
~2.3
545
I~T.
e-w
100.U.UFD
8.7-
Me.
e-w
ANT: 10T. N 30 E.
e-w
..
L1
GRID:
E.
''ft8~'VJiJf;'JJR~s5JJ.JJNtf:
L"
5.,-
Me.
PLATE.OSC.: 2.0T.N30E.I
5.7
NOTE 1 -GRID
17 t.AC.
e-w
N30E.
GRID: 39T. N 30 E.
PLATE, RF: 38T. N 30
MC.
e-w
e-w
e-w
L2
1~.2
14.7~MC.
1101J.1JFO.
15UJJFO,
10K
7.9 MC.
IOMC..
5.4t.AC.
12..U.UFD
5.7 MC.
39.1J1JFD
7.2.MC..
e-w
WINOIN. OF OSCILLATOR COIL L2 IS PLACED NEXT TO OSCILLATOR PLATE WINDIN . R-F PLATE WINDIN.
IS PLACED ABOUT 1/2-INCH AWAV' FROM OSCILLATOR-GRID WINDING.
4- RESONANT
546
Tuner Coil
Modification
THE RADIO
porarily held in place with ~ small piece of
cellophane tape until the coil form is cemented
in the assembly clamp with Duco cement.
The coil leads are then cleaned and soldered
to the corresponding terminals. After the shunt
capacity is added, the natural resonance of the
winding should be checked against the value
given in figure 21. The coil should be suspended in the clear and checked with a grid-dip oscillator. Turn spacing may be varied to
produce the correct resonance point. The mixer-oscillator coil is wound next. The two tuned
windings are placed at the ends of the form
and the oscillator plate winding is placed between them, positioned close to the grid winding as illustrated in figure 22. The coil windings may be held in position with a temporary
piece of cellophane tape. This coil is adjusted
in the same manner as the r-f coil. When completed, the mixer-oscillator coil may be snapped
into the rener and the receiver turned on. The
oscillator operates on the low frequency side
of the signal for 10 meter reception, covering the range of 26.3 Me. to 28.0 Me. as the
receiver is tuned from 27,995 kc. to 29.7 Me.
Listen for the oscillator in a nearby receiver.
The frequency range of the oscillator can be
set by varying the spacing of the turns of the
6]6 oscillator coil, and also by adjustment of
the oscillator trimmer capacitor c, in the tuner.
When the correct frequency range is covered
the winding may be permanently held in place
with a small application of Duco cement. Check
the frequency range once again after you apply the cement as the frequency shifts slightly
lower as the cement is applied. Make your
final correction before the cement dries. The
other coil windings are relatively non-critical
and require no adjustments after they are
completed.
Once the oscillator tuning range has been
set the signal generator may be used to calibr~te the main dial of the receiver. If care is
used in this process, the dial calibrations ca~
be read to an accuracy of five kilocycles or
less. The oscillator injection voltage may be
checked at terminal A on the tuner with a
v-t-v-m. The injection range should lie between
two to three volts on each band, and may be
controlled by varying the spacing between the
Figure 22
COIL SET FOR AMATEUR
BAND RECEIVER
Tuner <:oils are wound on 114-ineh polystyrene rods. R-f <:oils are at left, with
mixer-oscillator coils at right. 80 meter
coils are at top of photo, with 6 meter
coils at bottom.
HANDBOOK
oscillator grid winding and the untuned plate
winding. These adjustments may be made with
the coils in the receiver by removing the bottom and side plates of the tuner.
The conversion oscillator operates on the
high frequency side of the signal on the 15,
20, 40, and 80 meter bands, as tabulated in
figure 21. The 80 coils are made from "loopstick" -type broadcast coils. Turns are removed
from these coils until the natural resonance
falls at the desired frequency as shown in the
table. A small value of capacitance is used
across these coils since the percentage-tuning
range is quite high.
Receiver
Adjustment
"Hand ie-Talkie"
547
27-5
Circuit
Description
548
Figure 23
BATTERY POWERED "HANDlETALKIE" FOR 2 METERS
Completely self-contained transceiver employs crystal controlled transmitter for
greatest stability. Send-receive switch is at
top right with tuning control of receiver
directly below.
THE RADIO
serves as a doubler from 72 Me. to 144 Me.
Tuning of the plate circuit is accomplished
by the slug of coil L,. Inductive coupling is
used between L, and the quarter-wave whip
antenna.
The receiver employs a 5678 sub-miniature
pentode r-f stage to provide a better signal-tonoise ratio and also to reduce spurious radiation from the super-regenerative detector. At
a distance of fifty feet from the transceiver,
the detector radiation is inaudible to a sensitive receiver. In the interest of economy, the
5678 can be replaced with a 959 "acorn" tube
if miniaturization of the unit is not desired.
The super-regenerative detector uses a special
quench circuit which provides smooth operation yet allows the usual variable quench control to be eliminated. Values shown in the
schematic are optimum, and care should be
taken to keep all leads short. Capacitor C is
the receiver tuning control and has a range
of 140 Me. to 150 Me. If it is desired to reduce the tuning range, one or two plates can
be removed from C and coil Ls readjusted
accordingly. The 5676 can be replaced by a
95 7 "acorn" tube in the interest of economy.
Audio output from the super-regenerative
detector is passed through a simple R-C filter
to suppress the quench frequencies. The first
audio stage is a 1S5 pentode using contact potential grid bias. Interstage coupling is accomplished by a Centralab Coup/ate printed
circuit incorporating the six components required at this juncture. If this item is not
available, the values of resistance and capacitance shown can be substituted. The output
stage consists of a 3Q4 power pentode driving
a 2 Yz -inch speaker through the output transformer T,. For reception only one-half of the
3Q4 filament is used to conserve "A" and "B"
battery drain. During transmit periods the
extra audio is needed and the other half of
the filament is energized.
The "send-receive" switch S1A-B-C-D-E is
a miniature ceramic rotary switch. Section A
switches the antenna from the receiver to the
transmitter. Secion B energizes the filaments
of the receiver r-f tubes on the "receive" position, and energizes the microphone and the
second section of the 3Q4 filament on the
"transmit" position. Section C turns off all
filaments in the "off" position, and section
D opens the 67.5 volt battery circuit in the
"off" position. Section E connects the loudspeaker to the audio system in the "receive"
position of switch S,. The extreme counterclockwise position of s, is the "off' position.
HANDBOOK
;'Handie-Talkie"
+ 20JJFO.
~"'i"5cl
B+ 67.5 V.
'--------,R
OFF
-=
0~
~XHT\~RNAL
ANTENNA
(144MC)
S1A
II
Lo-
e c
~---------~c
~og,
4,7K
--o.5
549
.Q.Q.l-=
-4.5 +67.5
r 1.s .
Figure 24
:;~.~
-67.5
+1. }
VOLTS
550
THE RADIO
FIGURE
Transceiver
Wiring
Figure 25
VIEW OF
"WALKIE-TALKIE"
CHASSIS SHOWING
MAJOR
COMPONENTS
Oblique view of choJsis
looking towards switch
S1 Output coil '- is in
foreground with
3AS
tube behind it. To right
of 3AS Is 3A4 triplet
stoge. Coils l..4 and l..s ore
behind 3A4. To right of
switch s, is receiver tuning control c,. Shield
separates C, from coil
1.., directly above it. R-f
amplifier
tube
5687
mounts on vertical plote
supporting 1..,. Shield below r-f tube isolotes It
from detector components below the chossls.
Audio tubes ore at right,
with T,
Figure 27
UNDER-CHASSIS
VIEW OF
WALKIE-TALKIE
SHOWING MAJOR
COMPONENTS
Chassis of transceiver is
specially bent to fit components in smallest possible space. Oscillator coil
L, is at left separated
from triplet coil Ls by
small shield. Output coil
L, is to rear. 5676 detector tube is at right rear,
flanked by 20 p,fd. filter
capacitor. Audio tubes
are under chassis parti
tion at right. Quench filter capacitors are to
right of coil Ls.
Figure 28
TRANSCEIVER
CHASSIS BOLTED
TO PANEL OF
WALKIE-TALKIE
The chassis is held in
place by bolts passed
through frame of small
speaker. Modulation
transformer T: is visible
in foreground with Centralab "Coup/ate" at rear
of audio tube sockeb,
Batteries occupy space
to left above microphone.
Crystal socket is at far
right, which is "top" end
of transceiver.
552
THE
RADIO
Final
Alignment
27-6
Six Meter
Transceiver
for Home or Car
Transceiver
Circuit
HANDBOOK
6-Meter Transceiver
Two stages of one megacycle i-f amplification are used for maximum gain. Five i-f
transformers are used to narrow the "skirt"
response of the i-f strip. A 12AL5 serves as
the detector, a-v-e rectifier, and automatic
noise limiter. Filament voltage to the 12AL5
is reduced to 10.5 volts to provide better noise
limiting action.
Two tubes are used in the audio system of
the transceiver. A 12AX7 dual triode serves
as a two stage resistance coupled speech amplifier. Only one section of the 12AX7 is
used for reception purposes. The dual triode
is capacity coupled to a 12AQ5 audio output
stage. A tapped output transformer matches the
12AQ5 to the r-f amplifier plate circuit of the
transmitter section, and a low impedance winding on the transformer drives an external
speaker for reception. The screen voltage of
the 12AQ5 is reduced for receiving operation
to conserve power supply drain.
The transmitter section of the transceiver uses
two pentode tubes. The oscillator is a 6CL6
in a "hot cathode" circuit employing 25 Me.
overtone crystals. Switch s, in the grid circuit
of the oscillator permits selection of an external variable frequency oscillator. The plate
circuit of the oscillator ( Cs-L,) is tuned to the
50 Me. second harmonic of the crystal. A
switch ( s,) in the oscillator screen circuit
permits the operator to turn on the oscillator
stage during reception for '"zero-beat" or frequency marking purposes. The oscillator is inductively coupled to a 5763 r-f amplifier
IF
(fMC.)
MIXER
(SOMC)
'~
I
I
L
-- -
-b-- -
--0-y-- - - - I
~OMC.
ANT.
1-F
(IMC.)
OSC., MULT.
(51-53MC.)
R!.ADJ.
@s-METER
I
I
---+1-:_J
f F
__ : ___ -b-~Y~cr
I
DET.,A-N-L.
-+ - - -- - --'
___
1I
'-----b-_,_
RY1B t._ J
RY2.,t_ __ ..J
~K
___________ --~
553
6
Bt 250 V.
Figure 30
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF 10 WATT SIX METER TRANSCEIVER
554
THE RADIO
E:
ANTENNA
CHANGEOVER
.---c-;;N
!1763 SCREEN
CONTROL
UJ
CONTROL
a:
12AQ 5 SCREEN
CONTROL
B+CONTROL
1 (ANrENNA)
TO RECEIVER INPUT
TO
~763
SCREEN Cl RCUIT
TO RY2 -SECTION
TO SPEAKER CIRCUIT
TO
T1 SECONDARY
RY2.
>
AUDIO
TO
~OPEN
~-c=
VI
SPEAKER
CONTROL
E:
r--
c=:
TO GAIN CONTROL,
R3
TOGRIO, 12.AX7
TO VOLUME CONTROL,
R 2.
TO 12AQ6 SCREEN
B+ 2.$0
TO 47 K RESISTOR
B+ 2!0
B+ TO RECEIVER
SJB
SJA
Ms
MJ
M1~
(SEE F!,URE 32)
Figure 31
RELAY AND METER CIRCUITS
Relays are shown in unenergized position.
X
~
0
m
A.v.c.
0
0
RECEIVER
6CL6
osc.
(51-53MC.)
.ogs
I~
L7
nl~..,._--.--1~
RY1A
"
ecee
PLATE
R-F
tas
4S
8CB6 OSC.
2.SO
105
100
250
100
100
12.AQS
250
*-
M4
135
100
68J8 l-F
1N38A
SCREEN CATHODE
8C86 MIX.
12AX7
4.7K
o:T"
1.0
1.0
250
175
12
RY1
DUMMY LOAD
RY2
-l
....
BASE VIEW
0
::::l
12. VOLTS
VI
.01
2,3
6CB6 OSC.
Figure 32
SCHEMATIC, SIX METER TRANSCEIVER
Coil data and i-f transformer modification is given in figure 35. Relay and meter connections are given in figure 31.
c,-C,-C,--6-30 p.p.fd. Centralab 827C
RY,, RY.--3 pole, double throw with 6.3 volt d-e coil. Advance #MG-3C6VA
C,-C,-S,-C,.......3-12 p.p.fd. Centralab 8278
T,-T,-1500 kc. i-f transformer. J. W. Miller Co. 12-WJ
c,-C.--15 p.p.fd. per section. All-Star Products Co., Defiance, Ohio. Model C3
(see figure 35 for modification)
c,,........7 p.p.fd. variable "piston-type". Erie 5328
T.--5 K pri., 6.7 K sec., and 4 ohm winding. Triad M5-Z
~
u ....... Un _ _ ,,.luntl HF-35
R,-Amperite Ballast Tube #3TF-4A
----L-.11. __ .,. _..,_.,.,,.,.__r,..J:I......;,. Chnn.i: Co. :t:tLTC-464
(!)
<
(!)
....
556
THE RADIO
Transceiver
Wiring
Figure 33
REAR VIEW OF
SIX MHER
TRANSCEIVER
CHASSIS
Receiver section of unit
is at right with trimmer
capacitors seen on chassis deck. Center section
af three gang variable
capacitor
is
unused.
Transmitter output controls are located at upper left. Filament volt
age regulator tube is
at rear of chassis, just
above modulation level
potentiometer.
control
5763 amplifier tube is
behind modulation trans
former,
with shielded
6CL6 tube to right. 1-f
strip runs along center
of chassis. Antenna and
speaker plugs and power
receptacle are along rear
lip of chassis. Receiver
audio control is at upper
right of front panel.
HANDBOOK
After all major components have been
mounted to the chassis the various socket
ground connections should be made, followed
by the filament wiring. The speech amplifier
should be wired next, taking care to place
small components directly between socket
pins to conserve space. All the small components of the i-f system can be mounted above
the tube sockets, and in the space between the
sockets and the tie-point strips. The power
leads from the wired sections of the transceiver
should now be run to the two relays.
The next step is to complete the receiver
wiring. Shielded leads are run to the volume
control R, mounted in the upper-left hand
corner of the receiver panel (as viewed from
the front) . The S-meter wiring circuit should
be completed as the final wiring step. Note
that the case of potentiometer R, is "hot" and
should be insulated from the chassis with fibre
bushings.
Receiver
Check-out
Figure 34
UNDER-CtiASSIS
VIEW OF
TRANSCEIVER
Changeover relays are
located at the left edge
of the chassis. The i-f
amplifier runs down the
center of the chassis,
with the receiver r-f
stages
to the right.
Transmitter stages are
located between front relay and i-f strip. Audio
stages are placed along
rear of chassis.
Small
employed,
6-Meter Transceiver
557
FIGURE 35
COIL TABLE FOR SIX METER TRANSCEIVER
l1, l2., l 4 - 8 TURNS N18 E., 3/8" DIAM., 1/2" LONG.
l3-7TURNS N16 E., 1/2" OlAM., 1/2" LONG.
(SeW COIL STOCK )
558
THE RADIO
It is necessary to close both relays to test the transmitter operation. For the time being,
they may be wedged close with a bit of matchstick if a 12-volt d-e supply is not readily
available. A 25 Me. crystal should be plugged
in the panel holder and switch S, set to the
XTAL position. Switch S, is set to OSC position, and the lead from the screen circuit of
the 57 63 amplifier tube to the contact of relay RYl-B is temporarily opened, removing
screen voltage from the r-f amplifier. Filament
and plate voltage is applied to the transceiver
and capacitor C, is tuned for oscillation of the
crystal. The meter of the transceiver is switched
to the GRID (M,) position and capacitor C,
adjusted for maximum grid current. A reading
of half-scale should be obtained. The coupling
between L, and Lo can be varied slightly to
obtain the proper reading.
The dummy antenna (figure 32) is next
plugged into antenna receptacle ], and loading
capacitor C,, set at full capacity. The plate circuit of the amplifier stage should be resonated
at 50 Me. with the aid of a grid dip oscillator
coupled to coil L,. The turns of L, should be
adjusted so resonance occurs at half-capacity
setting of tuning capacitor Cn. After this preliminary adjustment has been made, capacitor
ell should be tuned through its range while
HANDBOOK
28-Mc. Transceiver
559
carefully noting the grid current of the amplifier. Unless neutralizing capacitor Co has been
correctly set by a lucky accident, the grid current reading will show an abrupt kick as capacitor Cn is tuned through resonance. The
setting of the neutralizing capacitor should be
slowly varied so as to minimize the kick of
grid current. After change of setting of Co,
grid tuning capacitor C,, should be retuned for
maximum grid current. An adjustment of Co
will soon be found that will reduce the grid
current variation to an imperceptible kick of
the meter. When this point is found, the rotor
of Co should be fastened in place with a drop
of nail polish and the screen lead to R Y -1
should be resoldered.
Switch S, is now set to the transmit position and power is again applied to the transmitter. The meter switch is placed in the OUTPUT (M,) position, and plate tuning capacitor Cn adjusted for maximum meter reading.
At the same time, the bulbs of the dummy antenna should glow. Capacitors Cn and Cu are
touched up for maximum indication of the
meter.
In order to test the modulator section of the
transmitter when using an a-c filament supply,
it is necessary to disconnect the push-to-talk
circuit at pin # 2 of the microphone plug;
otherwise there will be a loud hum on the
audio signal. When this is done, the microphone may be plugged into the jack and the
gain control ( R:,) advanced. The dummy antenna should increase in brilliance under proper modulation. If the coupling to the dummy
load is too tight downward modulation will
result, and the bulb brilliance will drop. The
capacity of loading capacitor c, should be increased, dropping the degree of loading.
The transmitter is designed to operate into
a coaxial transmission line having an impedance value between 50 and 75 ohms. When a
high value of standing wave ratio exists on
the line the impedance presented to the pinetwork amplifier may be of such magnitude
as to preclude the possibility of a proper
match. It is permissible to add a second mica
capacitor in parallel with loading capacitor c,
to extend the operating range of the pi-network. If more than 50 1-'1-'fd. has to be added,
the SWR ratio should either be lowered by
proper adjustments to the antenna, or the
length of the transmission line between the
transciver and antenna should be altered in
band.
27-7
A "Hot"
Transceiver
for 28 Megacycles
Figure 36
TEN METER TRANSCEIVER HAS
Transceiver
Circuit
of 28.0-29.7 Me. The receiver portion employs five tubes in a single conversion circuit. Two tubes do double duty as the audio
section for reception and the modulator for
transmission. Four tubes are used in the r-f
section, making a total of eleven tubes plus a
voltage regulator. A voltage doubler selenium
rectifier supplies plate voltage for the complete
transceiver. The whole unit weighs less than
eleven pounds so it is readily transportable,
even by air. The power source is 115 volts,
50-60 cycles, a-c.
R.F. AMP.
(28MC.)
,---~6BJ6)--------{
I
L..-
I. F.
(!.SMC.)
MIXER, OSC.
I. F.
(T.SMC.)
DETECTOR,
AVC, A-N-L
__ .J_ ___ ,
__ .....:,_ __
__...J_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_j
I
I
I
r----,
:
XMTR VFO
(7.0-7.25 MG.)
DOUBLER
I
I
I
VSlC
I
I
StA
RF
RF AMP
(28MC.)
INDICATOR
)--~:~2~8~M~C~:~--16AQ5)-------------~--{9006
I
I
L - _j
II
REGULATOR
I
I
I
S1B
,---------~~------------------~----+---------------__1
I
6
y
'---------,
AUDIO
AUDIOI
L-----::--{6BJ6)-------{6AQ5)--..!...-c-"0~-~
StE
+-- _),....1
L..----- - - - - - - -
'15
I
__ J
v.""'
Figure 37
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TEN METER TRANSCEIVER
PHONES
HANDBOOK
r-f, mixer, and oscillator stages. Series padding
in the r-f and mixer circuits is employed for
good tracking across the band.
An i-f channel of 1.5 Me. is used in this
unit. This particular frequency was chosen to
eliminate the troublesome "image" problem,
so prevalent on the 10 meter band when the
usual 45 5 kc. i-f channel is employed. Selectivity suffers a bit when the higher frequency
channel is used, but a total of eight tuned
circuits (four transformers) provide an acceptable passband for voice reception. A 6AL5
double diode serves as the detector, a-v-e rectifier, and automatic noise limiter. The a-n-1
is left in the circuit at all times.
The audio section of the 28-10 uses two
tubes. A 6BJ6 serves as a resistance coupled
pentode voltage amplifier which is coupled to
a 6AQ5 power amplifier. A tapped output
transformer matches the 6AQ5 to the r-f amplifier plate circuit of the transmitter section,
and a low impedance winding on the transformer matches the audio system to external
earphones or speaker. The input circuit of the
6BJ6 forms an R-C dividing network isolating
the microphone input from the audio output
circuit of the receiver. No switching is required
in this circuit.
The transceiver is designed to be used with
a low impedance carbon microphone. Voltage
for microphone operation is taken from a tap
on the cathode circuit of the 6AQ5 amplifier
stage. This circuit is broken by switch SlD
during reception. At the same time, switch section S1E connects the earphone circuit to the
low impedance winding on the output transformer T .
Three tubes plus a gas-type voltage regulator and a diode r-f indicator are used in the
transmitter portion of the transceiver. A 6BJ6
serves as a "Tri-tet" oscillator covering the
range of 7.0-7.2 5 Me. The plate circuit is slugtuned to the 14 Me. second harmonic. A
switch ( S,) in the plate circuit of the oscillator
permits the operator to turn on this stage for
"zero-beat" or frequency marking purposes.
The oscillator is capacitively coupled to a
6AQ5 doubler stage whose plate circuit is
tuned to the 28 Me. region. Switch segment
S1C removes the plate voltage from this stage
during reception and applies it to the r-f section of the receiver. The plate circuit of the
6AQ5 doubler stage is capacitively coupled
to a second 6AQ5 serving as the modulated
amplifier. This latter stage is bridge neutralized
by capacitor C, for stability at the operating
frequency. The plate circuit of the amplifier
28-Mc. Transceiver
561
6BJ6
100
-.;;--
'i$f
:;f c
100K
6BJ6
T3
6BJ6
"'...,
6AL5
T4
;;o
('1)
()
('1)
-=
220
o:-5
<
('1)
0.5
..,
.1.!5_
0.5
VI
B+
AVC
1M
22K
o.s
30K
SlA
47K
Q.5
::J
0..
METER CIRCUIT
""0:5
R
250K 250K
~"'()."5
..,-i
ANTENNA
SlF
Jl
t6us
OSCILLATOR
::J
NOTES:
VI
()
('1)
<
('1)
..,
VI
B+ BUS
1- CAPACITORS MAIMED C ARE .01 CERAMIC DISC, tWO V.
2- ALL RESISTORS 1 WATT UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTELJ.
GROUND
CLIP
Figure 38A
SCHEMATIC, 10 METER TRANSCEIVER
C-.01 p.fd., 600 volt ceramic capacitor. Centralab DD6-103
C,A-B-C-15 p.p.fd. per section. All Star Products Co., Defiance, Ohio, Type C3
C...-15 p.p.fd. Bud MC-565
C,-30 p.p.fd. Bud LC-1651
C,-400 p.p.fd. Allied Radio Co., Chicago, 1/1. #61H-009
C,-7 p.p.fd. Erie 532B
CH,-3 henry at 100 mo. Stancor C-2304
-1
::::t
m
HANDBOOK
28-Mc. Transceiver
FIGURE 388
COIL TABLE,10 METER TRANSCEIVER
L 1- ANTENNA: 2. TURNS N 18 INSULATED WIRE
AROUND \\COLD" END OF L1. GRID: 14TURNS
N18 E., 1/4" DIAM., 112."' LONG. J.W. MILLER 1447-F
L2- 13 TURNS N 18 E., SAME AS
L1
PLATE
SCREEN
CATHODE
180
1~0
2 .
MIX.
280
18~
osc.
100
TUBE
8BJ6 R-F
8U8
6BJ8 \F'S
8AQ!)
AUDIO
18~
140
280
280
3
TX-12.!:
RX-17
Figure 39
REAR VIEW OF
TRANSCEIVER
CHASSIS
Tuning capacitor of variable frequency oscillator
is in foreground of photo,
panel driven by an extension shaft. To the left
panel.
563
564
THE RADIO
The transmitter oscillator coil L is placed at
the left rear corner of the chassis. The adjustable slug of this coil is visible in figure 39
between the selenium rectifiers and tuning capacitor C,.
To facilitate wiring, four phenolic tie-point
terminal strips (six lug type) are placed beneath the chassis. One is located parallel to
the edge, just to the left of the 6AQ5 buffer
tube socket. A second is placed parallel to the
first, to the right of the same socket. The latter
strip is used for connections to the r-f circuitry
of the receiver section. The third strip is placed
parallel to the rear of the chassis just in front
of the i-f strip and is used for i-f connections.
The last strip is located between the 6AL5 tube
socket and the main filter capacitor. The noise
limiter and a-v-e components are mounted to
this strip.
To secure maximum stability it is necessary
to firmly mount the oscillator tuning capacity
to the chassis. An aluminum block measuring
1 Ys" x 1" was therefore cut from a section of
Y2-inch aluminum stock and used as a support
block for capacitor c,. The capacitor is bolted
to the chassis by long 6-32 machine screws
which pass through the block and are firmly
bolted beneath the chassis.
Figure 40
UNDER-CHASSIS
VIEW OF
TEN METER
TRANSCEIVER
The transmitter components are along the
left side of the chassis.
Receiver components are
at the center, with rf
stage nearest the panel.
F/Iter choke is mounted
below chassis at rear.
Audio stage components
are grouped in upper
right corner of chassis.
See text for placement
of the smaller components.
HANDBOOK
28-Mc. Transceiver
3-WIRE HOUSEHOLD
WIRING CIRCUIT
1~
"HOT"
LEAD OF TRANSCEIVER
POWER SUPPLY
-=
115
115
Figure 41
"GROUNDED NEUTRAL"
WIRING SYSTEM
11
CJCdc"
shock hazard.
565
566
Transceiver
Operation
CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHT
28-1
567
568
THE RADIO
12AU7
4-1 N81
6CL6
Figure 2
comportment.
HANDBOOK
lower which provides the necessary low impedance required to match the r-f phasing network.
Sideband switching is accomplished by reversal of polarity of the audio channels by
switch S,. The diode modulator may be unbalanced to pass a carrier for tune-up purposes
S.S.B. Exciter
569
12AU7
AUDIO
PHASING
AMPLIFI~R
1K
o.
FILAMENT CONNECTIONS
6VOLT
12.AU7
NOTE
esc.
6CL6
*=MATCHED COMPONENTS ( 7 96 OR
LESS), EXACT VALU CRITICAL
ONLY IN THAT IT SHOULD MATCH
AMP
12.AU7
AUDIO
6C4
AUDIO
12AU7
AUDIO
TOP1
Figure 3
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF FIXED/MOBILE SSB EXCITER
C1, C:, c,, C1i-See figure 7
Cs-10 JJ.JJ.fd variable ceramic, Centralab 8278.
R1, R:, R,, R4-See figure 7
Rs-500K linear taper patentiometer
R,, Rw--100 ohm potentiometer
R,-25K linear taper potentiometer
Rs, R,--1 K patentiometer
PS-I-Phase shift network package. See figure 7
L,, L,, L,-See figure 8
Tt-lnterstage audio transformer (1:3). Stancor A-53C used backwards.
570
THE RADIO
I
Figure 4
TOP VIEW OF SSB EXCITER
The top plate is removable for easy access to
internal wiring and adjustments. Microphone
jack and coaxial antenna receptacle are visible at left of chassis. Four control potentiometers are along bottom of box (see text).
Figure 5
UNDER-CHASSIS VIEW OF SSB
EXCITER
Placement of the main components may be
HANDBOOK
571
S.S. B. Exciter
~~~
FROM
~~N1A
~~--;
t12AU7 T1
tsAL5
t=<>=~~
t12UAU7
:lf--!-.....--<~
7
C
.01
""'J5'"
":"'
T1 (1:3)csrANCOR A53-C
...
RY1
R
1.5
s1
vox
ON-Off
"="
=
+300V.
Figure 6
SIMPLE "VOX" CIRCUIT FOR ANY
SSB EXCITER
Capacitor C and resistor R determine the "delay time" of the voice operated relay circuit.
Operation point is set by potentiometer R,.
Relay RY, hos a high resistance d.c. coil
(Automatic Electric Co. type R-45L with
10,000 ohm coil may be used).
STANCOR ASJ-C
PHASE
SHIFT
NETWORK
PS-1
AUDIO OSCILLATOR
12AT7
. . - - - - - - T O VERTICAL DEFLECTION PLATE
>OO
>OO
L--+-.--<1---TO HORIZ.ONTAL DEFLECTION PLATE
ALL COMPONENrS
:t
!OOV.
+
Figure 7
AUDIO PHASE-SHIFT NETWORK AND TEST LAYOUT
796 TOLERANCE
572
CONNECTIONS
NATIONAL XR-50
COl L FORM
(112"
or AM.)
Figure 8
BIFILAR COIL FOR SSB
TRANSMITTER !L1l
Coils L, and L3 have 4-turn link coils over
bottom end instead of the bifilar winding.
THE
RADIO
HANDBOOK
1960 c.p.s .. , namely 3920 c.p.s. Thus, if a
stable source of 3920 c.p.s. frequency (such
as a thoroughly warmed audio oscillator)
is used as a reference, the frequency of the
test oscillator can be set very closely to onehalf, one-third, etc. of the reference frequency
if both oscillators feed an oscilloscope and the
resulting Lissajous figures observed, as discussed in chapter 9 of this Handbook.
Use of a calibrating frequency in this manner assures that the frequency ratios used are
correct, even though the exact frequencies used
are unknown. The frequency ratios (just as
the resistance ratio previously mentioned) are
far more important that the actual values of
frequency (or resistance) used.
Transmitter
The r-f and audio sections of
Wiring
the unit should be wired before
the phase network is placed
within the chassis. Socket ground connections
and filament wiring are done first. The oscillator section should be wired and tested first.
The bifilar secondary winding of coil L, may
be made of two lengths of insulated hookup
wire wound over the coil as shown in figure 8.
The germanium diodes in the modulator
section deserve special care in handling. Do not
bend the leads close to the diode unit itself.
The diodes are mounted by means of their leads
between the terminals of potentiometers Rs and
Ro and adjacent tie-point terminals. Protect
the diodes from excessive heat while soldering
by holding the lead with pliers between the
body of the diode and the point where the soldering takes place. Further, use only as much
heat as is necessary to make a good joint.
The 50 ohm composition resistors used in
the modulator bridge circuit should be a
matched pair, measured on an ohmmeter or
Wheatstone bridge. In the same fashion the
bridge capacitors should be matched as closely
as possible to the target value of 800 1-'1-'fd.
Both coils L, and L, of the linear amplifier
are mounted beneath the chassis on either side
of the 6CL6 tube socket. To reduce coupling
between the coils, a shield is placed over coil
L,. The shield may be made from part of an
old i-f transformer can measuring approximately 1" x 1" x 2" in size.
When the transmitter wiring is completed,
the audio phase network PS-1 may be placed
in the transmitter chassis and wired in place.
Transmitter
After the wiring has been comAdjustment
pleted and checked the transmitter is ready for adjustment.
Insert the 12AU7 oscillator/buffer tube in the
socket, and plug in a crystal in the range of
S.S.B. Exciter
573
574
THE RADIO
28-2
A Mobile
Transistorized
SSB Exciter
Figure 9
TEN THOUSAND MILES OF QSO'S
HAVE BEEN MADE WITH THIS
TRANSISTORIZED FORTY METER
SSB EXCITER
The reliability of transistorized sideband equipment has been proven with this miniature
phasing-type exciter. Overall size is only
7Y4" X 4" X 2V2". Antenna, power, and microphone connectors are on end ol chassis
HANDBOOK
Transistorized Exciter
575
CH1
SEC.
~ ;-c'";-~~~f4e- -~
XT~L
I 2
MIC
~ b~:r ~e__
1- -
TRANSISTOR
AMPLIFIER
5
t
__
j __
j'
__
J2
NOTES:
~~
10 K
0":""5
R6,10 K
AUDIO GAIN
NPN
{;,.
MEASUREMENTS
POINT
VOLTAGE
1.2~
2.45
3.9
Figure 1 0
=~~ 0
576
THE RADIO
run to the corner radio store and test a transistor to make sure it is operating properly.
that will substantially eliminate all audio frequencies above 3000 cycles. Such a filter is incorporated in the circuit between the microphone input jack ], and the transistorized
audio amplifier. The filter consists of the primary winding of a small audio transformer
(CH,) and two 250 ppJd capacitors.
The output signal from the encapsulated
transistorized amplifier is transformer coupled
to a 2N2 50 (or a 2N2 55 ) power transistor
which serves as a driver for the phase shift
network. The 2N250 transistor requires a
"heat sink" for the collector to allow maximum
collector dissipation rating to be achieved. The
transistor may therefore be mounted on anodized aluminum discs or mica wafers (supplied by the manufacturer of the transistor) ,
thus insulating the case of the transistor (the
collector terminal) from the chassis of the exciter. The phase shift network driven by this
transistor is identical to that described in section 28-1 and illustrated in figure 7.
Two 2N170 NPN type transistors are base
driven by the phase shift network, and serve
as emitter followers, providing a low impedance driving source for the balanced modulator.
Sideband selection is accomplished by switch
s, whose purpose is to reverse the phase of
the audio signals applied to the balanced modulator. Carrier injection is accomplished by
potentiometer Rs and switch S, which apply
conducting bias to the modulator diodes.
A voltage dropping network is employed
Figure 11
UNDER-CHASSIS
VIEW OF
TRANSISTORIZED
SSB EXCITER
The audio and r-f networks are mounted on a
phenolic sheet attached
to the bottom of the
chassis. The 12BY7 A linear amplifier and shield
are mounted on a small
aluminum bracket at the
left of the assembly.
Grid coil L, is beside the
tube, and plate coil L,
is behind the tube. Coil
L, is to the right of L,
with sideband switch S:
behind it. The two r-f
balancing controls R, and
Rt are at the extreme
right of the ch<>ssis panel.
HANDBOOK
to reduce the 12.6 volt primary supply to 9
volts for the 2N1 70 stage, and to 4 volts and
2 Y2 volts for the preamplifier stage. The exciter is designed for use with a primary supply
having the positive terminal of the battery
grounded.
Exciter
The exciter is built within
Construction
an aluminum case measuring 71,4" x 4" x 2V2" in
size. Miniaturization of the audio phase shift
network was accomplished by measuring a
quantity of resistors and capacitors on a bridge.
Final selection was made from those having
the closest tolerances. These hand picked components are mounted on a phenolic terminal
strip. This same sheet is used to support the
small r-f chokes as well as the balanced modulator components.
It is a good idea when building equipment
to fit in a limited space to construct everything
in the form of sub-assemblies. This will permit
the components to be mounted in the open,
facilitating wiring. In this particular unit, the
audio components and the r-f modulator are
mounted on a phenolic board on one side of
the box and the r-f components are attached
to the opposite wall of the box. The oscillator
coil L, is placed within an old i-f transformer
can as is the linear amplifier grid coil La. The
12BY7 A tube is mounted on a small bracket
at one end of the box, and has a tube shield
placed over it. The plate coil L. of the amplifier
stage is directly behind the tube (figure 11).
Various voltage dropping resistors are
mounted on a small terminal board at the center of the chassis, and the audio transistors
are placed in the area between the lower terminal board and the rear wall of the case.
The r-f circuits are wired after the component boards are mounted in place. Wiring
is straightforward and simple. The two r-f
transistors are mounted by their leads to three
terminal phenolic tie-point strips. Be sure to
protect both the transistors and the modulator
diodes from excess soldering heat, as described
in section 28-1. The reader is referred to this
section concerning the adjustment and test
procedure for the home-made phase shift network.
Testing The
Exciter
Transistorized Exciter
577
578
28-3
A VHF Transceiver
of Advanced Design
THE
RADIO
seconds. Twenty tubes including a voltage regulator are employed in the unit, and the total
primary power consumption is approximately
105 watts.
This high performance transceiver is a complex device, and
the wiring diagram has been
broken down into several schematic drawings
(figures 14, 15, 17, 18, and 19). A block diagram of the complete circuit is given in figure
13.
Circuit
Description
This
transmitter-receiver
pro-
to
permit ease
of tuning
in
mil/ammeter
for
HANDBOOK
TV-type rotary induction tuner, padded to the
correct operating range. The use of this rype
of tuned circuit provides exceptional stability
combined with small size and has proven to
be a very satisfactory choice. A 6BJ6 remote
cutoff pentode is used as the first i-f amplifier
stage ( V,) and a 6BE6 is used as the second
mixer ( Vo). The tunable oscillator stage operates 2009 kilocycles lower than the variable
intermediate frequency and employs a single
section of a 6]6 tube (V,). A small inductance
( L11) is placed in series with the rotary coil
of the oscillator section to ensure proper tracking over the 4 Me. tuning range.
The greater portion of the receiver gain and
selectivity is achieved in the second intermediate frquency amplifier which operates at
a center frequency of 2009 kc. A double lattice crystal filter is employed to ensure maximum selectivity at this frequency. The filter
is made in two sections and has a single 6BJ6
amplifier tube ( Vs) between the sections to
compensate for the insertion loss of the filter.
The first section of the filter is placed immediately after the 6BE6 converter tube to
achieve maximum i-f amplifier protection from
strong signals adjacent to the desired one. Two
144MC,
579
Advanced Transceiver
V2
eBZ7
6J6
~:
.,. J31
I
I
I
PHONES!
I
I
I
I
I
-------1---J
S3B,C
ZERO
r--a
'
L---------..0...RY2e
--?-
-----o
-o
\,.:..'~
'
-- -
\;,9 - --,
6AQ5
---<~---,
I
I
I
I
I
L---- --
I
CRYSTAL
MICROPHONE
TUNE-OPERATE
Ss
--./o----
6~~~
- - - ' - - _ _j
Figure 13
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF 2-6 METER TRANSCEIVER
Twenty tubes plus selenium rectifier power supply provide de-luxe operation for the advanced VHF
enthusiast. Power su.~ply may be operated from either automobile electrical system or 1 15 volts, a.c.
580
6BZ7A
Lz
THE RADIO
stages (V, and V") deliver sufficient audio
power to fully drive a loudspeaker and to overcome the motor and wind noises of a car in
motion. An auxiliary jack (}a) provides earphone reception if desired. The receiver is inactivated during transmission periods by relay
contacts RY2B which remove the high voltage
from the plates and screens of the receiver
tubes.
The Transmitter Section. Shown in figure 17
is the transmitter section of the transceiver.
Six tubes are used, three for the audio portion
of the unit and three for the r-f portion.
Crystals in the 24- 25 Me. region are employed for both 6- and 2-meter operation. Any one
of eleven crystals may be selected by switch
s,. The oscillator is a 6CL6 (V,.) in a "hotcathode" doubler circuit, delivering energy in
the 48 - 50 Me. region. A split-stator tuning
capacitor is employed in the plate circuit to
provide a balanced output configuration. The
oscillator stage may be turned on during re-
vz
6J6
VJ
6BZ7A
r--f1--+--+---<=-;>
I
S 7A
(SEE FIG. 18 FOR
SECTIONS 8& C )
50MC.
I
I
I
I
I
NOTES'
1, SEE FIG. 18 FOR FILAMENT WIRING.
2..
1-F
SEE FIGURE 15
Figure 14
SCHEMATIC, R-F PORTION OF RECEIVER SECTION
C-.001 p,fd, disc ceramic capacitor. Centralab DD-102
c,, C.-20 p,p,fd. Johnson 20M II
our
V10
6BJ6
>
.,0
0
0
;ill;
SEE
F/~.
14
C=.a..t
DISC CERAMIC
~---1---'1>'1'-----<P-~
$00
2.-
R3
L11
NOTES'
10
K
c.
12.
39
S- METER
.,.
ZERO
G
LJOC-:
)>
a_
Figure 15
<
0
::J
()
Cl>
a_
__,
.....
0
::J
VI
()
Cl>
<
Cl>
.....
""co....
582
THE RADIO
to the tripler, and the plate circuit ( Cu-L,) is
inductively coupled to the output circuit. A
separate antenna receptable (]1) is used for
I44 Me. operation. Plate voltage is applied to
this tube by switch section s,p,
The use of inductive coupling between the
three stages of the transmitter reduces spurious
emissions to a minimum. Channel 2 television
interference, so common to six meter transmitters is absent when this transmitter is used,
thanks to the combination of interstage inductive coupling and the employment of 25 Me.
crystals. Power input to the modulated stage
on both bands is close to IS watts, permitting
a carrier power of over I 0 watts.
,
Transmitter adjustment is greatly simplified
by the use of r-f volt-meters connected to the
output circuits of each amplifier stage. Small
germanium diodes (D1 and D,) are used to
rectify a minute portion of the output voltage
which is read on the multi-meter M1 of the
transmitter. All tuning adjustments of the
transmitter are conducted so as to enhance the
reading of the r-f voltmeter under a given set
of antenna conditions.
The transmitter is plate modulated by two
6AQ5 tubes ( V,, V,.) operating class AB1.
Plate voltage may be removed from these tubes
and from the modulated amplifier by the "tuneoperate" switch S,. A single I2AX7 serves as
a two stage resistance coupled audio amplifier,
having sufficient gain for the use of a crystal
or dynamic microphone.
Figure 16
REAR VIEW OF
VHF TRANSCEIVER
At the left rear of the chassis is
the dual purpose power supply
with the vibrator and filter capacitors mounted in front of the
power transformer. At the front
of the chassis are the two 6360
tubes and the tuning capacitors of
the transmitter. Note that the
stages are isolated by shields
placed between the tuning capacitors and tubes.
The modulator and power supply
filter choke occupy the c<:nter por- /
tion of the chassis, with the re-'
ceiver i-f section to the right. In
front of the i-f strip are the transmitter crystals and the lattice
crystals. At the right of the chas-
sis
are
located
the
11
TV -type"
V13
6AQ5
NOTES
T4
:X
>
V2.o
ta
6AQ5
0
0
"
~+-------~S~+~B~u~s
________________________________________________
+---~~RYzs
58A-B
M1 ~
M2---o
M 3 ---<>
10 K
,--
METER CIRCUIT
"
55
TUNEOPERATE
,p-.,-------jl
o--'
o------.rw- M 4
1K
M1=0-10 MA.
)>
0....
<
0
:::J
ro
0....
__,
.,
...,.. 001
~1KV
0
:::J
Ill
1~K
56
"ZERO"
B+ XMTR
N.O. N.C.
Figure 17
SCHEMATIC, TRANSMITTER AND AUDIO SECTION OF TRANSCEIVER
C,, C,, C,--15/15 JJ-JJ-fd. Hammarlund HFD-15X
C,, Cw-30 JJ-JJ-fd. Johnson 25JI2
D1, D,-Germanium diode INBI
Lu-LJS-See figure 21 for coil information
RFC-,-7.0 JJ-h. Ohmite Z-50
RFC:-1.8 JJ-h. Ohmite Z-144
RFC,-0.15 JJ-h. J. W. Miller 4644
S,A-S,F-Same asS,, figure 15. Space decks so coils L,. and L,. fit between the decks.
S,-SPDT "push-button" switch
S,--2 pole, 3 position non-shorting switch. Mallory 3223-G
RY,, RY:-See figure 19
M:-0-1 d.c. milliammeter. De-jur # JJ2
Tz-25 watt modulation transformer, IOK pri., 5 K sec. Stancor A-3845
T,-tnterstage transformer, 1:3. Stancor A-53C
X,--24-26 Me. overtone crystal. Precision Crystal Co., Sonto Monica, Calif.
ro
<
.,ro
VI
(X)
584
THE RADIO
PL1
(SEE FIL, SCHEMATIC)
T1
(SEE rEXT)
P-8 158
MODIFIED
GND "HOT 11
B+
HV
115 V.V"
V2
V1
GND
~--~~------~,~~------~------~
C =.001
CERAMIC CAPACITOR
IN
3
'HOT"
510
r-1
r(J r:J~
r:
VIB1
GND
PLI.
--r:::r~-.-"'"11
11
13
10
6-12 VOLT 0-C WIRING
Figure 18
PL1.
p,
HANDBOOK
The power transformer is made from a TVreplacement type, with a new vibrator winding
replacing the usual 6.3 volt filament windings.
Information covering the conversion of the
transformer will be found later in this section.
The special winding may be arranged for either 6-volt d.c. or 12- volt d.c. operation, but
not both. Thus, the choice of d.c. supply voltage must be determined before the transformer
is modified.
The filaments of the transceiver are arranged in a series parallel circuit so that they
may be operated from either 6- or 12-volts
d.c., or 6.3 volts a.c. with no change in circuitry. The appropriate filament connections to
the power supply are automatically made when
the proper terminal plug is inserted in SO,. A
simplified drawing of the primary power wiring of the transceiver is shown in figure 18.
Relay and Switching Circuits. The control
circuits of the de-luxe transceiver are shown in
figure 19. Two relays control change-over operation. The relay coils are of the d.c. type,
and are connected in series with the push-totalk button of the microphone and the filament
voltage supply. Closing the microphone switch
grounds one end of the relay coil circuit and
actuates both relays. Relay RY, controls the
144 Me. antenna changeover, and switches the
S-meter to the r-f output meter circuit of the
transmitter section. Relay R y, conrols the 50
Me. antenna changeover, and switches the Bplus from the receiver to the transmitter.
Meter M, serves as a multi-meter for the
transmitter portion (figure 17). The basic
meter has a 0-10 d.c. millammeter movement
and is used as-is for measuring the grid current
of V" and V". Meter switching is accomplished
by means of Ss. The third position of the switch
connects the meter across the shunt in the plate
circuit of the modulated amplifier stage. The
resistance of the shunt is chosen so that full
scale meter deflection is 100 milliamperes.
585
Advanced Transceiver
RELAY SWITCHING CIRCUIT
(SHOWN VNENERGIZEO)
R y,
Rx
Tx
..c:::
RY2
.c::
2.A R-FCOIL
~TO
R-F DIODES
I[R
TO FILAMENT
VOLTAGE SUPPLY
TO CONTROL CIRCUIT
IN MICROPHONE
TRANSCEIVER CONTROLS
~
POTENTIOMETERS
51-SELECTIVITY
R1-RECEIVER VOLUME
52-XMTR CRYSTAL
$3-BANOSWITCH, XMTR
R3-$-METER ADJ.
54-FILAMENT
59-SQUELCH
$10- POWER (BACK OF CHASSIS)
Figure 19
Transceiver Layout
and Assembly
586
THE RADIO
HANDBOOK
Advanced Transceiver
587
T1
FIGURE 21
COl L TABLE FOR 2 AND 6 METER TRANSCEIVER
B+
lA
**
L2-12 T.
20 E, 3/16" 0\A, 7/18 LONG.. MOUNT BETWEEN
PIN 3 AND PIN 6 OF SOCKET VL
L3,L4-5T.#18E. 114" 0\A., SPACED WIRE CIA. ON CTC
IRON CORE FORM PLS6. CENTER-TO-CENTER DISTANCE BETWEEN L3 AND l 4 IS 3/4".
e::==6.3V.
e::==8.3V.
e::==6.3V.
Figure 22
After the receiver wiring is completed, it should be thoroughly checked for errors and omissions. Have
another person check your wiring, as it is often
difficult to find your own errors. When you
are sure of the circuitry the receiver section may
be connected to the test power supply shown in
figure 22. This supply makes use of the transceiver components and may be wired "breadboard style" for the duration of the tests. A
speaker is connected to the output jack of the
receiver, and a modulated test signal of the intermediate frequency is injected on pin 5 of the
6BE6 mixer tube (Vn). A very small capacitor
is used to couple the i-f signal into the receiver.
Remove the 6]6 oscillator tube (V,) for this
test. The signal generator can be of the BC- 2 21
type capable of being accurately set to a frequency half-way between the crystal frequencies
of the lattice filter. (In this case, the mid-frequency is 2009 kc.) Switch S, is set to the
"sharp" position and the tuning slugs of the
i-f transformers are adjusted for maximum
audio output. As the i-f strip is brought into
alignment, the coupling to the signal generator
should be reduced to prevent overloading.
The 6]6 mixer tube is now replaced and the
signal generator is tuned to the first intermediate frequency of 34 Me. The tuner is adjusted to the high frequency dial setting and
oscillator trimming capacitor C, adjusted until
generator is heard. R-f padding capacitors C,
and C are adjusted for maximum signal
strength. If a short antenna is attached to the
rotor arm of transfer switch s,A, signals in the
30- 34 Me. range should be easily received.
Switch S, is next set to 50 Me. and the r-f
amplifier ( Va) and mixer tube ( V,) for t,his
range are placed in their sockets. Oscillator
tuning capacitor c, and the coupling between
1/4" LONG
588
THE RADIO
the 50 - 54
Wiring the Transmitter Section. The r-f section of the transmitter is wired first. Coupling
coil L, between the oscillator and buffer is
made of two sections of coil stock that are
telescoping, and the plate coil is placed within
the grid coil. Coils 1" and 1 " are mounted
between the wafer sections of Switch Sa. The
50 Me. antenna coil is placed between the two
windings of 1,,, and the 144 Me. grid coil of
the 2 meter amplifier is placed between the
dual windings of coil L,,. The various resistors
associated with the bandswitch are mounted
between the terminals of the switch. The 2
meter plate coil L, is fastened to the terminals
of tuning capacitor Co, which project through
Y2-inch clearance holes cut in the chassis. The
2 meter antenna coil is supported on two miniature ceramic insulator posts mounted adjacent to Ls. When the r-f wiring is completed,
the various coils may be adjusted to operating
frequency range by varying the spacing between
the turns.
The audio section of the transmitter should
be wired next. This is a straightforward operation and comparatively simple. Small shielded
leads are run from the second section of the
12AX7 speech amplifier to the audio gain
control R, mounted on the rear apron of the
chassis near the microphone jack. A shielded
lead runs from the microphone jack to the
first section of the 12AX7. The coils of relays
R y, and R y, are connected in series with the
control pin of ],, and are returned to the filament circuit of the transmitter.
Testing the Transmitter Section. The transmitter is now temporarily connected to the
auxiliary power supply and the 6C16 oscillator
tube and an appropriate crystal are inserted in
their respective sockets. A test lamp should
be made from a 6.3 volt, 150 rna. (brown
bead) pilot lamp attached to a small loop of
wire. This test lamp is coupled loosely to os-
HANDBOOK
589
28-4
A Miniaturized
SSB Transmitter
for 14 Me.
590
that may provide inspiration for a more elaborate assembly. Tuning adjustments are simple
and fool proof, and the transmitter remains in
alignment without time consuming balancing
of r-f and audio phase networks.
Transmitter
A block diagram of the circuit
Circuitry
is shown in figure 24. Fourteen
tubes are used including two
voltage regulators. The filter method of sideband generation is employed using a 500 kc.
Collins mechanical filter having a passband of
3.1 kc. The sideband signal is heterodyned to
the 14 Me. operating frequency by two mixer
stages. A voltage doubler type silicon rectifier
power supply provides high voltage for transmitter operation.
The complete transmitter schematic is given
in figures 26 and 29. Sub-miniature tubes are
used wherever possible to conserve space. The
audio and sideband generation section of the
transmitter is illustrated in figure 26. The heart
of this section is the Crosby triple triode modulator stage (V,A, V:,A, V,B). The first
triode serves as a cathode follower audio stage
and is driven by a sub-miniature 5 702 resistance coupled audio amplifier v,. The second
triode is also a cathode follower ( V:,A) and
is excited by the mixing oscillator stage V,A,
B. The cathode follower output voltage is developed across a common cathode resistor and
is injected into the cathode of a grounded grid
mixer tube V,B. A double sideband A-M
signal is developed in the plate circuit of the
mixer tube. The phase of the signal at the
plate of mixer V,B is opposite to that of a
signal injected on the control grid of the tube.
Cancellation of the carrier is therefore possible
by injectin~ the r-f carrier on this grid via
THE RADIO
the "carrier null" potentiometer R,. For maximum carrier elimination capacitor C is adjusted to neutralize the capacity feed-through
which may occur between V,A and V,B.
With proper adjustment of C and R, a carrier reduction of greater than 40 decibels below maximum SSB signal may be obtained
with stability.
The mixing carrier is generated at approximately 498 kc., the frequency of the "20
db attenuation point" of the mechanical filter.
The carrier is coupled into the Crosby modulator through cathode follower V,B. A single
sideband suppressed carrier signal appears at
the output terminals of the mechanical filter
and is amplified by a single 5 702 pentode
stage ( V,), which drives a cathode coupled
6BG 7 mixer ( y,) . A crystal oscillator ( V10)
operating on 4002 kc. provides mixing voltage
to deliver a 4.5 Me. sideband signal in the
output circuit of the mixer tube. Two double
tuned transformers (T, and T,) provide adequate supression of the mixer voltage. Further
signal amplification is obtained at 4.5 Me. by
virtue of a 6BG 7 cascode r-f amplifier stage,
y,_
At this point the signal is mixed in a second
cathode coupled mixer stage (Vs) and heterodyned to the 14 Me. amateur band. The mixing oscillator operates in the 9.7- 9-8 Me. region and uses a 57 44 triode ( Vn) in a Pierce
circuit. The 14 Me. SSB signal is developed
across a tuned circuit in the plate of the mixer
tube. The signal level at this point is quite
low, and a second cascade r-f amplifier ( y,)
is employed to boost the signal to a level high
enough to drive a class AB, tetrode linear amplifier. The RCA 6524 dual beam amplifier
rube requires only 33 volts peak drive signal
to develop 50 watts p.e.p., so it was chosen for
the final r-f amplifier stage. With the two sections of the tube connected in parallel and 4 7 5
volts applied to the plates approximately 40
watts p.e.p. can be obtained from the tube.
For maximum stability and freedom from parasitic oscillations, suppressors are placed in the
grid and plate leads of the tube and the stage
is neutralized.
A simple pi-section output circuit is em-
Figure 23
~:::~~
A complete filter-type 14 Me. single sideband transmitter capable of 40 watts p.e.p. and less than one-half
cubic loot in size is described in this section. Com ..
plete/y self contained, this seven pound sideband package is well suited for portable or mobile operation. Primary power source is 115/230 volts, 50-60 cycles. Silicon rectifiers are used in high voltage supply and a
6524 is employed as high /eve/linear amplifier.
HANDBOOK
591
AMPLIFIER
FIRST 14MC.
AMPLIFIER
Vo
V7
11~/
230V,
50-60""
LAYOUT,CHASSIS#1 1 FRONT
~~~tENL~
3 AND
SHIELD
C10
10\
--::
'O.t
'I
'- v
V1
0~'-,
V4AND 1
SHIELD -..:
T1
0-, 0
V6ANO _ ,
SHIELD
~
V10
0 V11
0
-~
,v.
)AND
\:_:;--SHIELD
Figure 24
BLOCK DIAGRAM AND PARTS LAYOUT OF 14 MC. SIDEBAND TRANSMITTER
Fourteen tubes (including two voltage regulators) are used in this compact transmitter. A "Crosby"
modulator and 500 kc. Collins Mechanical Filter are employed for sideband generation. First frequency
conversion is to 4 Me., and second frequency conversion is to J4 Me.
Layout of major components on both sides and front of special chassis is shown in the illustration.
Figure 25
OBLIQUE VIEW OF
AMPLIFIER AND
EXCITER CHASSIS
The
power
amplifier
chassis is at the left. The
plate coil, plate tuning
capacitor and loading
switch are in the loreground. Side # r of the
exciter is shown. The inter-chassis area is covered
with
perforated
metal. The tip jacks lor
the receiver disabling
circuit are on the right
edge of the chassis. Corners of the mounting
base are rounded to permit close lit with rounded corners of drawn
aluminum case.
592
V1
5702
5702
.001
A
TO
CHASSIS
#2.,
Ve
+12.5 FROM
SUPPLY
~c
B
(CONTROL)
TO FIG. 2.9
!:!.Qili
1- CAPAC!rDRS MARKED* ARE 240 1J1JF FOR TYPE
5008-31 MODEL FILTER.
REO
~T
Gt K G3 H H G2 P
,,~v.
RED
~OT
K
ll.JJ.l~K1
K2
H
H
C.1
P1
OA2
3
2
1 6
G2.
P2
CONNECTIONS TO
CHASSIS 1 & 2
OA2
115
v.
l>---+----4>-------- +475 v.
r----------~~---~-----~~----0.3V.
Figure 26
SCHEMATIC, LOW FREQUENCY SECTION AND POWER SUPPLY OF SSB TRANSMITTER
DL 1-Time delay relay, 45 seconds. Amperite 6N045-T. Normally open.
T 1-455 kc. miniature i-1 transformer. J. W. Miller 12-C9. Remove turns from windings to resonate at
500 kc.
T4-150 volt, 125 ma., 500 volt, 125 ma., 6.3 volt, 4 amp. Two 115 volt, 50-60 cycle primary windings.
Walgren 3266. Walgren Electric Mfg. Co., Pasadena, Calif.
CH,, CHz- 2 henry at 130 ma. Stancor C-2303
SR 1-Four silicon rectifiers. Max. inverse volts = 280. Sarkes-Tarzian M-500 or 1N1084
SR.-Eight silicon rectifiers, two in series lor each leg. Max. inverse volts
280. Sarkes- Tarzian M-500
or 1N1084
MF-Col/ings Mechanical Filter, 3.1 kc. bandwidth, 500 kc. center frequency. Type 5008-31
X 1-Approximately 498 kc. frequency chosen to place carrier oscillator at "20 db. down" point on filter
curve (see filter data sheet).
RFC-2.5 mh. miniature r-1 choke. Millen J300-2500.
s,-see figure 29
Figure 27
INTERIOR OF LOW FREQUENCY
PORTION OF FILTER TYPE SSB
TRANSMITTER
500 kc. filter and low frequency components
are on the bottom deck of the chassis. Small
components are mounted between socket pins
and miniature tie-point terminals. Interior
shield isolates low frequency section from
conversion oscillators and 4 Me. amplifier
stages. The "twenty meter 11 conversion crys ..
tal X, projects through the front panel of
the transmitter (left). Note that transformers
are mounted below chassis level to bring
overall height even with that of miniature
tubes. 6BK7 A amplifier tube is also submounted.
Power leads that pass through Inter-stage
shielding are routed through feed-thru type
ceramic insulators (Centralab type FT-1000).
594
THE RA D I 0
vo
V7
V8
Vg
6B'G7
68G7
6111
6BK7A
8KONTROL).-------------------------~------------------------------------------_J
F/t;.26
PC
CHASSIS* 2
ANTENNA
TOL2~
SSB StD
J4
RFC
Br:=-:} RECEIVER
220
Js
CW
DISABLE
50
22of-----~_r:;:>-----~c--'______
fSHt
.~~s v.::=::
~
0-+
0-10
2.- C
= .OI.J.JF
+300V.
+475
v.
Figure 29
T:, T.--4.5 Me. interstage transformer. J. W. Miller 6204
L,--20 turns #22 e., Y4" diam .. 8" long on ceramic form with iron slug. J. W. Miller 4504
L:, L.-15 turns # 18, %" diam, %" long on polystyrene form. Link
2 turns hookup wire.
L,--12 turns#l6, ll/4" diam., IY2" long
c,--50 1111.fd. ceramic trimmer. Centralab 822-AN
Cz--50 1111fd. Johnson SOKIO
C,-9 1111.fd. Johnson 9M11
c,-so 1111fd. Johnson SOLIS
Cs--75 1111.fd. fixed capacitor. Switch Sz adds seven 33 1111.fd. capacitors in succession. (EI-Menco type
CM-19 or Centralab TCZ-33).
s,A-E--5 pole, 3 position. Centralab PA-2015
S:--Centralab P-121 Index Assembly with PIS progressive shorting deck.
X:--4002 kc. Precision Crystal Lab., Santa Monica, Calif.
X.-Frequency
20 meter frequency minus 4500 kc.
PC-Parasitic choke. 52 ohm, I watt resistor wound with 6 turns # 16 wire.
RFC--2Y2 mh. miniature r-f choke. Millen J300-2500
M-0-10 d.c. milliammeter.
B,-37.5 volts. Burgess XX22 plus two type Z flashlight cells
SH,-150 ma. shunt. 100 ohms
RFCr-Ohmite Z-14 r-f choke
HANDBOOK
595
Figure 30
LINEAR AMPLIFIER
AND EXCITER
SECTIONS OF SSB
TRANSMITTER
Left: Linear amplifier Is
constructed
upon
an
aluminum
sheet
with
grid circuit enclosed by
small L-shaped shield
box. Low impedance link
leads from exciter pass
through grommet in box.
The coaxial output cable passes through chassis hole to changeover
switch. Space to the right
of grid enclosure is occupied by meter and time
delay relay.
Right: Front view of assembled exciter chassis
shows main panel con ..
trois. Chassis mounts in
vertical position in final
assembly. "Twenty me
tet
conversion crystal
socket is at top, left, of
front of assembly.
11
Figure 31
INTERIOR VIEW OF LINEAR
AMPLIFIER GRID COMPARTMENT
Time delay relay is mounted on side of grid
box, occupying space between the panel meter
and plate tank assembly. The grid coil and
tuning capacitor can be seen below the tube
Figure 32
leakage will deteriorate the sideband and carrier suppression to a great degree. Power leads
are therefore bypassed with feed through type
ceramic capacitors at each partition. Several
circuits (V1B, V,, Va, V,, and V,) are of
the "hot cathode'' type in which r-f voltage
appears on the cathode of the tube. It is very
necessary, therefore, to bypass the filament
lead of these tubes to prevent a signal leakage
path along the common filament wiring.
Bypass capacitors are placed directly at the
tube socket pins to conserve space and all
wiring is short and direct. Coil L ( 14 Me.
mixer plate coil) is mounted within the chassis
assembly on a small bracket and a short extension shaft is soldered to the slug to permit
circuit adjustment from the front panel. All
wiring must be checked for opens, shorts, transpositions, and accidental grounds before power
is applied to the transmitter.
Testing the
Transmitter
The transmitter should be tested in sections before it is assembled in the case. The use
of an auxiliary power supply is recommended.
The exciter section should be tested first. A
one kilocycle audio signal of low harmonic
content is applied to the microphone jack ],.
"Carrier insert" potentiometer R, is set at zero
(ground end) and the antenna of a receiver
capable of tuning to 500 kc. is attached to
point A, figure 26. Before the audio signal is
applied, "carrier null" potentiometer R:, and
neutralizing capacitor C are adjusted for minimum signal at the crystal frequency of 498
kc. When the audio level is advanced an unmodulated carrier should be heard in the receiver. The frequency of the carrier will be
Figure 33
Figure 34
"DUPLEX" TRANSMITTER-RECEIVER
FOR 220 MC. RADIO LINK
The width of the amateur 220 Me. band permits simultaneous duplex transmission between
two remote points. This compact VHF package
contains a complete 220 Me. "Radio Link." A
crystal controlled transmitter operates on
224.6 Me. The receiver operates at a frequency of 220.1 Me. Signal from the transmitter acts as local oscillator for the i-f sig
nal of 4.5 Me.
The complete station is housed in single steel
cabinet. Transmitter section is at left with
crystal mounted on panel. Receiver section is
at right with power supply occupying /ower
portion of cabinet. Transmitter may be tone
modulated for i.c.w. transmission.
, r - - - - 4 . 5 MC.
2.2.0.1 MC.
---z-22.4.6 MC.
Rx
Tx
--=-2.2.0.1 MC.
MODULATOR
V\3
&le
SPEECH
Y14
CARBON
MICROPHONE
r---- -----,
I
RECT. I
5Y3
5Y3
Vte I
L.. _ _ _
AUDIO OSC.
J, ___
l RECi.
Vt7
_j
V1s
1t5V. '\..
Figure 35
provide excellent gain and adequate selectivity. Transmitter is crystal controlled from 25 Me. crystal
and is plate modulated. Power supply provides 300 volts at 210 milliamperes. Transmitter draws 80
milliamperes, receiver draws 75 milliamperes, and modulator draws apptoximately 45 milliamperes under
I OOo/o modulation. Speech system is designated to be used with high gain mobile-type carbon microphone.
598
THE RADIO
28-S
A Duplex
Transmitter-Receiver
for 220 Me.
Figure 36
REMOVAL OF FRONT PANEL SHOWS
PLACEMENT OF R-F CHASSIS
The receiver and transmitter sections are boJt ..
ed together to form o single unit which sits
neor the top edges of the power transformer
Vs
6AB4
:c
(22SMC.)
(ZSMC.)
,...
z
0
m
0
0
RFC2.
;t:::
f-+--------'~--~(>----~H
,001
1 K
-c
TW
PL1
RECEIVER COIL TABLE
NOTES
1-ALL RESISTORS 1/Z WATT UNLESS OTHERWISE
NOTED.
PIN!,
L3.
L11-2.T.#16, 3/&"LONG.
N
N
0
I
~
()
lOOK
B+RECEIVER
"c'
Figure 37
RECEIVER SECTION
Cs, Cs, Cto, C11-4 p,p,fd. Erie 3139-E
RFC,-Ohmite Z-235 r-f choke
T,-T.-4.5 Me. interstage i-f transformer. J. W. Miller 1466
PL,-6 contact receptacle. Cinch-Jones P-306-AB
PIN 5 1
PL1
(AUDIO)
PIN 6,
PL1
CJ
"0
C1)
600
12AU7
V13
T6
12AX7
T7
CARBON
MIC.
MODULATOR SECTION
._---~+300V.
2. &
TO PINS
s, PLt
.01
c
KEY
e~----~+--P-1L_o_,~~.3V. TO
P1N3, PL 1
T5
FROM RECEIVER
(PINeS,
PLt)
!-ALL RESISTORS 1/2. WATT UNLESS
OTHERWISE NOTED.
Figure 38
Figure 39
REAR VIEW, R.F DECKS OF
TRANSMITTER-RECEIVER
Receiver deck is at the left and
transmitter deck is at the right.
The two chassis are bolted together to form one unit. Across
the back lip (left to right) are;
Receiver antenna receptacle,
pwoer plug PL,, meter terminals,
transmitter antenna receptacle,
and transmitter loading capacitor.
Rows of (,!," holes are drilled in
the transmitter chassis to improve ventilation of the rectfier
area under the chassis.
Figure 40
Figure 41
TRANSMITTER-RECEIVER CABINET,
SHOWING POWER SUPPLY
AND MODULATOR
The power supply and modulator chassis are
mounted vertically against the side walls of
the cabinet. The tubes are mounted on the
top edge of the chassis. A small blower motor
is placed at the rear of the chassis for continuous duty operation. R-f section sits upon
power transformer and is held in position by
panel bolts and sheet metal screws passed
through rear of cabinet.
Assembly
and Wiring
602
THE RADIO
tured coil stock and are mounted to the stator
rods of the tuning capacitors. Coils L, and L,
may be wound from enameled wire. The various power leads, decoupling resistors and capacitors are placed clear of the r-f circuitry
and the components are mounted upon phenolic tie point strips placed adjacent to the tube
sockets. The power leads and meter leads
that leave the chassis pass through ceramic
feed through capacitors (Centralab FT-1000)
mounted on the walls of the chassis.
HANDBOOK
the tuning process the settings of capacitors
C and C are advanced in unison until no
change of grid voltage is noticeable. As the
capacity settings are increased (keeping the
two settings approximately equal) the "kick"
of grid voltage will gradually decrease, until
there is either no movement of the meter as
Co is varied, or else merely a gradual rise of
a volt or so as C is swung through its range.
A 6.3 volt, 150 milliampere (brown bead)
lamp is now connected to antenna receptacle
]1 and plate voltage is applied to the amplifier
stage and exciter. Capacitors Co and c, are
tuned for maximum bulb brilliance. The plate
current of the amplifier stage will be close to
30 milliamperes under conditions of maximum
output.
Once initial adjustments have been made,
a 0-1 d.c. milliammeter may be connected to
the r-f voltmeter terminals and the transmitter
may be completely tuned by adjusting all resonant circuits for maximum indication of the
meter. It is wise, however, to make the preliminary adjustments stage by stage as described above to acquaint the operator with
proper transmitter operation.
220-Mc. Duplex
603
HORIZONTAL ARRAY
FOR RECEPTION
VERTICAL ARRAY
FOR TRANSMISSION
D
WOODEN
SUPPORT
2~. 5
1.-----
00
-----1
JE:::~'h~I
ELEMENT LENGTHS
AND SPACING
REFLECTOR(R)
2!>. 5"
ANTENNA (A)
23 . .5"
01 RECTOR (0)
22.2.5*
SPACING (5)
10"
#SWIRE
14-300 .n TV Ll NE
I (RANDOM
1
LENGTH)
COAXIAL BALUN
TOTAL LENGTH= 17 1/4"
MAD OF 7SJJ COAXIAL LINE I
I
75 !l. COAXIAL LINE
TO TRANSMITTER-RECEIVER
Figure 42
Figure 43
up wih a dummy load. This will provide injecion signal for proper receiver operation at
220.1 Me. A remote signal (preferably that
of the companion unit) should be used as a
signal source and the tuned circuits of the r-f
amplifiers adjusted for best signal reception.
It may be necessary to alter the spacing of coils
Ls - Ln to provide proper circuit resonance
which should occur at about the middle of the
tuning range of the associated capacitor.
the position of the antennas to provide maximum signal pickup with a minimum of interference from the local transmitter. In general,
the receiver antenna should be oriented for
maximum signal from the distant station, and
the transmitter antenna should be oriented for
minimum local signal pickup. For general use,
the two antennas may be attached to the same
supporting structure, separated from each other
by four or five feet. As with any VHF equipment, time spent in placing the antennas will
pay big dividends in system operation.
A High Stability
V.F.O. For the
DX Operator
28-6
Antenna
Installation
6. 2
Figure 44
HANDBOOK
High-Stability V.F.O.
605
( BO>)
(160>)
-teue
teue
L1
L2
6AQ5
RFC1
NOlES'
l-ALL MICA CAPACITORS EL-MENCO
SILVER MICA OR EQUIVALENT.
2-ALL CERAMIC CAPACITORS DISC-TYPE
CENTRALAB ODOR EQUIVALENT.
eue
6AQ.5
4- WIRE CABLE
TO SUPPLY
~----------------t--------------1---i~ P1
2
1
( 8~300)
(CONTROL)
3
4
(6.3V.) (GND.)
Figure 45
C,-.002 JLfd. Centralab high accuracy capacitor 950-202.
Cz-300 JLJLfd. Bud MC-1860
C,-25 JLJLfd. Bud LC-1642
L1-Vt
:~:::: f:o2:/. :;~ 3~;; :~d~ approx. I" long. (See text) Wind on National ceramic form XR-72. Tap
31
Lz-4,5 Me. lnterstage "TV" transformer. J. W. Miller 1466. Remove secondary winding and replace
with B turns #22 d.c.c. wound next to primary winding.
RFC,-2.5 mh. National R-100
RFCz-VHF choke, 500 ma. National R-60
606
THE RADIO
with regard to temperature changes. This style
Figure 47
UNDER-CHASSIS VIEW OF
V.F.O. UNIT
Power leod filters are at lower right of chassis, with r-f circuit components at left. All
ports are firmly mounted to terminals and
tie points to reduce vibration. Power leads
are laced. Buffer tuning capacitor C, is at
upper left.
is low in harmonic content. The variable frequency exciter to be described in this section
meets these fundamental requirements.
The V.F.O. Circuit
of winding reduces the possibility of the oscillator developing random frequency jumps with
changes in temperature and humidity.
A 56 ohm resistor is inserted in series with
the grid lead of the 6U8 oscillator t.ube. This
suppressor eliminates any tendency toward parasitic oscillation that can result in this type
of oscillator circuit. The parastic tends to make
fundamenal oscillation unstable at certain settings of the oscillator tuning capacitor. This
instability may be caused by variations of the
inherent inductance of the tuning capacitor at
the frequency of parasitic oscillation.
All components of the oscillator circuit are
spaced clear of the oscillator tube to prevent
heat transfer from the tube to the frequency
determining circuit.
The pentode oscillator is R-C coupled to
the triode section of the 6U8 which serves as
a cathode follower. The input impedance of
the cathode follower is extremely high and
provides excellent isolation between the oscillator circuit and the output stage. Plate and
screen voltage of the oscillator and plate voltage of the cathode follower are regulated by an
OA2 gas regulator to provide maximum isolation from power supply fluctuations.
The r-f output of the triode section of the
6U8 is taken from the low impedance cathode
circuit and is capacity coupled to a 6AQ5 miniature pentode tube which serves as a frequency
doubler to the 80 meter region. The v.f.o.
covers the frequency range of 1750 kc. to
1850 kc., and the plate circuit of the 6AQ5
doubler tunes 3 500 kc. to 3 700 kc. The 80
meter output is 0.8 watt which is more than
sufficient to drive a tetrode buffer such as an
807 or 6146. If more output is desired, a
6CL6 may be substituted for the 6AQ5 (with
appropriate socket wiring changes) to deliver
approximately 2 watts.
One filament terminal of each tube is
grounded and the free terminals are bypassed
to ground with .005 fLfd. ceramic capacitors.
The filament leads then pass through an r-f
choke to ensure maximum lead isolation.
Switch S, disables the v.f.o. by removing the
plate voltage. A second section of the switch
opens an auxiliary circuit that can control the
power relays of the transmitter. A third position of switch S, permits the v.f.o. to be
turned on by itself for zero-beat operation.
Transmitter keying for c-w operation is done
in the stages following the v.f.o.-exciter to
achieve maximum frequency stability and freedom from frequency shift during keyinp.
HANDBOOK
The mechanical design
of the variable frequency oscillator is equally
important as the electrical design if maximum
stability and reliability are to be achieved.
Provision must be made for dissipation of the
heat generated by the vacuum tubes, and the
v.f.o. components should be mounted on a
sheet of conducting material which will act as
a heat "sink" and will tend to resist rapid
changes in the temperature of the components
bolted thereto.
The v.f.o. is built upon a cadmium plated
steel chassis measuring 7 Yz" x 9" x 1 Y2 ". The
gear box of the National HRO-type dial is
bolted to the chassis and the main tuning capacitor c, is affixed by its front bearing to a
3" x 3" x 0.125" dural plate held to thecapacitor gear box by three long machine screws
and three 1 Ys" metal spacers. The tuning capacitor is driven through a high quality flexible coupling. This coupling should be free of
back-lash, and should not permit end pressure
on the shaft of the capacitor. A ] ohnson 104250 coupling is recommended. Make sure that
the shaft of the gear box and that of the capacitor are perfectly in line as misalignment
tends to force a degree of back-lash in the
system.
The rear mounting foot of the capacitor is
fastened to the steel chassis by means of a long
6/32 bolt and a l-inch metal spacer. This assembly provides a very rugged arrangement
with a minimum of flexing between the capacitor and the chassis.
Oscillator coil L and the precision ceramic
capacitor C are mounted to the chassis to the
side of the tuning capacitor as seen in the rear
view photograph. The slug of coil L is removed and discarded before the coil is wound.
Moveable oscillator slugs are not conducive
to any great degree of oscillator stability and
this potential source of instability should be
taken from the circuit before it can do any
damage.
The leads from the oscillator circuit to the
6US pentode tube pass through a 1 VI" hole
cut in the steel chassis. A Ys "-thick square of
polystyrene is mounted under this hole and two
miniature feedthrough bushings are mounted
in the insulating plate. The residual capacity
to grounds of these important leads is thereby
held to an absolute minimum value.
The vacuum tubes and auxiliary circuits
are placed on the opposite side of the tuning
capacitor from the sensitive tuned circuit L-C.
In front of the oscillator tube is the SO meter
Mechanical Design
of the V.F.O.
High-Stability V.F.O.
607
608
THE RADIO
enameled wire space-wound to a length of approximately one inch. The easiest way to obtain the correct spacing is to wind two separate
windings on the coil. One winding is the desired one of # 20 wire, the second is composed
of #24 enameled wire and is used only for
spacing. The two windings are put on simultaneously and the # 24 wire is removed after
the other winding has been properly terminated at both ends. To obtain the best temperature coefficient of the coil the wire should be
wound on when it is warm. The easiest way to
accomplish this is to place rolls of the two
wire sizes in the open and warm them slowly
until they are almost too hot to touch. The
wires are then removed from the oven and
wound on the coil form before they have a
chance to cool to room temperature. The wire
is kept under tension during the winding process and may be reheated with a soldering iron
or heat lamp if it begins to grow cold. When
the coil is completed and the wire cools, it
will be found to be tightly wound around the
coil.
After the coil has been completed the fourth
turn (cathode tap) should be cleaned carefully with a small, sharp knife blade and a
short length of # 22 wire is soldered to the
turn. The opposite end of this lead is attached
to a lug terminal at the base of the coil. All
the unused lugs may then be removed from the
coil form. A separate ground lead is run from
the ground lug of the coil form to the ground
lug of C and then to the rotor terminal of
tuning capacitor C, to prevent any intermittent
ground paths through the chassis and the capacitor mounting assembly.
V.F.O. Power
Supply
T1
5V4-G
115 V.'V
Figure 48
SCHEMATIC, POWER SUPPLY FOR
VFO
Tt-325-0-325 volts, 55 ma. Stancor PC-8407
CH,, CH.-7 henry at 50 ma. Stancor C-1707
HANDBOOK
increasing the capacitance of C will provide
full coverage of the 80 meter band. In either
case, it will be necessary to juggle the turns on
L to obtain the correct tuning range.
Operating Check
of the V.F.O.
High-Stability Y.F.O.
609
CHAPTER TWENTY-NINE
The trend in design of transmitters for operation on the high frequency bands is toward
the use of a single high-level stage. The most
common and most flexible arrangement includes a compact bandswitching exciter unit,
with 15 to 100 watts output on all the highfrequency bands, followed by a single power
amplifier stage. In many cases the exciter unit
is placed upon the operating table, with a coaxial cable feeding the drive to the power amplifier, although some operators prefer to have
the exciter unit included in the main transmitter housing.
This trend is a natural outgrowth of the increasing importance of v-f-o operation on the
amateur bands. It is not practical to make a
quick change in the operating frequency of a
transmitter when a whole succession of stages
must be returned to resonance following the
frequency change. Another significant factor in
implementing the trend has been the wide acceptance of commercially produced 75 and
150-watt transmitters. These units provide r-f
excitation and audio driving power for highlevel amplifiers running up to the 1000-watt
power limit. The amplifiers shown in this
chapter may be easily driven by such exciters.
29-1
Power Amplifier
Design
610
Design
611
TO ANTENNA
CIRCUIT
TO ANTENNA
CIRCUIT
UNBALANCED COAXIAL
FEED SYSTEM
BIAS
Figure 1
110
v.
Figure 2
CONVENTIONAL PUSH-PULL
AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
The mechanical layout should be symmetrical
and the output coupling provision must be
evenly balanced with respect to the plate coil
c,-Approx. 1.5 JLJLfd. per meter of wavelength per section
C,-Refer to plate tank capacitor design in
Chapter II
c,-May be 500 JLJLfd., 10,000-volt type ceramic capacitor
NC-Max. usable capacitance should be greater, and min. capacitance less than rated
grid-plate capacity of tubes in amplifier.
50o/o greater air gap than c,.
R,-100 ohms, 20 watts. This resistor serves
as low Q r-f choke.
RFC ,-All-band r-f choke suitable for plate
current of tubes
M,-M,-Suitable meters for d-e grid and plate
currents
into use to couple the output circuits of transmitters directly to the antenna.
Power Amplifier
Design-Choice
of Circuits
612
THE RADIO
29-2
Push-Pull Triode
Amplifiers
Circuit Layout
HANDBOOK
cuit. Of utmost importance in maintaining electrical balance is the control of stray capacitance between each side of the circuit and
ground.
Large masses of metal placed near one side
of the grid or plate circuits can cause serious
unbalance, especially at the higher frequencies, where the tank capacitance between one
side of the tuned circuit and ground is often
quite small in itself. Capacitive unbalance
most often occurs when a plate or grid coil is
located with one of its ends close to a metal
panel. The solution to this difficulty is to
mount the coil parallel to the panel to make
the capacitance to ground equal from each end
of the coil, or to place a grounded piece of
metal opposite the "free" end of the coil to
accomplish a capacity balance.
Whenever possible, the grid and plate coils
srhould be mounted at right angles to each
other, and should be separated far enough
apart to reduce coupling between them to a
minimum. Coupling between the grid and plate
coils will tend to make neutralization frequency
sensitive, and it will be necessary to readjust
the neutralizing capacitors of the stage when
changing bands.
All r-f leads should be made as short and
direct as possible. The leads from the tube
grids or plates should be connected directly
to their respective tank capacitors, and the
leads between the tank capacitors and coils
should be as heavy as the wire that is used
in the coils themselves. Plate and grid leads
to the tubes may be made of flexible tinned
braid or flat copper strip. Neutralizing leads
should run directly to the tube grids and plates
and should be separate from the grid and plate
leads to the tank circuits. HltVing a portion of
the plate or grid connections to their tank circuits serve as part of a neutralizing lead can
often result in amplifier instability at certain
operating frequencies.
Excitation
In general it may be stated
Requirements
that the overall power requirement for grid circuit excitation
to a push-pull triode amplifier is approximately
10 per cent of the amount of the power output
of the stage. Tetrodes require about 1 per cent
to 3 percent excitation, referred to the power
output of the stage. Excessive excitation to
pentodes or tetrodes will often result i11 reduced power output and efficiency.
Push-Pull
Symmetry is the secret of sue-
Design
613
Figure 3
LAYOUT OF 350-WATT PUSH-PULL
TRIODE AMPLIFIER
Two 81 1-A tubes are employed in this circuit.
Plate tuning capacitor is at left of chassis,
with swinging-link type plug-in coil assembly
mounted above it. Rotor of split-stator capacitor may be insulated from ground to increase
voltage breakdown rating of capacitor. Note
that pickup link is series-tuned to reduce circuit reactance. One corner af rotor plate of
series capacitor is bent so that capacitor
Amplifier
Construction
614
THE RADIO
Figure 4
UNIQUE CHASSIS LAYOUT PERMITS
SHORT LEADS IN KILOWATT
AMPLIFIER
Large size components required for high level
amplifier
often
complicate amplifier
layout.
Figure 5
LEFT-HAND VIEW OF KILOWATT
AMPLIFIER OF FIGURE 4
Above shielded meter box is the protective
micro-switch" which opens the primary power
circuit when the panel door is not closed. Tube
sockets are recessed in the chassis so that
top of tube socket shells are about 1;2-inch
above chassis level. On right side of amplifier
(facing it from the rear) the tube socket is
nearest the panel, with the neutralizing capacitor behind it. On the opposite side, the
capacitor is nearest the panel with the tube
directly behind it. This layout transposition
produces very short neutralizing leads, since
connections may be made through the stator
of plate tuning capacitor.
11
29-3
Push-Pull
Tetrode Amplifiers
HANDBOOK
615
Figure 7
Figure 6
CONVENTIONAL PUSH-PULL
TETRODE AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
Push-pull amplifier uses many ol the same
components required by triode tubes (see
figure 2). Screen supply is also required.
B-Biower lor filament seals ol tubes.
C~,-Low internal inductance capacitor, .001
JIId., SKY. Centralab type 8585- 1000.
NC-See text and figure 8.
PC-Parasitic choke. 50 ohm, 2-watt composition resistor wound with 3 turns # 12 e.
wire.
Note: Strap multiple screen terminals together
at socket with %" copper ribbon. Attach
PC to center ol strap.
circuit instability and oscillation under certain operating conditions. With luck, and a
616
Figure 9
UNDER CHASSIS VIEW OF
4-250A AMPLIFIER
Figure 8
REAR VIEW OF PUSH PULL
4-250A AMPLIFIER
The neutralizing rods are mounted on ceramic
feedthrough insulators adjacent to each tube
socket. Low voltage power leads leave the
grid circuit compartment via Hypass capacitors located on the lower left corner of the
chassis. A screen plate covers the rear of the
amplifier
was
THE RADIO
HANDBOOK
tetrode. The screen, it seemed, would have r-f
potentials measuring into the thousands of volts
upon it during a period of parasitic oscillation.
By-passing the screen to ground with copper
strap connections and multiple by-pass capacitors did little to decrease the amplitude of the
oscillation. Excellent parasitic suppression was
brought about by strapping the screen leads
of the 4250A socket together (figure 7) and
inserting a parasitic choke between the screen
terminal of the socket and the screen by-pass
capacitor.
After this was done, a very minor tendency
towards self-oscillation was noted at extremely high plate voltages. A small parasitic choke
in each grid lead of the 4-250A tubes eliminated this completely.
The neutralizing rods are mounted upon two
feedthrough insulators and cross-connected to
the 4-250A control grids beneath the chassis.
These rods are threaded so that they may be
run up and down the insulator bolt for neutralizing adjustment.
Because of the compact size of many tetrodes
it is necessary to cool the filament seals of the
tube with a blast of air. A smaU blower can be
mounted beneath the chassis to project cooling
air directly at the socket of the tube as shown
in figure 9.
Inductive Tuning of
Push-Pull Amplifiers
Pi-Network Amplifiers
617
seen in figure 10. Two fixed vacuum capacitors are mounted vertically upon the chassis
and the upper terminals are attached to the
plates of the amplifier tubes by means of low
impedance straps. Resonance is established by
rotation of a shorted copper loop located within the amplifier tank coil. This loop is made
of a %" long section of copper water pipe,
two inches in diameter. Approximate resonance
is established by varying the spacing between
the turns of the copper tubing tank coil. Inductive coupling is used between the tank coil
and the antenna circuit in the usual manner.
Sufficient range to enable the operator to cover
a complete high frequency band may be had
with this intere~ting tuning method.
29-4
618
THE RA D I 0
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EXCITATION
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T 9
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BIAS
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Figure 11
TYPICAL PI-NETWORK CONFIGURATIONS
A-Split grid circuit provides out-of-phase voltage for grid neutralization of tetrode tube. Rotary coil
is employed in plate circuit, with small, fixed auxiliary coil for 28 Me. Multiple tuning grid tank T 1
covers 3.5- 30 Me. without switching.
8-Tapped grid and plate inductors are used with "bridge type" neutralizing circuit for tetrode ampli-
HANDBOOK
of the pi may be varied to tune the circuit over
a 10 to 1 frequency range (usually 3.0 - 30
Me.). Operation over the 20 - 30 Me. range
takes place when the variable slider on coil L,
is adjusted to short this coil out of the circuit.
Coil L therefore comprises the tank inductance
for the highest portion of the operating range.
This coil has no taps or sliders and is constructed for the highest possible Q at the high
frequency end of the range. The adjustable
coil (because of the variable tap and physical
construction) usually has a lower Q than that
of the fixed coil.
The degree of loading is controlled by capacitors C and C. The amount of circuit capacity required at this point is inversely proportional to the operating frequency and to
the impedance of the antenna circuit. A loading capacitor range of 100 flflfd. to 2500
flflfd. is normally ample to cover the 3.5 - 30
Me. range.
The pi circuit is usually shunt-fed to remove
the d.c. plate voltage from the coils and capacitors. The components are held at ground potential by completing the circuit ground
through the choke RFC. Great stress is placed
upon the plate circuit choke RFC,. This component must be specially designed for this
mode of operation, having low inter-turn capacity and no spurious internal resonances
throughout the operating range of the amplifier.
Parasitic suppression is accomplished by
means of chokes PC-1 and PC-2 in the screen
and grid leads of the tetrode. Suitable values
for these chokes are given in the parts list of
figure 11. Effective parasitic suppression is dependent to a large degree upon the choice of
screen bypass capacitor C. This component
must have extremely low inductance throughout the operating range of the amplifier and
well up into the VHF parasitic range. The capacitor must have a voltage rating equal to at
least twice the screen potential (four times the
screen potential for plate modulation). There
are practically no capacitors available that will
perform this difficult task. One satisfactory solution is to allow the amplifier chassis to form
one plate of the screen capacitor. A '"sandwich"
is built upon the chassis with a sheet of insulating material of high dielectric constant and
a matching metal sheet which forms the screen
side of the capacitance. A capacitor of this
type has very low internal inductance but is
very bulky and takes up valuable space beneath the chas:sis. One suitable capacitor for
this position is the Centralab type 858S-1000,
Pi-Network Amplifiers
619
~EXCITER - - - - - - A M P L I F I E R - - - - - - !
807
-BIAS
Figure 12
rated at 1000 flflfd. at 5000 volts. This compact ceramic capacitor has relatively low internal inductance and may be mounted to the
chassis by a 6-32 bolt. It is shown in various
amplifiers described in this chapter. Further
screen isolation may be provided by a shielded
power lead, isolated from the screen by a .001
l'fd. ceramic capacitor and a 100 ohm carbon resistor.
Various forms of the basic pi-network amplifier are shown in figure 11. The A configuration employs the so-called ""all-band"' grid
tank circuit and a rotary pi-network coil in the
plate circuit. The B circuit uses coil switching
in the grid circuit, bridge neutralization, and
a tapped pi-network coil with a vacuum tuning capacitor. Figure 11C shows an interesting
circuit that is becoming more popular for
class AB 1 linear operation. A tetrode tube operating under class AB1 conditions draws no
grid current and requires no grid driving
power. Only r-f voltage is required for proper
operation. It is possible therefore to dispense
with the usual tuned grid circuit and neutral.izing capacitor and in their place employ a simple load resistor in the grid circuit across
which the required excitation voltage may be
developed. This resistor can be of the order of
50- 300 ohms, depending upon circuit requirements. Considerable power must be dissipated in the resistor to develop sufficiwt
grid swing, but driving power is often cheaper
to obtain than the cost of the usual grid circuit components. In addition, the low impedance grid return removes the tendency towards instability that is so common to the
circuits of figure 11A and 11B. Neutralization
is not required of the circuit of figure 11 C,
and in many cases parasitic suppression may
be omitted. The price that must be paid is the
THE RADIO
620
The compact kilowatt linear amplifier described in this section is designed for remote
control operation on any one amateur band. It
may be driven by any exciter capable of one
or two watts p.e.p. output.
Amplifier
Circuit
Figure 13
MIDGET LINEAR AMPLIFIER FOR
MOBILE SIDEBAND OPERATION
FEATURES WATER COOLED
4W-300B TETRODE TUBES
Miniature amplifier is comparable in size with
additional excitation that is required to develop operating voltage across grid resistor R '
The pi-network circuit of figure 11C is
interesting in that the rotary coil L, and the
plate tuning capacitor C are ganged together
by a gear train, enabling the circuit to be tuned
to resonance with one panel control instead of
the two required by the circuit of figure 11A.
Careful design of the rotary inductor will per
mit the elimination of the auxiliary high frequency coil L, reducing the cost and complexity of the circuit.
A single tuned circuit may be employed to
couple the power amplifier grid circuit to the
buffer stage as shown in figure 12. Care must
be taken to ensure that a good ground exists
between the two circuits.
29-5
A Compact
Linear Amplifier for
Mobile SSB
HANDBOOK
621
82
Figure 14
SCHEMATIC, MOBILE LINEAR AMPLIFIER
c,-120 JLJLid., SKY variable vacuum capacitor. Jennings GSLA-120
L,-(20 meters): J5 turns #I Be., o/a" diam., I" long. Adjust to resonance with J,
shorted and tubes in sockets.
L,-(20 meters); 6 turns, '14-inch silver plated copper tubing, 2'/2 " i.d., 2" long.
Adjust antenna tap lor proper loading.
RFC,-2.5 mh. National R-100
RFC,-225 turns #28 manganin, o/a" dia., 2" long, in series with National R-100
choke. Or, heavy-duty Ray par RL- 102 choke may be substituted lor these two
items.
RY,-SPDT relay, d.c. coil to match battery voltage. Jennings RB-I vacuum relay
employed
B,, 8:, 8,-/ndicator pilot lamps. 81 should have 500 ma. rating; Bz, 60 ma. rating;
and 8, may be automobile headlight lamp heavy enough to carry antenna
eurrent.
in screen capacitor which provides an extremely low impedance screen ground return circuit,
reducing the problem of parasitics to a minimum.
A simple "series" tuned input circuit is
employed in the grid circuit. The internal input capacitance of the tubes is effectively in
parallel with the grid coil resonating it to the
operating frequency. Since no grid current is
drawn during class ABl operation a small battery may be used to provide the correct value
of operating bias. Flashlight bulbs are placed
in the screen and negative high voltage leads
instead of meters to conserve space.
Figure 15
SMALL SIZE OF LINEAR AMPLIFIER
IS DUE TO USE OF MINIATURE
300 WATT, WATER COOLED
TETRODE TUBES
Parallel operation of the 4W-300B tubes is
employed. Plate tank inductor is at right,
with miniature variable vacuum capacitor behind it. Plate choke is in the foreground,
made up of a 2.5 mh. choke in series with a
home-made unit. Commercial choke may be
used, as indicated in parts list of figure J4.
Special low inductance Eimac sockets are employed with the tubes. Vacuum-type antenna
relay is at top, center.
Amplifier
Construction
622
THE RADIO
strap. A wire interconnecting lead will Jnvanbly lead to VHF parasitic oscillation of the
stage.
Amplifier
Operation
Figure 16
UNDER-CHASSIS VIEW OF MOBILE
SSB LINEAR AMPLIFIER SHOWS
SIMPLICITY OF CIRCUIT
Input circuit is at the left, with grid terminals
of socket connected with short copper strap.
Screen series resistors are at center, with grid
choke and power plug at right. Under-chassis
area is enclosed with aluminum bottom plate
held in place with self-tapping sheet metal
screws.
HANDBOOK
provide 2500 volts at 400 milliamperes (figure 18). Since the frequency of the alternator
is 120 cycles or higher and the ripple output
of the supply is less than 5% before filtering,
a small capacitor is sufficient to produce pure
d.c. and to provide good regulation for peak
power surges.
In the interest of power conservation and
compactness the new Sarkes-Tarzian silicon
rectifiers are used in the high and low voltage
power supplies. These rectifiers can be operated in series with no special selection. It is
possible therefore to provide compact and inexpensive high voltage rectifiers by connecting
a number of the standard type M-500 rectifiers in series to obtain the required peak inverse voltage rating. The higher cost of the
bank of silicon rectifiers as compared to vacuum tube rectifiers is offset by the elimination of the tubes and a special three-phase filament transformer. If desired, the special
Sarkes- T arzian 280-SM rectifier stack may be
substituted for the individual units. Since the
T1
to-----
623
6V. D.C.
0.2.A.
(TURNS ON WITH
K-531 FILS)
Figure 17
WATER CIRCULATION SYSTEM
FOR X-531 (4W-300Bl TUBES
(SEC. :11. 1)
50
;ow
t----.w--..--~-{.;
10.UF
450
32.5 V. (SCREEN)
AT tOO MA
100 K
sw-
(SEC. #Z)
Figure 18
SCHEMATIC, THREE-PHASE MOBILE POWER SUPPLY
DI-D;-500 mo. silicon rectifier. Sorkes-Torzion M-500
D,-Diz-2.5 KV, 130 mo. rectifier stock. Sorkes-Torzion 280-SM silicon rectifier. See text for
substitute
T ~-Special three-phase power transformer to deliver 2500 volts d.c. at 400 mo., and 325
volts d.c. at I 00 mo. Design data and core may be obtained from Arnold Engineering Co.,
Marengo, Ill. Core number: ATA-1573 with 12-mil Hypersil laminations for 120 c11cle
operation.
Primary winding: (12 volts)-Each leg, 15 turns #Be. wire
( 6 volts)-Each leg, 7 turns # Se. wire
Low Voltage secondary, Each leg, 265 turns #30e. wire
High Voltage secondary: Each leg, 2400 turns #28e. wire
7.5 KV insulation employed. High voltage winding placed next to core, low voltage
secondary next, and primary winding outside, with 2KV insulation. Vacuum impregnate
windings. When finished, polarize windings by placing 6 volt, 50 c.p. lamps in series
with each primary lead. Bulbs should only glow red when primary windings are correctly
polarized. Correct polarization of secondor11 windiNis will deliver desired ouU>ut voltaaes.
Figure 19
WATER COOLED LINEAR
AMPLIFIER PACKAGED FOR
FIXED STATION USE
Eithet 4W-3008 (watet cooled) tubes ot 4X250B (ait cooled) tubes may be employed in
this compact lineat amplifiet. Input and output capacitots of pi-netwotk ate vacuum
units, and powet supply (thtee phase) is contained within the cabinet (tight). Wide band
plate t.f. choke is at left of cabinet, tunning
ftom ftont to back. Amplifiet opetates at
plate potential of 3000 volts, with p.e.p. of
1500 watts.
under overload conditions and the silicon rectifiers cannot be damaged, even with a direct
short circuit across the output terminals of the
high voltage power supply.
This unusual equipment is described for
others who may wish to make models based
upon ideas presented in the design. Although
some of the components shown in the amplifier or power package are unique or are not
readily available, it is hoped that the reader
can make use of his facilities and abilities to
use many of the ideas shown herewith.
It is possible to increase
the power level of this
amplifier by merely adding more tubes connected in parallel with the
original two. Three tubes will permit a p.e.p.
of two kilowatts at 3000 volts plate potential.
Variations Upon
the Basic Circuit
Figure 20
MULTI-BAND LINEAR AMPLIFIER
FOR MOBILE SERVICE FEATURES
THREE SEPARATE TANK CIRCUITS
SWITCHED BY CONTROL RELAYS
Three vacuum tonk capacitors are located at
top left cotnet of panel. To the tight is thetmocouple r.l. ammeter in output circuit. Zerocentet scteen metet and 0-500 d.c. ma. plate
metet ate at lower tight.
29-6
A Multi-band
Mobile Linear Amplifier
The kilowatt linear amplifier described in
this section is designed for remote control mobile operation on any three amateur bands.
The unit shown in the photographs operates
on the 80, 40, and 20 meter bands, but operation on 15 or 10 meters is possible by altering
the constants of the plate tank circuit.
625
INPUT
j,
01
LDFC1
J3
RECEIVER
~~ ~IH
300
BW
NOTE
Figure 21
c,, c,,
Cs-Jennings variable vacuum capacitor, type GSLA. Use 250 JlJlld. unit lor 80
J.LJ.lld. units for other bands. Adjust coils to resonate circuit with capacitors set near
L,-16 turns, 7;4-inch silver plated copper tubing, 2Y2" i.d., 3Y2" long. Antenna tap
turns from ground end.
Lz-8 turns, same as L1o Antenna tap approximately 2 turns from ground end.
L,-5y2 turns, same as L, Antenna tap approximately % turn from ground end.
RFC,-2.5 mh. National R-100
RFCz-Wide band choke, 500 ma. rating. Raypar RL-102
RY,, ,, s-DPDT relay, d.c. coil to match battery voltage. Jennings type RB vacuum relay
RY,-SPST relay, d.c. coil to match battery voltage, Jennings type RB-I vacuum relay
Co., San Jose, Calif.)
M,-0- 500 ma. d.c. meter
M,-500- 0- 500 d.c. micro-ammeter, zero center movement, shunted to 50- 0- 50 ma.
Ms-0- 5 ampere, r.l. ammeter
Amplifier
Circuit
(Jennings Radio
626
THE
RADIO
Amplifier
Operation
29-7
An Inexpensive
Cathode Driven
Kilowatt Amplifier
Figure 22
REAR VIEW OF
MULTI-BAND
MOBILE LINEAR
AMPLIFIER
The three amplifier tank
<:oils are t:onne<:ted between the variable vacuum
capacitors
and
t:hassis
ground.
Plate
voltage is shunt-fed to
the linear amplifier tubes
(4W-300B's
or
4X250B's). Antenna relay
is at left. Extremely low
harmonic content of class
AB I amplifier operation
requires no TV/ st:reening or other endosure to
prevent radiation of undesired harmonies.
HANDBOOK
Multi-Band Amplifier
627
Figure 23
UNDER-CHASSIS VIEW OF MULTIBAND LINEAR AMPLIFIER
Coaxial input receptacle is at left, with composition-type grid resistors. Simplicity of circuit requires relatively few components beneath the chassis. Grid terminals of sockets
are connected with wide copper strap.
LOAD
Figure 24
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF CASCADE
CLASS ABl CATHODE DRIVEN
AMPLIFIERS
A-Cathode driven amplifiers may be arranged in cascade to provide high output
levels. Any variation in load impedance
(R) reflects back as nearly proportional
change at the input, as input and output
circuits are essentially in series as shown
in figure B.
a-Equivalent circuit of figure A. R, has a
very high resistance, and R2 and R3 have
very low resistances compared to the
load R.
628
Figure 25
CATHODE DRIVEN KILOWATT
AMPLIFIER FOR 40 AND 80 METERS
Cathode driven amplifier presents ultimate in
simplicity and stability. Designed around two
803 tetrodes, this kilowatt amplifier for 40
and 80 meter operation has only plate tank
tuning control and plate cu11ent meter on
panel. Amplifier is completely enclosed for
reduction o# spurious radiation.
RFC
1
+~~A
M~-BO~l
115
v. '\..,
Figure 26
SCHEMATIC, CATHODE DRIVEN
AMPLIFIER
c,-250 !l!lfd., 5000 volt spacing
L,-40 or 80 meter inductor. Cut to resonate
to frequency with c, near full capacity.
Antenna coil 5 turns.
PC-40 ohm, 2 watt composition resistor
wound with 6 turns # 78 e. wire
TC-R.f. thermocouple, 0-5 amperes
T,-10 volts at 10 amperes. Stancor P-6461
RFC,-1.0 mh. Johnson 102-752
RFC,-Heavy duty plate choke. National R175A
M,-0-500 d.c. milliamperes
M,-0-5 amperes, r.f. (Used with TC)
Figure 27
REAR VIEW, CATHODE DRIVEN
803 AMPLIFIER
Plate tuning capacitor is at the center, with
tank coil to left. The 803 tubes (right) are
mounted with sockets below deck, so that
tops of bases are level with chassis. Plate
r.f. choke is placed between tubes, with parasitic chokes (PC) supported from top terminal of choke.
supporting the sockets. The complete amplifier is enclosed in a shield made of aluminum.
Holes are drilled above the 803 tubes in the
top sheet (figure 25) and in the rear plate to
permit circulation of air about the tubes.
Amplifier
Operation
The Grounded
Screen
Configuration
Figure 28
UNDER-CHASSIS VIEW OF CATHODE
DRIVEN AMPLIFIER
Input coaxial connector is at the right on
rear of chassis. Mica filament bypass capacitors are placed between the tube sockets,
with RFC, beneath them.
630
THE
Figure 29
GROUNDED SCREEN GRID
CONFIGURATION PROVIDES HIGH
ORDER OF ISOLATION IN TETRODE
AMPLIFIER STAGE
A-Typical amplifier circuit has cathode return at ground potential. All circuits return to cathode.
B-All circuits return to cathode, but ground
point has been shifted to screen terminal
of tube. Operation of the circuit remains
the same, as potential differences between
elements of the tube are the same as in
circuit A.
C-Practical grounded screen circuit. ~~com
mon minus" lead returns to negative of
plate supply, which cannot be grounded.
Switch S; removes screen voltage for tuneup purposes.
RADIO
placed at the screen terminal of the tube. Circuit operation is still the same, as all power
supply returns are still made to the cathode of
the tube. The only change is that the screen
r.f. ground and d.c. ground are now one and
the same. The cathode circuit is now at a
negative potential with respect to the chassis
ground by an amount equal to the screen
voltage. In addition, the return of the high
voltage plate supply is now negative with respect to ground by an amount equal to the
screen voltage supply.
A practical version of this circuit is shown
in figure 29C. The grid bias and screen supplies are incorporated in the amplifier and
separate terminals are provided for the positive and negative leads of the high voltage
supply. A "tune-opera:te" switch S, is added to
the circuit which removes the screen potential
for tune-up purposes. The negative of the
high voltage supply "floats below ground" at
the value of the screen voltage.
This circuit is unique in that it requires a
mental orientation of the user to accept the fact
that d.c. ground is no longer "ground." However, the circuit is no more complex than the
usual grounded cathode d.c. return circuit, and
the advantage of having the screen at r.f.
ground potential far outweighs the unusual
aspects of the circuit. Operation of the circuit
is normal in all respects, and it may be applied
to any form of tetrode amplifier with good
results.
The Amplifier
Circuit
HANDBOOK
631
INPUT
Jt
ALC
OUT
NOTES:
T~
OTHERWISE SPECIFIED
4- 250A /4-400A
D.C. PLATE VOLTAGE
D.C. SCREEN VOLTAGE
STATIC PLATE CURRENT
(MA.)
3500
300
300
60
60
-60
-60
3.6
10
4.5
2.0
195
265
235
235
RELAY
CONTROL
3000
(WATTS)
(o/o)
\tSV.
'\.1
Figure 30
180
2.10
0.63
3.4
6.6
15.8
350
690
60
70
Figure 31
KtLOWATT CATHODE-DRIVEN
AMPLIFIER
Careful arrangement of components permits
Figure 32
TOP VIEW OF
KILOWATT
AMPLIFIER USING
4-400A TETRODE
Plate circuit inductor is
placed parallel to panel
and driven by right-angle
mounted
atop
vacuum
full length
Meter leads
conduit (left
under-chassis
plate covers
of chassis.
pass down
corner I to
area. Shield
entire enclosure.
Figure 33
UNDER-CIIASSIS
VIEW OF
CATHODE-DRIVEN
AMPLIFIER
633
634
THE RADIO
Figure 34
no the chassis on both sides. This strap is bolted to the two screen terminals of the socket,
and to the two diagonal assembly screws of the
socket frame. The ends of the strip are fastened to the chassis, forming a low impedance
return path for the screen circuit. The .001
fLfd., 5 KV ceramic grid bypass capacitor is
mounted directly between the ground strap and
the grid terminal of the tube socket.
The r.f. input jack J, is mounted to the rear
wall of the chassis directly behind the tube
socket and two .001 fLfd. ceramic capacitors
are connected between the center terminal of
J, and each filament terminal of the tube socket. Short leads connect the filament terminals
to the filament choke coil L, mounted on the
side wall of the chassis, directly above the tube
socket. The power supply components are encased within an auxiliary shield measuring
5" x 7 Y:z" (figure 34). All leads leaving this
enclosure pass through .001 }Lfd. ceramic feedthrough capacitors mounted on the wall of the
enclosure. The four silicon rectifiers are mounted in a multiple fuse clip holder placed on the
side wall, and the three regulator tubes are
mounted on the adjacent wall.
The power circuits of the
amplifier may be wired
with unshielded wire since
the r.f. field beneath the chassis is extremely
low. All d.c. leads are cabled and laced as may
be seen in the under-chassis photograph. Leads
to the meter deck pass through the area above
the chassis in a short section of Y:z-inch alum-
Amplifier Wiring
and Tuning
HANDBOOK
Kilowatt Amplifier
635
Figure 35
GENERAL PURPOSE AMPLIFIER
OPERATES IN CLASS A, B, OR C
MODE
This kilowatt amplifier employs a pair of
4-250A's in a pi-network circuit. Mode of operation may be set by selection of proper
screen and bias voltages. Grid, plate, and
screen current meters are mounted on plastic
plate behind panel cut-out, and tubes are
visible through shielded panel opening. Across
bottom of panel (left to right) are bandswitch, grid tuning, plate tuning, loading, and
primary power control circuits. Plate tuning
knob is attached to small counter dial.
s,
29-9
Kilowatt
Amplifier for Linear or
Class C Operation
A pair of 4-250A or 4-400A tetrode rubes
may be employed in a pi-coupled amplifier
capable of running one kilowatt input, c-w or
plate modulated phone, or two kilowatts
p.e.p. for sideband operation. Correct choice of
bias, screen, and exciting voltages will permit
the amplifier to function in either class A, B,
or class C mode. The amplifier is designed
to operate at plate potentials up to 4000 volts,
and excitation requirements for class C operation are less than 2 5 watts.
A bandswitching type of pi-network is employed in the plate circuit of such an amplifier, shown in figure 35. The pi-network is
an effective means of obtaining an impedance
match between a source of r.f. energy and a
low value of load impedance. A properly designed pi-network is capable of transformation
ratios greater than 10 to 1, and will provide
approximately 30 decibels or more attenuation
to the second harmonic output of the amplifier
as compared to the desired signal output. Since
rhe second harmonic level of the amplifier
tube may already be down some 20 db, the
actual second harmonic output of the network
will be down perhaps 50 db from the fundamental power level of the transmitter. Attenuation of the third and higher order harmonics
will be even greater.
636
4-250A
4-400A
500
100
2W
20 KV
NOTE:
T1=
GND
1, 5
'U
115
'U
v.
8+25003500 v
Figure 36
PC-47
ohm,
composition
wound
#!Be.
with
watt
resistor
turns
RFCJ-2.5
mh.
choke.
National R-100
RFC,-Heavy duty, wideband r.f. choke. Barker & Williamson type
BOO
RFC.,-VHF choke. Ohmite Z-144
T1-5
volt, 20 ampere.
Stancor P-6492
M1-0-50
Triplett
ma.
d.c.
M,-0- 150
Triplett
ma.
d.c.
M,-0-750
Triplett
ma.
d.c.
Figure 37
PLACEMENT OF
PARTS IN UNDERCHASSIS AREA
Grid tuned circuit is enclosed in separate enclosure at left. Bandswitch
projects out the rear of
case1 and is gear driven
by same shalt that actuates the plate bandswitch. Switches are driven through right-angle
gear drives and gears.
Output capacitor of pinetwork is shielded from
rest
of
under-chassis
components.
The screen terminals of
each tube socket are
strapped together with
inductance screen
bypass
capacitor
is
t o
socket
bolt. Screen
parasitic choke mounts
between strap and capacitor
terminal.
All
low
grounded
mounting
638
-------
PLATE COl LS
La- {2.0
Amplifier
Construction
Figure 40
THE RADIO
grid circuit components are mounted within
an aluminum box measuring 3" x 4" x 4".
Plate loading capacitor C., r.f. choke RFC-1,
and output conn(Xtor } are placed within an
enclosure measuring 6" x 6" x 3", made up
of aluminum angle sections and sheet material.
The plate circuit shielding is made of Reynold's
"Do-it-yourself" aluminum stock, available at
most hardware stores.
Layout of the major components can be seen
in figure 3 7. The two tube sockets are placed
directly behind the panel opening, with the
plate r.f. choke between them, and the variable
vacuum capacitor is mounted vertically to the
chassis directly behind the sockets, on the center line of the chassis. To the right of the sockets is neutralizing capacitor C. The high voltage ceramic coil switch s,A-B is placed dir(Xtly
behind the vacuum capacitor, mounted in a
vertical position.
The variable vacuum capacitor is panel driven by a counter-type dial, through a miniature
right angle gear drive, as seen in the underchassis view (figure 38). The plate and grid
band switches are ganged and switched in unison by means of a shaft acting through two
right angle gear drives and two bevel gears.
Both circuits are thus switched by the "Bandswitch" control located in the lower left corner
of the front panel.
It is necessary to apply forced air to the
sockets of the amplifier tubes. A large 115
volt a.c. operated blower is therefore mounted
in the center of the bottom shield plate. The
under-chassis area is thus pressurized and the
majority of the air escapes through the socket
ventilation holes located near the pins of the
tubes.
All wiring beneath the chassis (with the
exception of the filament leads) is done with
5KV insulated wire, encased in metallic braid
which is grounded to the chassis every inch or
so. The B-plus wiring from the high voltage
terminal to the plate current meter is done
with a section of RG-8/U coaxial line from
which the outer braid has been removed. A
similar piece of line is run from the meter to
the plate r.f. choke, RFC-2.
The three meters are mounted upon a lucite sheet placed behind a second lucite sheet
mounted behind a cut-out in the front panel.
The meters are shielded from the plate circuit
of the amplifier by an aluminum enclosure
that covers the wiring and meters, running the
full length of the chassis. The meter leads pas's
through the plate circuit area via a short length
of Y2-inch aluminum conduit that is threaded
HANDBOOK
Kilowatt Amplifier
MODE
ITEM
P_:!'_~-E V0_0~~-_--~
P~~T:_c~R~~ ~~)
!---
3oo0 T
-=-~00 __Li_Soi-~~?O_?_
j_----=-3?_
110-42_~3~-440_J~-~?__
~R~E~o__:_~~G~-
sao
1_ 6oo _f-__soo _Lsoo
s<:_~E--=-~~~E~~~M~)L _24 __
~-~o-~'~6~_l_._?D_
I
G R I 0 8 I As
- _, 1 0
-i __
P~w-~~~T~ur~w~"C::l'- ~o~_l_
T,
- _8 0
- 2 00
-200
-J ~,zOT~,zo
;_ 20
_no
-~--20
1
-~oo
5R4-GY
Figure 41
OPERATING DATA AND SCHEMATIC,
SCREEN AND BIAS SUPPLY
T:-870-410-0-410-870 volts ot ISO ma. and
60 ma. 5 volts, 2 a., 6.3 v. 3.5 a.
Stancor P-8307
r,-235-0-235 volts at 40 ma. Stancor PC8401
CH:-7 henry at ISO mo. Stancor C-1710
CH,-7 henry at 50 mo. Stancor C-1707
RY:-Overlood relay, adjustable 100-250 ma.
Note: J, is insulated from chassis.
639
Figure 42
4CX-1 OOOA ALL BAND AMPLIFIER
PROVIDES TWO KILOWATT P.E.P.
FOR SIDEBAND, OR ONE KILOWATT
FOR PHONE C.W. OPERATION
Grid, plate, and output meters are across top
of panel. Counter dial at center drives var-
tion.
29-1 0
A 2 Kilowatt
P.E.P. All-band Amplifier
Described in this section is an efficient allband linear amplifier suited for SSB, phone,
and c.w. operation up to the maximum legal
power input limit. A 4CX-IOOOA ceramic
power tetrode is employed in the basic circuit
shown earlier in this chapter in figure IIC.
The Eimac 4CX-lOOOA JS a ceramic and
OUTPUT
2000
20KV
Jz
L1
47K
500
20 KV
10 K
01
C-.-:J
E -I'JII----<!
1K
Figure 43
SCHEMATIC, 4CX-1000A LINEAR AMPLIFIER
o--- F
641
Figure 44
END VIEW OF AMPLIFIER
4CX-1 OOOA sub-chassis is shown, with plate
circuit choke mounted at rear. External blower provides forced air to cool tube seals via
entrance hole in reat of chassis. Bias adjustment potentiometer is in foreground, between
642
Amplifier
Figure 45
TOP VIEW OF
4CX-1000A
AMPLIFIER
Tetrode tube fits in Eimoc air socket on small
chassis at one end ol
enclosure.
Pi-network
capacitors are mounted
on aluminum brocket attached to chassis, and
ore panel driven through
flexible shaft couplers.
Heavy duty, high-C bandswitching inductor is at
opposite side ol assem ..
bly, with output circuit
diode voltmeter mounted
above it on rear of enclosure.
Extremely low harmonic
content of amplifier removes need of meter
shields. Amplifier may be
run without enclosure
with no sign ol TVI on
any band in normal TV
signal area.
Figure 46
REAR VIEW OF CHASSIS ASSEMBLY
Air inlet, power receptacle and coaxial input
jack are located on reot of amplifier chassis.
Pi-network capacitor assembly is at left, with
Raypar wideband plate r-t choke in toreground. Plate blocking capacitor is made of
tour 500 111dd. TV -type capacitors mounted
in Sandwich" between stator plate of vacuum
capacitor and round aluminum plate.
11
Amplifier
Operation
644
THE
SCREEN VOLTAGE
GRID VOLTAGE_
3000
2000
2500
325
325
325
-55
-55
-55
1-250
250
250
1000
1000
900
-2
-2
-2
SINGLE TONE:IG2(MA)
30
30
30
55
55
55
ZERO SIGNAL:IP(MA.)
SINGLE TONE
!P(MA)
-~-~-
NOTE:
--
1080
1460
1680
--
29-11
A High Power
Push-pull Tetrode Amplifier
The push-pull tetrode amplifier still retains
a high degree of popularity in spite of the
trend towards single-ended pi-network amplifiers. Regardless of the power level of the
push-pull amplifier, the physical design must
satisfy two important requirements. First, the
plate and grid circuits of the amplifier must be
symmetrical with respect to each tube; and
second, the input and output circuits must be
isolated from each other. Finally, after the
physical layout of the amplifier has been de-
RADIO
Figure 49
HIGH POWER PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIER
USES 4-1 OOOA TUBES
This amplifier design is typical of push-pull
stages regardless of power level. Tubes ate
visible through screened openings in panel.
Controls ate (top to bottom): Output link
tuning, variable link coupling, plate circuit
tuning, and grid circuit tuning. Amplifier is
housed in special 2l" rack. Filament meters
fot each tube are on auxiliary panel holding
bias and screen supply.
HANDBOOK
4-IOOOA/4-400A
RFc
X
82
~RFC1
~ Co~
115V,'\_,
-BIAS
fl
Rr. Tl xTj
B1
2}12HOKl:
C7
115
CB
v. '\.,
'~
C9
B+
+SCREEN
Figure 50
SCHEMATIC, PUSH-PULL HIGH POWER AMPLIFIER
C,-700- 700 !l!lfd. "butter-fly" capacitor. Barker & Williamson type JCX
Cz, C3-Neutraliring capacitors. 1" x 3" aluminum plate mounted near tube
envelope (figure 53)
C,A-B-60- 60 Jl!lfd. split-stator variable vacuum capacitor. Eimac VVC-60-20. See
text for substitute
c,-soo ll!lfd. Johnson 500E20
C,-C.,--0.7 !lfd., 600 volt feedthrough capacitor. Centralab "HY-pass"
RFC,-VHF-type choke. National R-60, or Ohmite Z-50
RFC,-Heavy duty plate choke. Surplus choke from AN/ART-13 transmitter, or
Barker & Williamson type BOO
PC-Parasitic suppressor. 3 turns # 74 wire, V:z-inch diam. in parallel with 47 ohm,
5 watt carbon 11 Globat 11 resistor
645
Figure 53
CLOSE-UP OF PLATE CHOKE AND
NEUTRALIZING CAPACITOR
Neutralizing capacitor is made of tab soldered
to threaded rod mounted in insulating button
affixed to chassis.
Amplifier
Construction
CHAPTER THIRTY
Speech and
Amplitude Modulation Equipment
30-1
Modulation
Tetrode
Modulators
647
648
THE RADIO
HA.NDBOOK
Design
+B
MOD.
High-Level
Splatter Suppressor
MODULATOR
+B
R.f.
fiNAL
115 V.
Figure 1
HIGH-LEVEL SPLATTER SUPPRESSOR
The high-vacuum diode acts as a series limiter to suppress negative-peak clipping in
t.~e modulated r-f amplifier as a result of
large amplitude negative-peak modulating
signals. In addition, the low-pass filter following the diode suppresses the transients
which result from the peak-clipping action of
the diode. Further, the filter attenuates all
harmonics generated within the modulator
system whose frequency lies above the cutoff frequency of the filter. The use of an
appropriate value of capacitor, determined
experimentally as d is c us s e d in Chapter
Fifteen, across the primary of the modulation
transformer (C.1J introduces further attenua ..
tion to high-frequency modulator harmonics.
Chokes suitable for use at L are manufactured
by Chicago Transformer Corp.. The correct
values of capacitance for C1, C:, C,, and C "
are specified on the installation sheet for the
splatter suppressor chokes for a wide variety
of operating conditions.
649
Figure 2
TOP VIEW OF THE
6L6 MODULATOR
Figure 3
UNDERCHASSIS
OF THE
6L6 MODULATOR
A
4-connector plug is
lor filaments and
p I a t e voltage to the
speech amplifier, while a
6-wire terminal strip is
used lor the high-voltage
connections and the transmitfer"control switch.
used
It is difficult to surpass
the capabilities of the
reliable beam power
tube when an audio
power output of 10 to 120 watts is required
of a modulator. A pair of 616 tubes operating
in such a modulator will deliver good plate
circuit efficiency, require only a very small
amount of driving power, and they impose no
serious grid-bias problems.
Modulator with
Beam Power Tubes
Pri CW
POWER CONNECTIONS
\___
:....
A-G~OUND
B-6.3V.
c-
0+250-300
PL
v.
- -
- - - --
S1A
--
__,:::,.
HQ_l_~ ..
D- BIAS
E-8+250-750 v
6 3
~:==;==;=
A
8+
TO
FINAL
(SEE FIGURE 5)
Figure 4
SCHEMATIC OF BEAM POWER TUBE MODULATOR
M-0- 250 d.c. milliammeter
The Output
Stage
651
FIGURE 5
RECOMMENDED OPERATING CONDITIONS FOR
MODULATOR OF FIG.4 FOR DIFFERENT TUBE TYPES
TUBES
V1.V2
CLASS
PLATE
VOLTS
SCREEN
IE I
VOLTS
(CI
GRID
BIAS
(DI
6V6GT
AB1
250
250
-15
10,000
6V6GT
AB1
285
285
-19
8,000
6L6
AB 1
380
270
-23
6,600
6L6
AB2
380
270
-23
3,800
I 10,000
807
AB1
600
300
-34
807
AB1
750
300
-35
12,000
807
AB2
750
300
-35
7,300
(MA.)
(WATTS)
170-80 ;
10
70-95
15
es-r3s
27
85-205
47
35-140 I
58
30-140
75
30-240
120
30-3
General Purpose
Triode Class B Modulator
High level class B modulators with power
output in the 125 to 500 watt level usually
make use of triodes such as the 809, 811,
8005, 805, or 810 tubes with operating plate
voltages between 750 and 2000. Figures 6,
7, and 8 illustrate a general purpose modulator unit designed for operation in this power
range. Figure 8 gives a group of suggested
operating conditions for various tubes. The
size of the modulation transformer will of
course be dependent upon the amount of audio
power developed by the modulator. In the case
Figure 6
REAR VIEW OF THE
GENERAL-PURPOSE MODULATOR
'
652
6N7
684-G
TI
VI
T2
.005
c-
l[~o~e
684-G
V2.
,--_- ---,
10 JJF
450
4.7 K
10 ..UF
-.r50
+ +
5 K
-,_-
B+ 1000-1250 V.
CHI
5Y3-GT
*=MATCHED PAIR
25 K
""10
RESISTORS, 1%
Figure 7
SCHEMATIC OF GENERAL PURPOSE MODULATOR
M-0- 500 ma.
T,-Driver transformer. Stancor A-4761
T2 - 11 Poly-pedance 11 Modulation transformer.
300 watt rating, Stancor A-3898.
500 watt rating, Stancor A-3899.
T 3 -360- 0-360 volts, ISO mo. Stancor PC-8410
Circuit Description
of General Purpose
Modulator
~sEsTP"C:.r~
V1,
v-~
f--
IvOLTAGE I
---+--- __
I 809'_j'
700
~811:A ~~5~i
~-~
'811-A
~A
__:co-+
1250
I_'OO
8~250
805
GRID
BIAS
(VOLTS)
-~
70-250
6,200
30-350
5,IOO
145350
7,400
2.45
50-350
9,200
310
323I5
I2,400
148400
6,700
~4.5
I
PLATE
PLATE ro
SINE WAVE I
CURRENT PLATE LOAD pOWEROUTPUT
(MA.l
(OHMS)
(WATTS)
I75
-~
340
300
500 --j:---I-6-+---84
___4_0_0+-8-.2-0-0-+--3-70----j
~~o~~---5_o-+-6o__4_2_o+_I'-_P_o_o_+-_4_5_o_---l
~ 2500
~5
1500
-75
50-420
I7,500
-67
40-330
9,800
500
~
Figure 9
REAR VIEW OF 810
SOO-WATT CLASS B
MODULATOR
Bias control is directly below the 810 tubes with bias
supply to right.
DRIVER
~OR MER
810
TO R-F AMP
-65 TO 75 V.____.
"'B+2500 V
5Y3GT
Figure 10
SCHEMATIC OF SOO WATT TRIODE MODULATOR WITH BIAS SUPPLY
T1-Driver transformer, 15 watts. Stancor A-4761
T,-Modulation transformer, 500 watt. Chicago Transformer Co. CMS-3
TJ-5 volts, 3 amp. Stan cor P-6467
T;-Tapped bias transformer, 15-100 volts. UTC S-51
r,-10 volt, 10 amp. Stancor P-6461
CH ,-500 ma. "splatter choke" Chicago Transformer Co. SR-500
CHz-7 henry, 150 ma. Stancor C-1710
M-0- 500 d.c. milliammeter
S,A-8-High voltage switch (see text)
654
THE RADIO
500
1K
100 A
+------'
8-
B+
2500V
1'Q'KV
(--
TO
OSCILLOSCOPE
Figure 11
TEST SETUP FOR 500-WATT
MODULATOR
10-Watt Amplifier-Driver
HANDBOOK
655
6B4G
DRIVER
TRANSFORMER
,,,,--
- ...
(')t,ltk'::>
-~~~~~5c.:-111
<"xllt.>
-_.til'--
!>K,IOW
YEA.
+
\IK,IOW
ALL RESISTORS
20,4SOV.
OTHERWISE NOTED.
T1
=360-0-360 VOLTS
AT 150 MA
STANCOR PC-8,110
Tz=
Figure 12
between the high voltage terminals of the modulator, directly across the dummy load. Do not
touch the meter when the high voltage supply
is in operation! An audio oscillator should be
connected to the audio input circuit of the exciter-transmitter and the audio excitation to
the high level modulator should be increased
until the a-c voltmeter across the dummy load
resistor indicates an R-M-S reading that is
equal to 0.7 (70%) of the plate voltage applied
to the modulator. If the modulator plate voltage is 2500 volts, the a-c meter should indicate 1750 volts developed acros5 the 6000
ohm dummy load resistor. This is equivalent
to an audio output of 500 watts. With sine
wave modulation at 1000 c.p.s. and no speech
clipping ahead of the modulator, this voltage
should be developed at a cathode meter current of about 3 50 rna. when the plate-to-plate
modulator impedance of the modulator is 18,000 ohms. Under these conditions, the oscilloscope may be used to observe the audio waveform of the modulator when coupled to point
"A" through the 10,000 volt coupling capacitor.
When the frequency of the audio oscillator
is advanced above 3500 cycles the output level
of the modulator as measured on the a-c voltmeter should drop sharply indicating that the
low pass audio network is functioning properly.
With speech waveforms and no clipping the
modulator meter will swing to approximately
150 - 200 milliamperes under 100% modula-
30-4
A 10-Watt
Amplifier - Driver
A simple speech amplifier-driver for a medium powered class B modulator is shown in figure 12. The amplifier is designed to work with
a crystal microphone. The first stage utilizes
a 6SJ7. The gain control is between the 6SJ7
plate circuit and the grid of the 6]5 second
stage amplifier. The output tubes are a pair
of 6B4-G low-mu tubes operating with a selfbias resistor in their common filament return
circuit. Operating in this manner the 6B4's
have an undistorted output of approximately
10 watts. This is sufficient power to drive
most class-B modulators whose output is 500
watts or less. The driver transformer for coupling the plates of the 6B4-G tubes to the
grids of the Class B stage is not shown, as
it had been found more convenient to locate
this transformer at the grids of the modulator
tubes rather than in the speech amplifier. The
correct transformer step-down ratio for driving
most class B tubes has been set down in tabular
form by the various transformer manufacturers.
When the driver transformer is purchased one
should be obtained which has the proper turns
ratio for the class B tubes to be used.
656
THE RADIO
6SJ7
6J5
~K,lW
4~8~
B+2.50V.
AT15t.AA.
BIAS
B+ 1.500-3000V.
(SEETABLEI)
Figure 13
PUSH-PULL 304TL CLASS AB 1 , MODULATOR
500-Watt
304TL Modulator
30-5
ZERO-SIGNAL
PLATE CURRENT
1500
2000
2.&00
3000
-118
-170
-2.30
-290
270
200
180
130
572
548
483
444
2.540
5300
8500
12000
118
170
230
290
258
490
flO
730
(MA.)
MAX. SIGNAL
PLATE CURRENT
('-'A.)**
PLATE-TO-PLATE
LOAD (OHMS)
PEAK A.F.
GRID VOLTS
(PER TUBE)
MAX. POWER
OUTPUT (WATTS)
**
Figure 14
HANDBOOK
15-Watt Clipper-Amplifier
12AX7
6B4-G
12AU7
6AL5
657
Tz
FILS.
T1- 450-0-450 VOLTS AT 105 MA.
2.A.
SR-50MA.
REPLACEMENT
SELENIUM RECTIFIER
Tl
T31j
TYPE'.
[f3AG ~
2
.
~>-..---~-------------_J
11ov.rv
----~------------------------~
GND.
Figure 15
SCHEMATIC, 15 WATT CLIPPER-AMPLIFIER
A 15-Watt
30-6
Clipper - Amplifier
The near-ultimate in "talk power" can be
obtained with low level clipping and filtering
combined with high level filtering. Such a
modulation system will have real "punch,"
yet will sound well rounded and normal. The
speech amplifier described in this section
makes use of low level clipping and filtering
and is specifically designed to drive a pair of
push-pull 810 modulators such as shown in
Section Three.
The schematic of the speech
amplifier-clipper is shown in
figure 15. A total of six tubes,
including a rectifier are employed and the unit
delivers 15 watts of heavily clipped audio.
A 12AX7 tube is used as a two stage microphone pre-amplifier and delivers approximately 20 volts ( r.m.s.) audio signal to the
Circuit
Description
658
THE RADIO
30-7
A 200-Watt
811-A De-luxe Modulator
One of the most popular medium power r-f
amplifier stages consists of a single tetrode
tube, such as the 4-125A, 813, or 7094 operating at a plate potential of 1200- 1700 volts
and a plate current of 150-275 milliamperes.
Such an amplifier requires a minimum of r-f
driving power, allows an input of 300 to 400
watts, and yet employs power supply components that are relatively modest in cost. The
5-db signal increase between a 300 watt transmitter and a 1000 watt transmitter is very
expensive when one considers the additional
cost of modulator and power supply equipment.
Additional economy may be achieved if
the modulator and final amplifier are operated
from the same power supply. The new series of
Chicago-Standard plate transformers provide
voltage ranges in the 1000 to 1500 volt region and are well suited for the combination
of this modulator and the aforementioned r-f
tubes. Within this voltage range, the 811-A
triode is an excellent choice for the modulator
tubes. Zero bias operation may be had up to
Figure 16
REAR VIEW OF
811-A MODULATOR
Modulator tubes and voltage
regulator are at right with
high level filter at center of
chassis. Plug-in speech amplifier is to left of clipper.
Gain and clipping controls
are atop the small chassis.
6L6/5881 is used as cathode
follower driver stage lor
modulator.
HANDBOOK
811-A Modulator
659
57K
lOOK R2 CLIPPER
~
1W
r--NV----11 - - -
!~~I !~;I
~
=
L _______ _
1.BK
~
6.3
v.
li2-
IHC+--''-+.----ct--cc-~--:-~-cc--1co ~L g_ __ -
NOTES
502
OTHERWISE SPECIFIED.
S04
12
1-}6.3
2-
3-RYl
--- -
6L6GB/5B81
_j
V. ""V OUT
3- GROUND, B-
4-}
s-
SHOWN ENERGIZED.
-- -
$04 CONNECTIONS
1!5 V "\...IN
6- 8+350
v; TO EXCITER
7
-} CW-PHON SWITCH
a-
9- GROUND, 8-
10-}
_
11
RY1 CONTROL
'+---,--i<J)+HV OUT T0
AMPLIFIER
Figure 17
SCHEMATIC, 200 WATT 811-A MODULATOR
T,-1 :3 lnterstage Transformer. Stancor A-53
T:-"Poly-pedance" class B driver transformer. 2:1 ratio. Stancor A-4761
T,_200 watt modulation transformer. 9 K primary. SK secondary. Stancor A-3829
T ,-400 - 0 - 400 volts, 250 ma., 6.3 volts, 5 amperes. Stan cor PC-8413
T,-6.3 volts, 10 amperes. Stancor P-6308
CH,-4 henry, 250 ma. Stancor C-1412
1.,-l.ow pass filter, 3000 cycle cut off. Chicago LPF-2.
1.:-"Sp/atter" filter, 300 ma. Stancor C-2317
RY,--SPDT relay, high voltage insulation, 115 volt coil. Leach # 1723 with 374 coils, or equivalent
Modulator
Circuit
660
THE RADIO
UNDER-CHASSIS VIEW OF
811-A MODULATOR
High voltage relay is between 81!-A tube
and low voltage components are at
'
opposite end of chassis.
sockets
HANDBOOK
Modulator
Construction
employed for these connections. The capacitors that make up the high level audio filter
are mounted directly to the terminals of the
811-A Modulator
661
filter choke which is mounted above the chassis on Y2-inch ceramic insulators. High voltage
connections to the modulator are made through
Millen 37001 safety terminals.
When the wiring has been completed and
checked, the 12AX7, 6AL5, 12AU7, 5881,
and 5 V 4-GB tubes should be inserted in their
sockets and the speech amplifier is plugged
into the modulator receptacles. The vertical
amplifier of an oscilloscope should be connected to one grid terminal of the 811-A stage.
Plate voltage of the 5881 should be approximately 3 70 volts. A low level 1000 cycle tone
(approximately 0.0 5 volts, r.m.s.) is applied
to the amplifier input. The output level of the
speech amplifier is controlled by the setting
of the clipping control R, and the audio gain
is controlled by potentiometer R, in the grid
circuit of the 12AX7. The clipping control
should be set so that not more than 60 volts
r.m.s. is developed from one 811-A grid to
ground. The modulator tubes may now be
plugged in their sockets. A 7K, 200 watt resistor should be placed between the "H.V.
Out" and "H.V. In" terminals, serving as a
dummy load, and 1500 volts applied to the
latter terminal. With no audio signal the
resting plate current of the modulator stage
should be approximately 15 milliamperes,
kicking up to about 160 milliamperes under
full output conditions. Final adjustment of the
clipping control may be made when the modulator is placed in use with the r-f section of
the transmitter. Potentiometer R, is then adjusted to limit the peak modulation level under
sme wave modulation to approximately 90%.
ru
T1
DRi~ER
STAGE
TD
MODULATOR
LOAD
11
---~""""'""-
V2
Figure 19
662
803'5
Zs=6
2SK
TO
MODULATOR
LOAD
(FIG.72)
hM
OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
8+ 2500
v.
-7
(0?501
~
115
T3
v. '\...
Figure 20
30-8
Zero Bias
Tetrode Modulators
plate circuit efficiency. The series grid resistors for the small tubes are required to balance
the current drawn by the two grids, but are not
needed in the case of the 80 3 and 813 tubes.
Of great interest to the amateur is the circuit of figure 20, wherein 803 tubes are used
as high level modulators. These tubes will deliver 500 watts of audio in this configuration,
yet they require no screen or bias supply, and
can be driven by an 8 watt amplifier stage.
The use of 80 3 tubes (in contrast to 813 's)
requires a higher level of driving power which
is offset by the fact that these tubes can often
be purchased "surplus" for less than four dollars. A pair of 6B4 tubes operating with cathode bias (figure 12) will suffice as a driving stage for the 803's. The power supply of
the speech amplifier provides high voltage for
the suppressors of the modulator stage.
Shown in figure 21 is a high level modulator using 813 tubes. A full 500 watts of
audi,o may be obtained at 2500 volts plate potential. Grid driving power is 5.5 watts. A
single 807 operating as a cathode follower
at 400 volts will provide sufficient drive for
the modulator stage. Plate to plate load im
pedance for the 813's is not critical. The Chicago CMS-3 500 watt modulation transformer
having a primary impedance of 18,000 ohms
has been used with success, although the optimum plate load impedance of the modulator
is closer to 20,000 ohms.
TO
MODULATOR
LOAD
NOTES
DRIVER STAGE, OPEFI.ATI NG VOLTS,
MEASURED TO GROUND.
+ 2500 V.
~
i1
T4
11.5V. 1'\..
Figure 21
500 WATT MODULATOR USING 813 TUBES
T,-1:3 interstage transformer. Stancor A-53
T,-"Poly-pedance" Class B driver transformer. 2:1 ratio. Stancor A-4761
T,-500 watt output transformer. IBK primary, 6.25K secondary. Chicago CMS-3
T,,-JO volts, 10 amperes, Stancor C-6461
M-0-500 ma.
350 watts of audio are obtainable from this circuit at plate potential of 2000 volts.
CHAPTER THIRTY-ONE
31-1
A 300 Watt
Phone/C-W Transmitter
for 50/144 Me.
Transmitters operating in the VHF region present some specialized design problems that must
be solved before reliable, efficient operation
can be obtained. The first problem concerns
the relative inefficiency of tuned and coupled
circuits in this region. The amount of r-f power
that can be lost in simple circuits is extremely
high unless special pains are taken in the design
and layout of the VHF stages. Radiation loss,
skin effect, dielectric losses, lead inductance,
distributed capacity, and parasitic ground returns all exist at the lower frequencies, but only
in the higher portion of the spectrum do their
effects assume such vital importance, and only
at these frequencies does their cure and elimination become so essential. As a result, the
663
Figure 1
COMPACT
300 WATT
TRANSMITTER FOR
SIX AND TWO
METERS IS IDEAL
FOR VHF
ENTHUSIAST
The transmitter is built
in twa sections. Upper
deck contains VFO, r.f.
stages and push-pull 826
amplifier. VFO tuning
dial is at right, with
bandswitch and meter
selector switch below it.
At center ore the multiplier
tuning
controls,
with buffer and final
amplifier tuning controls
at the left.
Lower deck holds modulator and power supply.
Transmitter
co n t r o I
switches ore along lower
edge of the panel.
HANDBOOK
665
V4
6360
V1
5763
V2.
(8-0MC.)
5763
V3
(10-18MC.)
6360
~-lI
(48-54MC;~~
{j
ve
(8--9MC.)
826
SOMC.
(144-148MC.)
rr, .. ,_,,8.,c.>
cso-s4Mc.J
'-1
---,
( 144-148MC.)
V5
(50-54 MC. ) 9903/5894
I
I
)
/
_......::..../..:::.-----
- - - _J
V6
826
L10
(SOMC.)
826
V1
I
1-------- -2-
144 M C. _____,
f+----
144 MC.
----+!
Figure 2
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF VHF TRANSMITTER
A-General transmitter circuit, showing operating frequencies of the various stages. Y4 is a plug-in
frequency multiplier.
B-Quarter-wave tank circuit is employed in amplifier plate configuration at 144 Me. Shorting bar
is removed for 50 Me., and C,-L, resonates at this frequency.
C-Linear half-wave tank section is employed as interstage coupler at 144 Me. Inductor L1o resonates
circuit to 50 Me.
for plug-in coils or coil switching. Neutralization of the 9903/5894 is not required if adequate inter-stage shielding is used.
TO
La,
(BELOW)
-I
...,
0
:::::l
(48-54 MC.)
Vl
3
()
144 MC.
TRIPLER I
BOX-------,..
:::::l
Vl
...,
c"""'
I
(SOMC.)
B+ 270 V.
I
~
(8.0-8.222MC.)
"""'
6'
L-.f-
:::::l
( 8 . .3.33- 9. 0 MC.)
csi
144 MC.
SHORTIN<G.
BAR
NOTES:
1-
L11B
BIAS#2 (-3SV.)
(SEE FIG. 8)
B+60QV,
BIAS#1 (-60V.)
(SEE FIG. 8)
CERAMIC.
2 -ALL CAPACITORS IN OSC!LLA TOR
TUNED CIRCUirS AR SILVER M/CA.
3-ALL RESISTORS 1-WArT UNLESS
orHERWISE SPECIFIED.
....
::::1:
V7
Figure 3
SCHEMATIC, R-F SECTI'ON OF VHF TRANSMITTER
CzA-B-25- 25 p.p.fd. Bud LC-1661
C:, Cs-15- 15 p.p.fd. Bud LC-1660
C,, c,-8- 8 p.p.fd. Bud LC-1659
C.-10- 10 p.p.fd. "butterfly," Johnson JJMBJJ
C 7 -35- 35 p.p.fd. Bud LC- 1667
Cs--25- 25 p.p.fd. "butterfly," B&W JCX-25E,
te
HANDBOOK
667
Figure 4
CLOSE-UP OF INTERIOR OF
VHF FINAL AMPLIFIER
Two 826 triode tubes are used in unique pushpull circuit for 50 Me. and 144 Me. operation.
Linear tank circuit is employed for 144 Me.
with removeable shorting bar in foreground.
"Butterfly 11 tuning capacitor is mounted on
ceramic insulators above linear tank and connected to it by means of copper straps on rear
stator terminals. 50 Me. inductor is placed at
"cold" end of 2-meter tank.
Air is drown into enclosure through ventilation holes drilled below 826 sockets. Note that
the sockets are split to reduce possibility of
flash-over.
At left of enclosure are 6360 (V-3) and
sockets SO- 1 and S0-2 for 144 Me. plug-in
frequency multiplier. The 50 Me. adapter
Figure 6
UNDER-CHASSIS
VIEW OF 300
WATT VHF
TRANSMITTER
Small
115-vo/t blower
motors for 826 tubes are
in upper /eft corner of
chassis. Buffer plate line
L,A-8 occupies left-hand
portion of chassis. All
leads are kept clear of
this area. Under-chassis
power leads are run in
shielded braid to reduce
r-f
pick-up.
An
11
L"-
c,
c,
Power Supply
and Modulator
Figure 7
CLOSE UP OF PLUG-IN
COMPONENTS
144 Me. plug-in tripler box containing 6360
(V-4) is at center. Tube is mounted at angle
on small plate with ventilation holes drilled
in box above top of tube. 9-pin plug PL, is
made from portion of a Vector socket. 50 Me.
plug PL, is at upper left, with 144 Me. coil
Ls directly below it. 50 Me. coil Ls is at right.
See figure 12 for coil data.
Figure 8
SCHEMATIC, LOW VOLTAGE SUPPLIES AND METER SWITCHING CIRCUIT
r,-600/300 v., c.t., 360 ma. Use 300 volt taps for voltage doubler service. Triad P-3.
T:-125 volts, 50 ma. Stancor PA-8421
T,-7.5 volts, 8 a. Stancor P-6138
T,-6.3 volts, 6 a. Stancor P-3036
0,-,-,-,_Se/enium rectifier, 100 ma., RMS input voltage: 175. Maximum peak inverse voltage: 495.
Sarkes-Tarzian Model 108
o,-,-,-Se/enium rectifier, 75 ma., RMS input voltage: 130. Sarkes-Tarzian Model 75
8, 8:-Smal/ 115-vo/t blower motor.
Sz-2 pole, 6 position rotary switch.
S0,-8 prong octal socket (see figures 3 and 10)
Transmitter
Construction
670
Transmitter Construction
THE RADIO
Figure 9
INTERIOR,
HIGH STABILITY
VFO FOR VHF
TRANSMITTER
Two gang oscillator tuning capacitor C1A-B is
panel mounted ot top ol
enclosure. Variable trimming capacitors are at
the right, with slug-tuned
coils
directly
below.
Bandswitch
S1A-B
is
placed at bottom ol lront
panel, with crystal sockets at lelt. The two leads
to oscillator tube socket
pass through large rubber
grommet mounted on
chassis deck.
Alter alignment is completed, a drop ol nail
polish is placed on end
ol coil slug to eliminate
mechanical vibration ol
slug. Note that rear ol
case is bolted in place
with eight sheet metal
~~re~~:~~s~~~idos~n;~;~~
tube socket is in loreground, partially hidden
by selenium rectifier.
Figure 11
REAR VIEW,
POWER SUPPLY CHASSIS
Power supply is built upon steel chassis. Power
transformer and modulation transformer are
HANDBOOK
671
B+TO
866
FINAL
TO
SPEECH
AMPLIFIER
10
10W
504
TO R.F. DECK, 503
01
Figure 10
SCHEMATIC, POWER SUPPLY AND MODULATOR DECK
r,-1775/1500 each side c.t., 625 ma., ICAS. 115/230 volt primary. Stancor P-8029
Tz-2.5 v., 10 a., IOKV insulation. Stancor P-3060
T,-6,3 v., 10 a. Stancor P-6308
1 4-300 watt "polypedance" modulation transformer. Stancor A-3898. Primary impedance J2K,
secondary impedance 6K
Ts- 11 Polypedance 11 driver transformer. Stancor A-4762
RY,-DPDT relay, 10 ampere contacts, J 15 v. a.c. coil
M,-0 - 500 ma.
M,-o- 100 ma.
S4A-B-2 pole, 3 position high voltage switch. (Found in "war surplus" BC-306A antenna tuning unit),
or equivalent
CH,-500 ma. swinging choke, 2-76 h. Stancor C-1405
B,-,-,-1 15 volt pilot lamps
so,-8 prong octal socket
movable shorting bar are mounted at the "Bplus" end of the assembly. The rotor of the
"butter-fly" capacitor is left floating and is
panel driven through a high voltage shaft
coupling. The neutralizing capacitors (Cu, C12)
are mounted on a triangular piece of polystyrene or other good insulating material and
placed between the tube sockets. Construction
of these capacitors is shown in figure 13.
The 144 Me. antenna link "coil" is a Ushaped pickup loop mounted beneath the linear
tank circuit, while the 50 Me. pickup coil is
inserted between the turns of plate coil L12.
Any grid current unbalance in the final amplifier stage can be corrected by varying the
672
THE RA D I 0
Transmitter Construction
6-32 BOLT
FIGURE 12
COIL CHART FOR 50-144 MC. TRANSMITTER
'
l 1- ( 144 MC. COIL) 36 T.# 24 E., 1/2" OIA. MILLEN 69046 FORM.
The power s u p p 1 y is
mounted upon a steel
chassis measuring 13" x
A-
0-
E-
F-
Figure 13
CONSTRUCTION OF
NEUTRALIZING CAPACITOR
FOR 826 STAGE
Two capacitors are required (C11 and Ca).
17" x 3", as shown in figure 11. The modulator and rectifier tubes are placed near the
front panel, with the modulation transformer and power transformer to the rear of
the chassis. The swinging choke is placed between the tubes at the front-center of the
chassis. Smaller components are mounted beneath the chassis. High voltages are applied to
the transmitter by primary relay RY,, controlled by switch S, and an optional external
relay control circuit.
The tuned circuits of the transmitter can be set to their proper operaJting range with the
aid of a grid-dip oscillator. All r-f tubes must
be in their sockets. Coil L, is set to 8.5 Me.,
and circuit C-L, is adjusted to 17 Me. with
c, set at half-capacity. The 7 p.p.fd. trimmer
Transmitter
Adjustment
HANDBOOK
DE-LUXE STATION
FOR THE DX MAN
Employes VFO-controlled,
bandswitching, Phone-CW
transmitter running up to
500 watts.
This compact, all-band
transmitter employs a
7094 tetrode in a pi-network amplifier, modulated by 811-A's. Clickless 1
break-in keying is usea
for c.w., and speech
clipping and limiting are
employed for AM phone.
Modulator and power
supply are in the rack
at left, and entire r-f
section is in ri~ththand
rack. High stab11ity VFO
ensures drift-free frequency control. Transmitter is designed for maximum harmonic suppression and is virtually TVIproof
673
31-2
A De-Luxe
Transmitter for the
3.5-29.7 Me. Range
674
THE RADIO
Transmitter Construction
Vi
V3
V4
(3.5-30MC.)
t
L--------~---
Vs
V9
12AX7
6AL5
--
Vs
(3.5-30
t
_ _ _J
ANT.
;aI
e
l
V7
12AU7
V12
811-A
V6
6AL5
V11
V10
12AU7
MIC.
L.V.
V14
082
V~>
V1s
082
2021
V19
666-A
115/230V."v
Figure 15
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ALL-BAND 500 WATT TRANSMITTER
R-f section employs bandswitching exciter for coverage of 10, 15, 20, 40, and 80 meter bands. Variable
frequency oscillator operates in 1.7 Me. region to achieve maximum isolation, Tuning and antenna
loading are aided by 6ALS vacuum tube voltmeter monitoring output of amplifier stage.
Low level speech clipping and filtering, combined with high level audio filter imports "punch" to phone
signal, yet holds sidebands to a minimum. Single high voltage supply powers modulator and final amplifier.
Transmitter Circuitry
and Layout
The RCA 7094 beam power tube is employed in the final amplifier stage. This compact tube has high perveance and high power
gain. It can be operated at full input to 60
Me., and has a maximum plate dissipation of
125 watts. In addition, it has triple base-pin
connections for the screen grid to permit good
r-f grounding and large plate radiating fins
for effective cooling. The compact size makes
it especially effective in the high frequency
portions of the communication spectrum. Driving requirements are modest and permit the
use of a simplified bandswitching exciter.
Figure 16
VFO-EXCITER DECK CONTAINS
ALL IMPORTANT OPERATING
CONTROLS
Law level r-f stages are built upon 8"xl7"x2"
aluminum chassis. Keyer timing potentiometer
R, is at left, with excitation potentiometer
R,, contra/ switch s,, and bandswitch s, in
line, left ta right. VFO dial is centered on the
panel.
Output connector P1 is mounted on polystyrene
late atop shielded enclosure at right. Shieldng is made from Reynold's 11Do-it-yourself11
perforated aluminum sheet.
r,
-v,- -
V4
V2.
6AC7
- -I
2E26
RF OUTPUT
TOP-A
:X
>-
0
m
:fc
L- -
- - --1--.".-~!'.-----'1',,-1_0_1_-- J
4 - - t - - - t - - ' PL 1
+300V.
2K
iOW
50K
4W
7K
tOW
0
0
MIN.--- MA.X.
GAl D DRIVE
;ill;
15K
6.3V.
V7
12AU7
STANDBY
(B)
TUN
R2
~-o---vlVIMI-"<2f-
(C}~(A)
TRANSMIT
52C
52B
tOOK
Cl)
NOTES'
1-C =.01JJF.1
r
s:::::
~c
Cl)
)>
TO VFO
AND
T2AU7
TO 6AC7,
6Ac;7, 2E26
~
OJ
KEY
JACK
:::::1
~
2
"-v---'
6.3V.
4
-105V.
o._
IIH
c
5
KEY
6
TOP-A
SCREEN
CHOKE
10
T0115VJV
7
TeStA
(PHON-CW)
COMMON
,
TO P~A
SCREEN
SOs
12
TO PRJ.
RELAY,RY4
CONTROL CKT.
13
B+370V.
14
Figure 17
SCHEMATIC, EXCITER DECK OF ALL-BAND TRANSMITTER
c,-300 ppfd. Bud CE-2008 dual beating capacitor
L:~-21 turns #22 e., l/2" diam., V2" long on National XR-SO form
C.-300 ppfd. silver mica capacitor. Vary tot desired frequency coverage.
c,-2000 ppfd. High accuracy capacitor, tolerance 1%, temperature coeUicient
zero, plus or minus 10 p.p.m. Centralab 950-202
C 4, Cs, c.-25 ppfd. midget variable padding capacitor, ceramic
L,-19 turns #20 e. wire, tapped S turns from ground end. Wound on ceramic
:h~'::' ~~~v~:aN~ti~;at~::lr;~;m~he winding by interwinding # 28 e. wire,
L:-30 turns #28 dsc., V2" diam., V2" long on National XR-SO form
:::::1
15
METER
(SEE FIG. 23
-I
.....
Vl
Figure 18
INTERIOR OF VFO
SHOWING
PLACEMENT OF
MAJOR.
COMPONENTS
The VFO is built upon
two !Is-inch dural plates,
one forming the base
and the other forming
the front of the oscillator
enclosure. Inductor L,
and padding capacitors
are mounted to front
wall, and the variable
tuning capacitor is bolted to base. Oscillator
tube (V -1) projects from
far wall of enclosure to
remove as much heat
from tuned circuit as
possible. Entire VFO is
mounted upon miniature
shock mounts and dial Is
attached to VFO unit,
rather than to rack
panel. 6AG7 and 2E26
tubes are at /eft, with
2E26 plate choke and
5KV coupling capacitor
in foreground.
The variable frequency oscillator and exciter stages are built upon one chassis deck, as
shown in figures 16, 18, 19, and 20. The
complete schematic of this unit is given in
figure 1 7. The variable oscillator covers the
range of 1.75 Me.- 1.85 Me., permitting full
coverage of all amateur bands except the extreme top of the 28 Me. band, and the top
portion of the 80 meter band. Readjustment
of the oscillator padding capacitor provides
complete coverage of these segments, if desired. The VFO consists of a 6U8 pentodetriode ( V1) operating as a "hot cathode" oscillator and triode cathode follower. Extremely
high-C is employed in the tuned circuit of the
VFO to obtain a good order of stability. A
2000 /L/Lfd. precision ceramic capacitor Ca,
forms the large portion of the tuning capacitance, and the coil L, is wound upon a ceramic
form having a very low temperature coefficient. The cathode follower stage provides
excellent circui't isolation for the oscillator,
combined with a minimum of plate circuit
loading. Figure 18 shows the layout of the major osciHator components. The circuit is built
upon an Ys" thick aluminum plate, bolted to
a small panel of the same material. The sides,
back, and top of the oscillator enclosure are
made of aluminum sheet. The complete unit
is mounted upon miniature rubber shock
mounts. The VFO dial is firmly affixed to the
enclosure and actually does not make physical
contact with the panel at all. The frequency
determining unit is thereby protected from jolts
and jars which might cause a "warble" in the
transmitter frequency. The r-f output from the
cathode follower is 5 volts, r.m.s.
Figure 19
REAR VIEW OF EXCITER DECK
Multiplier tubes are in the foreground. Adjustment holes lor the multiplier trimmer capacitors are on side of chassis. !12 -inch angle
stock is run around chassis and panel to form
foundation to which the perforated enclosure
is attached. Keyer tube V, is placed in rear
corner. Potentiometer R, and auxiliary key
jack are on chassis wall below keyer tube.
Short lead extends from 2E26 blocking capacitor up to connecting plug P, mounted on
enclosure.
677
Figure 20
UNDER-CHASSIS VIEW OF EXCITER
All power wiring is run in shielded braid, grounded to
the chassis at convenient points. Voltage regulator
tube V" is mounted beneath the chassis on small
angle brackets. RY, and RY, are mounted to the inner
chassis wall, directly behind keyer panel control R,.
R-t circuits are at the opposite end of chassis, grouped
around bandswitch s,. The slugs of coils L, and L, are
adjustable from atop the chassis. Metal plate covers
bottom of chassis to reduce spuriou$ radiation from
r.t. circuits.
V F0
>------...."+4
47K
+300V.
V2
6AC7
~
lT-- +
1.50 V. REc;.
100
l-c
SWITCH 52
528
~~~
B+ TO VFO
A=
TRANSMIT
RY5
B =STANDBY
C=TUNE
}TO METER
-105 v.
NOTES'
RELAY CONTACTS RY3A
NORMALLY OPEN.
RELAY CONTACTS RY3B
NORMALLY CLOSED.
Figure 21
KEYER AND CONTROL CIRCUITS
Clickless, break-in keying is provided by this simple control circuit. See text tor full details of operation
678
Transmitter Construction
THE RADIO
Figure 22
500 WATT POWER
AMPLIFIER HAS
SYMMETRICAL
PANEL LAYOUT
The 7094 amplifier stage
Is enclosed in a separate
deck. Plate milliammeter
is at lett, with 01 d.c.
milliammeter at right
which may be inserted in
various power leads in
exciter
or
amplifier.
Large center knobs are
(lett) pi-network switch
and (tight) main amplifier tuning control.
Controls across the bottom are (lett to right):
Pi-network loading capacitor, auxiliary pi-network capacitor switch,
grid circuit tuning ca
pacitor,
and
meter
switch. Pi-network switch
5 4 is ganged with grid
turret switch s, eliminating one panel control.
the high voltage primary circuit relay circuit. This circuit may be rendered inoperative on "standby" position by switch S,B,
enabling VFO to be used for frequency
check or "spotting" purposes.
3-Key is released .
Right-hand section of V, cuts off immediately. Left-hand section draws 1 rna. and
cuts off 6AC7 buffer tube. The 1N92 is
back-biased by rise in 12AU7 plate voltage, keeping charge on 40 fLfd. capacitor.
Relay R y, remains closed until capacitor
is discharged through shunting resistances.
Relay then opens, turning off high voltage
supplies of transmitter. "Release" delay is
controlled by potentiometer R,_
4-Phone Operation
Switch s, on modulator deck is closed for
phone operation, placing the coil of relay
R y, in the circuit. When the key is closed,
or the press-to-talk circuit activated, R YsA
shorts out the time delay circuit of RY,,
and at the same time R YsB removes a
short across the screen modulation choke
in the final amplifier.
Exciter plate voltage is obtained from the
modulator power supply (See Chapter 30,
figure 17), and bias and amplifier voltage are
derived from the main power supply, located
on a separate chassis. The plate relay RY, may
be actuated by switch s, or by the keyer circuit.
HANDBOOK
679
001
SKY
7094
J2.
L5
J1
RFC2.
NOTES
1-C =.001,
600V. CERAMIC
CAPACITOR.
B+1SOOV.
Figure 23
SCHEMATIC, 500 WATT POWER AMPLIFIER
C,-150 JLJLid.
C.--220 JLJLid., 1250 volt fixed mica capacitor
C.--Disc-type neutralizing capacitor. National NC-800 or equivalent.
CI0---150 JLJLid., 3000 volt. Johnson 150E30
Cu-900 JLJLid. Two gang broadcast capacitor (see text).
c,.--Three .001, SKY ceramic capacitors. Centralab type 850. Place one capacitor on each screen terminal.
L,-composed of two coils mounted on back ol s, and connected in series.
80 meter coil: 28 turns, 1" diam., 1%" long. 40 meter tap at 18th turn from "cold" end.
20 meter coil: 7 turns, 1" diam., 1V~" long. 15 meter tap at 4 turns, 10 meter tap at 3 turns from
"cold" end. Adjust taps with grid-dip oscillator.
Ls-S,-Borker & Williamson #3850, 500 watt turret lor 10-80 meters.
~FC~~~~ ::,o~~,c~o~~~i~~~i~~~j'W:rWtch, progressively shorting. Centralab PA-2042.
RFC:~-Heavy duty choke lor 3-30 Me. range, 500 ma. Raypar RL-102
RFC4-VHF Choke, Ohmite Z-144, or equivalent
PC-50 ohm composition resistor wound with 3 turns # 20 e.
T,-6.3 volts ot 4 a. Stancor P-4019
CHr---7 h. at 50 ma. Stancor C-1707
RYs--SPST sensitive reloy, with 1 milliampere d.c. coil
M,-o - 500 d.c. milliammeter with insulated zero-set and bakelite case.
8-Small 115-volt a.c. blower motor.
680
THE RADIO
Transmitter Construction
Figure 24
REAR OBLIQUE VIEW OF
PI-COUPLED AMPLIFIER
Dural angle strips are mounted around edge
of 8"xJ7"x2" aluminum chassis and panel to
which TV/ enclosure is attached with selltapping sheet metal screws. Meters are encased in aluminum cups, with r.f. filters
mounted on the back of each case. Meter
leads are 10 KV television cable, enclosed in
shielded braid. The 7094 tetrode is mounted
at rear of chassis, with neutralizing capacitor
c, to /eft, and plate choke at right. Connections to plate of tube are made with flexible
copper strap.
Filament transformer is at /eft of chassis, with
blower motor hidden behind it. Output capacitor of pi-network is below deck.
Figure 25
LEFT OBLIQUE VIEW OF
PI-COUPLED AMPLIFIER
Blower motor to cool 7094 tube is located
between front panel and filament transformer. High voltage and coaxial antenna terminals
are on right of rear wall of chassis. Addition
of perforated screen makes enclosure radiation-proof.
HANDBOOK
of heavy modulation. Eight 60 f.tfd., 450 volt
tubular electrolytic capacitors are connected in
series parallel to form a 30 f.tfd., 1800 volt
unit. A small bias supply delivering -105
volts for the 7094 amplifier and keyer is also
included on the chassis. Layout and wiring of
the supplies are shown in figures 27 and 29.
The modulator has been previously shown
in Chapter 30, figure 17. The speech amplifier
supply provides 3 70 volts for exciter operation.
One section of the "phone-c.w." relay (RYsA)
shorts out the time delay circuit on the exciter deck for phone operation, and a high voltage relay R y, is employed to remove the modulator for c.w. operation. Six volts is also supplied to the exciter for filament service. This
filament circuit is balanced to ground to reduce residual hum in the speech amplifier, so
the ground circuit cannot be employed as a
filament return in the exciter.
Exciter Tune-up
and Operation
Figure 27
REAR VIEW OF POWER SUPPLY
Primary power leads pass through bulkheadtype filter capacitors to prevent radiation of
TVI-producing harmonics from power line.
Voltage r~'!.'i~i!ofn ct:,~~r ~~r ch':fs~~s. supply is
Figure 26
UNDER-CHASSIS VIEW OF
POWER AMPLIFIER
All power wiring beneath the chassis is placed
within braid to reduce pickup of r.f. energy.
Note that shield divides area into two sections.
Smaller area contains output capacitor of pinetwork, 6ALS diode voltmeter and high volt-
682
Transmitter Construction
THE RADIO
866-A
CHt
3S K
sow
sow
+-------(] B-
866-A
270
1 N92
SOe
082
-105
v.
20 K
..,-w
GNO
} 6.3 II.
RY4
11511./"V
Figure 28
c,,
C.-Bulkhead type, 0.1 Jlfd. 600 volt capacitor. Sprague "Hypass," or equivalent
CH,-10 henry at 300 ma. Chicago R-103
RFC-"Hash" suppression choke. Millen 77866
RY 4-DPDT relay, 20 amp. contacts, 115 v. a-c coil
SO,....-Eight pin receptacle, Cinch-Jones
T,-1710/1430 each side c.t., 300 ma., CCS. Chicago P-1512
1 2-2.5 v., 10 a., 10 KV insulation. Stancor P-3060
Ts-125 v., 50 ma., 6.3 v., 2a. Stancor PA-8421
HANDBOOK
683
PL4
R.F. AMPLIFIER
MODULATOR
12345678
I'
Yl
I~
~ ?
>--t-'
l't.!~
li
10 11 12
??
'I
,---;::
I f-o
'-
f- __,
~~k~
.,.
__, 3
2
P~E R
1
SUPPL y
PL 8
I1
I1 A
8 9
b I
2. 3 4 s
EXCITER
Ple
,I
10 11 1213 14 15
EXCITER
Pls
NOTE:
;a~o~~Af-t~ir~:~~~:':i;:::r:RE
GROUND LEAD.
SFIG.17{
AND 21.
SEE FIG. 28
~Y2
RY3
S2B
SOs
SOe
12
PLs
~
<>--
I Y Y
10
'I
1
~
s F/G.17
cHAP.30
Figure 29
UNDER-CHASSIS LAYOUT OF
PARTS IN POWER SUPPLY
The 866-A sockets are sub-mounted on !lr
inch ceramic insulators. Eight electrolytic capacitors are mounted on phenolic plate and
banded with insulated strap to form high
voltage filter capacitor. Bias transformer is
next to rectifier tube sockets. All high voltage
connections are made with S KV televisiontype wire.
Preliminary
Amplifier
Adjustment
PHONE-CW SWITCH S 1
PL41
SEE
FIG.
'l
rl
[=0PL7
Figure 30
INTERCONNECTING
CABLES FOR
TRANSMITTER
CHAPTER THIRTY-TWO
In view of the high cost of iron-core components such as go to make up the bulk of a
power supply, it is well to consider carefully
the design of a new or rebuilt transmitter in
terms of the minimum power supply requirements which will permit the desired performance to be obtained from the transmitter. Careful evaluation of the power supply requirements of alternative transmitter arrangements
will permit the selection of that tran~mitter
arrangement which requires the minimum of
power supply components, and which makes
most efficient use of such power supplies as
are required.
32-1
Power Supply
Requirements
684
Requirements
685
Figure 1
POWER SUPPLY
CONTROL PANEL
A well designed supply control panel has separate primary
switches and indicator lamps
for the filament and plate circuits, overload circuit breaker,
plate voltage control switch
and primary circuit fuses.
mum drain as that of the bleeder. The minimum current drain from a power supply is of
importance since it, in conjunction with the
nominal voltage of the supply, determines the
minimum value of inductance which the input
choke must have to keep the voltage from soaring when the external load is removed.
The normal current rating of a power supply
usually is a round-number value chosen on the
basis of the transformers and chokes on hand
or available from the catalog of a reliable manufacturer. The current rating of a supply to
feed a steady load such as a receiver, a speech
amplifier, or a continuously-operating r-f stage
should be at least equal to the steady drain of
the load. However, other considerations come
into play in choosing the current rating for a
keyed amplifier, an amplifier of SSB signals,
or a clas,s B modulator. In the case of a supply which will feed an intermittent load such
as these, the current racings of the transformers and chokes may be less than the maximum
current which will be taken; but the current
ratings of the rectifier tubes to be used should
be at least equal to the maximum current which
will be taken. That is to say that 300-ma.
transformers and chokes may be used in the
supply for a modulator whose resting current
is 100 ma. but whose maximum current at
peak signal will rise to 500 ma. However, the
rectifier tubes should be capable of handling
the full 500 rna.
686
THE RADIO
Power Supplies
HANDBOOK
peak-current requirement of the class B tubes
on modulation peaks. The output capacitor for
such a supply normally should be between 4
JLfd. and 20 JLfd.
Capacitances larger than 20 JLfd. involve a
high initial charging current when the supply
is first turned on, so that an unusually large
input choke should be used ahead of the capacitor to limit the peak-current surge through
the rectifier tubes. A capacitance of less than
4 JLfd. may reduce the power output capability
of a class B modulator when it is passing the
lower audio frequencies, and in addition may
superimpose a low-frequency "growl" on the
output signal. This growl will be apparent only
when the supply is delivering a relatively high
power output; it will not be present when modulation is at a low level.
When a stage such as a low-level audio amplifier requires an extremely low value of ripple voltage, but when regulation is not of importance to the operation of the stage, the high
degree of filtering usually is obtained through
the use of a resistance-capacitance filter.
This filter usually is employed in addition to
the choke-capacitor filter in the power supply
for the higher-level stages, but in some cases
when the supply is to be used only to feed
low-current stages the entire filter of the power supply will be of the resistance-capacitance
type. Design data for resistance-capacitan~e
filters is given in a following paragraph.
When a low-current stage requires very low
ripple in addition to excellent voltage regulation, the power supply filter often will end
with one or more gaseous-type voltage-regulator tubes. These VR tubes give a high degree
of filtering in addition to their voltage-regulating action, as is obvious from the fact that
the tubes tend to hold the voltage drop across
their elements to a very constant value regardless of the current passing through the tube.
The VR tube is quite satisfactory for improving both the regulation and ripple characteristics of a supply when the current drain will
not exceed 25 to 35 ma. depending upon the
type of VR tube. Some types are rated at a
maximum current drain of 30 ma. while others
are capable of passing up to 40 ma. without
damage. In any event the minimum current
through the VR tube will occur when the associated circuit is taking maximum current.
This minimum current requirement is 5 ma.
for all types of gaseous-type voltage-regulator
Requirements
TO FULL- WAVE
RECTIF'IER
~=
MT
687
2>000
1--f
CAPAC~~NCE,
PERCENT Rl PPLE
13.1
8.5
6.2
6lJf
4.0
FIGURE 2
TO FULL-WAVE
RECTIFIER
LOAD, OHMS
PERCENT RIPPLE
25000
15000
10000
5000
3000
2000
0.04
0.06
0. I
0.17
0.25
FIGURE 3
TO FULL-WAVE
RECTIFIER
RIPPLE IN TERMS OF
25000
Ct
C1
C2
2
3
4
2
2
4
8
PERCENT Rl PPLE
1.2
0. 7
0.25
0.06
FIGURE4
characteristic of offering a low value of ripple across their output terminals. The electronic-type of voltage-regulated power supply
is capable of delivering an extremely small
value of ripple across its output terminals,
even though the rectifier-filter system ahead
of the regulator delivers a relatively high
value of ripple, such as in the vicinity of 5 to
10 per cent. In fact, it is more or less self
evident that the better the regulation of such
a supply, the better will be its ripple characteristic. It must be remembered that the ripple
output of a voltage-regulated power supply of
any type will rise rapidly when the load upon
the supply is so high that the regulator begins
to lose control. This will occur in a supply of
the electronic type when the voltage ahead of
the series regulator tube falls below a value
equal to the sum of the minimum drop acroos
the tube at that value of current, plus the output voltage. In the case of a shunt regulator
of the VR-tube type, the regulating effect will
fail when the current through the VR tube
falls below the usual minimum value of about
5 ma.
Although figures 2, 3 and 4
give the value of ripple voltage for several more or less
standard types of filter systems, it is often of
value to be able to calculate the value of rip-
Calculation
of Ripple
tubes.
set of filter components. Fortunately, the approximate ripple percentage for normal values
688
THE RADIO
Power Supplies
8 HY
12 HY
TO F"ULL-WAVE
RECTIFIER
Figure 5
SAMPLE FILTER FOR
CALCULATION OF RIPPLE
HANDBOOK
vapor types) will dim and the other will become much brighter.
Thus we see that we must avoid the LC
products of 1.77 and 7.1. With a swinging-type
input choke, whose inductance varies over a
5-to-1 range, we see that it is possible for
resonance to occur at 60 cycles at a low value
of current drain, and then for resonance to occur at 120 cycles at approximately full load
on the power supply. Since the LC product
must certainly be greater than 1. 77 for satisfactory filtering along with peak-current limitation on the rectifier tubes, we see that with
a swinging-type input choke the LC product
must still be greater than 7.1 at maximum current drain from the power supply. To allow a
reasonable factor of safety, it will be well to
keep the LC product at maximum current drain
above the value 10.
From the above we see that we can just get
by with a '2-f.tfd. first capacitor following the
input choke when this choke is of the moreor-less standard 5-25 henry swinging variety.
Some of the less expensive types of chokes
swing from about 3 to 12 henrys, so we see
that the first capacitor must be greater than 2
f.tfd. to avoid resonance with these chokes. A
3-f.tfd. capacitor may be used if available, but
a standard 4-f.tfd. unit will give a greater safety factor.
32-2
Rectification
Circuits
Rectification Circuits
689
T
l
E D.C.
I A.c.=o.7o7lo.c.
Figure 6
MOST COMMON RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
(A) shows a half-wave reetifier circuit, (B) is
the standard full-wave rectifier circuit used
with a dual rectilier or two rectifier tubes,
and (C) is the bridge rectifier circuit.
690
THE RADIO
Power Supplies
f\1\Pv
:V\ [\ [\
] v v
TRANSFORMER
SECONDARY
VOLTAGE
PLATE N1
~IFIJJ
VOLTAGE
PLATE N 2
tVV\/VVV'\COMBINEDRECTIFI0
VOLTAGE
0~--~--~--~--~L---~--~
PLATES N1 &. 2.
+~SMOOTHED\IOLTAGE
MTER FIRST SECTION
OF FILTER
+~-------------------------
D.C. VOLTAGE
AVAl LABLE FOR
RADIO USE
Figure 7
FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION
transformer secondary voltage, the
rectified output of each tube, the combined
output of the rectifier, the smoothed voltage
after one section of filter, and the substantially pure d.c. output of the rectifier-filter
after additional sections of filter.
Showing
ary a-c voltages for filament and plate supplies. The transformer delivers alternating current to the two plates of the rectifier tube; one
of these plates is positive at any instant during which the other is negative. The center
point of the high-voltage transformer winding
is usually grounded and is, therefore, at zero
voltage, thereby constituting the negative B
connection.
While one plate of the rectifier tube is conducting, the other is inoperative, and vice versa. The output voltages from the rectifier tubes
are connected together through the common
rectifier filament circuit. Thus the plates alternately supply pulsating current to the output (load) circuit. The rectifier tube filaments
or cathodes are always positive in polarity
with respect to the plate transformer in this
type of circuit.
The output current pulsates 120 times per
second for a full-wave rectifier connected to
a 60-cycle a-c line supply; hence the output of
the rectifier must pass through a filter to
smooth the pulsations into direct current. Filters are designed to select or reject alternating
currents; those most commonly used in a-c
power supplies are of the low-pass type. This
means that pulsating currents which have a
frequency below the cutoff frequency of the
filter will pass through the filter to the load.
Direct current can be considered as alternating current of zero frequency; this passes
through the low-pass filter. The 120-cycle pulsations are similar to alternating current in
characteristic, so that the filter must be designed to have a cutoff at a frequency lower
than 120 cycles (for a 60 cycle a-c supply).
Bridge
The bridge rectifier (figure 6C)
Rectification is a type of full-wave circuit
in which four rectifier elements
or tubes are operated from a single high-voltage winding on the power transformer.
While twice as much output voltage can be
obtained from a bridge rectifier as from a center-tapped circuit, the permissible output current is only one-half as great for a given power
transformer. In the bridge circuit, four rectifiers and three filament heating transformer
windings are needed, as against two rcx:tifiers
and one filament winding in the center-tapped
full-wave circuit. In a bridge rectifier circuit,
the inverse peak voltage impressed on any one
rectifier tube is halved, which means that tubes
of lower peak inverse voltage rating may be
used for a given voltage output.
32-3
Standard Power
Supply Circuits
HANDBOOK
] llf3~:::~=
@
too.e~
00
o.e~
Figure 8
SPECIAL SINGLE-PHASE RECTIFICATION CIRCUITS
A description of the application and operation of each of these special circuits is given in the
nccompanying text.
692
THE RADIO
Power Supplies
PRIMARY
Eo= 1.11 Es
Is
=0.517 I D.C.
RIPPLE FREQUENCY= 3F
RIPPLE PERCENT= 18.3
Figure 9
Eo= 1.35 Es
Is
=0.408 I o.c.
RIPPLE FREQUENCY
IF
RIPPLE PERCENT= 4.2
6-PHASE STAR
COMMON
POLYPHASERECTIFICATION
CIRCUITS
These circuits are used
when polyphase power is
available for the plate
supply of a high-power
transmitter. The circuit
at (B) is also called a
three-phase
full-wave
rectification system. The
circuits are described in
the accompanying text.
Eo= 2.34 Es
Is
=o.a1e I o.c.
Rl PPLE FREQUENCY = IF
RIPPLE PERCENT= 4.2
~~~~ ~~~~~!:
) = ~:~! ~~
6-PHASE BRIDGE
HANDBOOK
simply by reversing the double-pole doublethrow switch S. A serious disadvantage of this
circuit is the fact that the entire secondary
winding of transformer T, must be insulated
for the total output voltage of the power supply.
An arrangement for operating a full-wave
rectifier from a plate transformer not equipped
with a center tap is shown in figure 8D. The
two chokes L, must have high inductance ratings at the operating current of the plate supply to hold down the a-c current load on the
secondary of the transformer since the total
peak voltage output of the plate transformer
is impressed across the chokes alternately.
However, the chokes need only have half the
current rating of the filter choke L, for a certain current drain from the power supply since
only half the current passes through each
choke. Also, the two chokes L, act as input
chokes so that an additional swinging choke
is not required for such a power supply.
A conventional two-voltage power supply
with grounded transformer center tap is shown
in figure 8E. The output voltages from this
circuit are separate and not additive as in
the circuit of figure 8B. Figure SF is of advantage when it is desired to operate Class B
modulators from the half-voltage output of a
bridge power supply and the final amplifier
from the full voltage output. Both L, and L,
should be swinging chokes but the total drain
from the power supply passes through L while
only the drain of the final amplifier passes
through L,. Capacitors C and c, need be rated
only half the maximum output voltage of the
power supply, plus the usual safety factor.
This arrangement is also of advantage in holding down the "key-up" voltage of a c-w transmitter since both L and L, are in series, and
their inductances are additive, insofar as the
"critical inductance" of a choke-input filter
is concerned. If 4 fLfd. capacitors are used at
both C and C, adequate filter will be obtained
on both plate supplies for hum-free radiophone
operation.
It is usual practice in commercial equipment installations
when the power drain from a
plate supply is to be greater
than about one kilowatt ~o use a polyphase rectification system. Such power supplies offer
better transformer utilization, less ripple output and better power factor in the load placed
upon the a-c line. However, such systems require a source of three-phase (or two-phase
with Scott connection) energy. Several of the
Polyphase
Rectification
Circuits
Standard Circuits
693
694
THE RADIO
Power Supplies
1[j~
R=LINEVOLTS-HEATERVOLTS
HEATER AMPERES
~+
._______.._]=L_.~
__...._:__. -LINE RECTIFIER
SELENIUM
LINE RECTIFIER
=0-,--ic__+~--~-c_,....._~::OLTAG~DOUBLER
+
C2
FULL-WAVE
'--------'
SELENIUM
RECTIFIER
VOLTAGE
QUADRUPLER
Cl
Figure 10
TRANSFORMER LESS POWER-SUPPLY
CIRCUITS
Circuits such as shown above are also frequently called line-rectifier circuits. Selenium rectifiers, vacuum diodes, or gas diodes
may be used as the rectifying elements in
these circuits.
Transformerless
Power Supplies
HANDBOOK
tifier element simply rectifies the line voltage
and delivers the alternate half cycles of energy
to the filter network. With the normal type
of rectifier tube, load currents up to approximately 75 ma. may be employed. The d-e
voltage output of the filter will be slightly
less than the r-m-s line voltage, depending
upon the particular type of rectifier tube employed. With the introduction of the miniature
selenium rectifier, the transformerless power
supply has become a very convenient source
of moderate voltage at currents up to perhaps
500 ma. A number of advantages are offered
by the selenium rectifier as compared to the
vacuum tube rectifier. Outstanding among
these are the factors that the selenium rectifier operates instantly, and that it requires no
heater power in order to obtain emission. The
amount of heat developed by the selenium rectifier is very much less than that produced by
an equivalent vacuum-tube type of rectifier.
In the circuits of figure 10 (A) , (B) and
(C), capacitors C and C, should be rated
at approximately 150 volts and for a normal
degree of filtering and capacitance, should be
between 15 to 60 JLfd. In the circuit of figure
10D, capacitor C should be rated at 150
volts and capacitor c, should be rated at 300
volts. In the circuit of figure 10E, capacitors
C and C, should be rated at 150 volts and
c, and C should be rated at 300 volts.
The d-e output voltage of the line rectifier
may be stabilized by means of a VR tube.
However, due to the unusually low internal
resistance of the selenium rectifier, transformerless power supplies using this type of rectifying element can normally be expected to
give very good regulation.
Figures 10C and 10D illustrate two simple voltagedoubler circuits which will
deliver a d-e output voltage equal approximately to twice the r-m-s value of the power line
voltage. The no-load d-e output voltage is
equal to 2.82 times the r-m-s line voltage
value. At high current levels, the output voltage will be slightly under twice the line voltage. The circuit of figure 1OC is of advantage
when the lowest level of ripple is required
from the power supply, since its ripple frequency is equal to twice the line frequency.
The circuit of figure 10D is of advantage when
it is desired to use the grounded side of the
a-c line in a permanent installation as the reVoltage-Doubler
Circuits
Standard Circuits
695
OUTS I DE COLLECTOR
INSIDE COLLECTOR
PHENOLIC WASHER
BASE PLATE
10 0,.---
90
80
PHASE
r'
PHASE
Y/
VI
~ 70
)-
f-fJ
50
w 40
u 30
0::
w
LL
20
,0
0
50
100
150
200
2.50
300
Figure 11
THE SELENIUM RECTIFIER
A-The selenium rectifier is a semi-conductor
stack built up of nickel plated aluminum
discs coated on one side with selenium
alloy.
8-Rectifier efficiency is high, reaching 70%
for single phase service, dropping slightly
at high current densities.
The circuit of figure 10E illustrates a voltage quadrupler circuit for miniature selenium rectifiers. In effect this circuit is equivalent to
two voltage doublers of the type shown in figure 10D with their outputs connected in series.
The circuit delivers a d-e output voltage under
light load approximately equal to four times
the r-m-s value of the line voltage. The noload d-e output voltage delivered by the quadrupler is equal to 5.66 times the r-m-s line
voltage value and the output voltage decreases
rather rapidly as the load current is increased.
In each of the circuits in figure 10 where
selenium rectifiers have been shown, conventional high-vacuum rectifiers may be substituted with their filaments connected in series
and an appropriate value of the line resistor
added in series with the filament string.
Voltage
Quadrupler
32-4
Selenium and
Silicon Rectifiers
with the circuit of figure 10D the ripple frequency is the same as the a-c line frequency.
life, dependability, and maintenance-free operation under severe operating conditions. The
696
Power Supplies
f-
~~~
0(/)
Zf- ...J
wo
"-.I
e--'
-4
POSITIVE TERMINAL
~> -2
<(
THE RADIO
--6
0
50
-- ----
100
1.50
LOAD CURRENT,
200
-.;;..;..._
2.50
Figure 12
VOLTAGE REGULATION OF
SELENIUM CELL
This graph applies to sinf11e phase lull wave
bridge, and center-tap cltcuits which utilize
both halves ol the input wave. In single phase
hall wave circuits the regulation will be poorer.
Figure 13
THE SILICON CELL
300
TERMINA~
11
Silicon
Current Density
HANDBOOK
697
Figure 14
MINIATURE SEMI-CONDUCTOR
TYPE RECTIFIER
Raytheon CK-777 power rectifier bolts to
chassis to gain large "heat sink" area. Low
internal voltage drop and high efficiency
permit small size of unit.
32-5
<ll
a::
w
>
w
ci
10 0
a::
u~
ci~
Wf-
>z
v-:
~w1.
150
vrc
ylzsc
_jO::
W::O
O::Uo. 1
25
1
50
v -V'
~,_:
a:: z 50 r----+-----H-r---J~--
lLW
oa::
1-a::
)__,
75
~ G2s t-----t--trr--r--t------1
uo
O::<i
wo
L
100
75r----+----~~~-r--
v
;-65C
0~
<(0::
125
150
a.. ..J
0':'--""':'"::-"'~':"-:-----:--:---:::2.0
FORWARD VOLTAGE DROP
VOLTS, D.C.
@
Figure 15
SILICON RECTIFIER CHARACTERISTICS
A-Reverse direction of silicon rectifier is characterized by extremely high resistance up to point of
avalanche voltage.
8-Threshold voltage of silicon cell is about 0.6 volt. Once device starts conducting the current increases exponentially with small increments of voltage, then nearly linearly on a very steep slope.
698
Power Supplies
,.4-<M,.-{W>--IfL-...--*L-----o +20~ v.
1$0MA.
+32~V.
450MA.
Figure 16
SEMI-CONDUCTOR POWER SUPPLIES
A-Voltage quadruplet circuit. II point "A" is taken as ground instead of point "8," supply will deliver
530 volts at 150 mo. from 115 volt a-c line. Supply is "hot" to line.
B-Voltage triplet delivering 325 volts at 450 mo. Supply is "hot" to line.
C-900 watt supply lor sideband service may be made from two voltage quadruplers working in series
from inexpensive "distribution-type" transformer. Supply features good dynamic voltage regulation.
PARTS LIST:
o,_sarkes Tarzian Model 150 selenium cell or Model M-500 silicon cell.
Dz-Sarkes Tarzian Model 500 selenium cell or Model M-500 silicon cell.
T1-Power distribution transformer, used backwards. 230/460 primary, 115/230 secondary, 0.75 KVA.
Chicago PCB-24750.
Figure 17
terrupted voltage impressed on the transformer primary has practically a square waveform.
The secondary voltage also has nearly a square
waveform as a result and thus the peak voltage on the rectifiers is only slightly higher
than the average voltage of the waveform.
This means that the rectifiers in a vibratortype power supply can be operated on a square
wave voltage close to their maximum peak
inverse voltage rating, instead of considerably
below this rating, as when a sine wave a.c.
vooltage is applied to them.
This power supply has three
high voltage sections as shown
in figure 19. The 250 vo1t
receiver supply is shown in figure 19A, the
300 volt low voltage transmitter supply in
figure 19B, and the 450 volt high voltage
transmitter supply JS shown in figure 19C.
Power Supply
Circuit
SYNCHRONOUS
VIBRATOR
VIBRATOR
TRANSFORMER
.----------
t-----LIJIJ'~
t
t
I
I
,-
Lllllllllll
6 VOLT CONNECTIONS
12 VOLT CONNECTIONS
Figure 18
700
THE RADIO
Power Supplies
T!
T!
T!
~oSR1A
~
+
+
11
+ SR2A
SR1A
I
+
SR2A
Figure 19
SIMPLIFIED CIRCUITS OF RECTIFIER SYSTEMS USED IN HIGH EFFICIENCY
MOBILE SUPPLY
A-Full wave, 250 volt rectifier.
B-300 volt bridge circuit tapped across portion of the high voltage winding.
C-450 volt bridge rectifier circuit.
HANDBOOK
701
_;_-<>--...--...--+o
6
+450/300
v.
TRANSMIT.
56K
2W
GROUND
+ 300V
56
TRANSMIT.
2W
2.
10 11
..._------+-0
3
12.
lfl yy ll jl H I "
TRANSMIT.
"'""'
RY3o---LF1
GNDTOAUTO
+ 2.50 v'
T06VOLTS
6V. TO P2
TO S3,P2
2
?.
56
101112
(SEEFIG.238)
jj ~ I ,, "''" "'''
GND TO AUTO
12.v.ro Pz
TO 53, Pz
(S FIG. 238)
Figure 20
SCHEMATIC, 6-12 VOLT MOBILE SUPPLY
Ez-Vibrator, dual interrupter, split-reed; 6 volt -~oils, 716.c.p.s. reed frequency, 7 pin base. Mallory type
1701, Oak V-6853, Radiart 5722, or G.E. A-7141584-P3.
F z-30 ampere cartridge fuse.
F:-15 ampere cartridge fuse.
Jz-12 pin male chassis plug. Cinch-Jones P-312-AB
P z-12 pin female cable socket. Cinch-Jones S-312-CCT
Lz-7.5 henry, 100 ma. Stancor C-1421
L,--7 Jlh., I amp. Ohmite 2-50 r-f choke
RYz, RY,-D.P.D.T. relay, 6 volt coil. Advance MG/2c/6VD, Potter & Brumfield MR-11D-6V, Guardian
200-6D Coil and 200-2 assembly, or Ohmite DOSX-158T, or equiv.
SR1, SRz--Two section selenium rectifier, 150 ma., 380 volts peak inverse per section, connected for
doubler service. G.E. A-7144141-P2, or two Federal 1005-A rectifiers in series for each leg (8 in all).
SRs-Two section selenium rectifier, 150 mo., 380 volts peak inverse per section, connected for center-tap
service. G.E. A-7144141-Pl, or two Federal 1005-A rectifiers with red terminals connected together.
SR,-150 ma., 64 volt peak inverse selenium rectifier. G. E. A-7140806-PI or federal !015.
Tz-Vibrator-type power transformer. Dual center-tapped 6 volt primaries. Secondaries: 420 volts c.t.
with 150 volt taps, 300 ma., and 20 volt, !50 ma. bias voltage winding. G.E. B-7486449-Pl.
TS,-8 terminal barrier strip. Cinch-Jones 8-141-Y.
Note: General Electric parts may be ordered from: D. S. Clark, G.E. Co., Product Service Renewal Parts
Section of Communication Products, 509 Kent St., Utica, N.Y. Current prices plus shipping charges
are: Tz, $14.70; Ez, $5.75; SR,, SR:, SR,, $7.75 each; SR 4, $1.40.
inch thick aluminum is cut as shown in figures 21 and 22. A cut-out in one corner is
necessary to clear the lower portion of the
power transformer. All chassis drilling and
the cutouts for the power transformer, power
input plug, and output terminal strip should
be completed before the chassis is permanent-
Figure 21
UNDER-CHASSIS
VIEW OF
POWER SUPPLY
The vibrator socket is
hidden by the resistors
and disc ceramic capacitors of the hash filter.
R-F choke L: and the
25 p.fd. capacitors are
above these parts on the
wall of the cose. Resistor R, is mounted to the
wall, with SR,, SR:, and
SR, in line below it.
Figure 22
TOP VIEW OF
POWER SUPPLY
INTERIOR
Relays RY, and RY: are
at center above choke L,.
Power transformer T1 is
mounted on end of cabinet.
Across
top of
703
2. WIRE CABLE
#6 FOR 6V.
#10FOR12V.
FROM
BATTERY
4 WIRE HEATER
& RELAY CABLE
J2
Figure 24
CABLE HARNESS, MAIN POWER
RELAY, RY 3 , AND REAR OF
POWER CONTROL BOX
Hif1h voltage for the receiver, plus the control
sw1tch circuits for RY, and RY:, are brought
into the control box from the power supply
through J,.
High voltage leads for the transmitter are
run directly from the supply,, but the trans-
TO RY3
COl L
(FIG. 20)
TO RY
3
COl L
(FIG.20)
~OV~~:;eRs,
FROM P1
(FIG 20)
TO HEATERS,
~~;~L~~
(FIG.20)
Figure 23
CONTROL WIRING
A-Block diagram of suggested power and
control cables and switching system for
mobile power supply.
8-Schematic diagram of suggested control
box including power plugs for changin!J
heaters for 6 or 12 volt operation.
JS
s,
switch, and
32-6
Transistorized
Power Supplies
transistor is in switching circuits. The transistor may be switched from an "off" condition to an "on" condition with but the ap-
704
Power Supplies
THE RADIO
1fPIIE- DIIE-
Figure 25
l9
.SVOLTS
,rRISETIME=70..US
6 40 -,---
2
_,_
~ 3s~--
r--1'-----'
0 30---
f~ 25--
~200-200o:.,~,
_ ____
11s
20-
8 15~ 10
Transistor
Power Rating
-~
~ o~--'-
cn
former provides 180 degree phase shift voltage necessary to maintain oscillation. In this
application the transistors are operated as onoff switches; i.e., they are either completing
the circuit or opening it. The oscillator output
voltage is a square wave having a frequency
that is dependent upon the driving voltage,
the primary inductance of the power transformer, and upon the peak collector current
drawn by the conducting transistor. Changes
in transformer turns, core area, core material,
and feedback turns ratio have an effect on the
frequency of oscillation. Frequencies in common use are in the range of 120 c.p.s. to
3,500 c.p.s.
The power consumed by the transistors 1s
relatively independent of load. Loading the
oscillator causes an increase in input current
that is sufficient to supply the required power
to the load and the additional losses in the
transformer windings. Thus, the overall efficiency actually increases with load and is greatest at the heaviest load the oscillator will supply. A result of this is that an increase in load
produces very little extra heating of the transistors. This feature means that it is impossible to burn out the transistors in the event of
a shorted load since the switching action merely stops.
IO.SVOLT
TIME---
Figure 26
BASE-COLLECTOR WAVEFORM OF
SWITCHING CIRCUIT,
FOR 12 VOLT CIRCUIT
Square waveshape produces almost ideal
switching action. Small
Spike" on leading
edge of pulses may be reduced by proper
11
transformer design.
HANDBOOK
705
2N278
r - - - - - - - - - - - . . - - - - - . - o + 2 5 0 V . AT
50 MA :;;:12WATTS
25 K
5W
2N278 OR 2N301A
t----?----~--0+275 V. AT 125 MA
= 35 WATTS
25K
"'iOW
Figure 27
PRACTICAL TRANSISTOR POWER SUPPLIES
T ,--Chicago DCT -2 transistor transformer
T,-Chicago DCT -I transistor transformer
D1-Ds-Sarkes-Tarzian M-500 silicon rectifier or equivalent.
Self-Starting
Oscillators
706
THE RADIO
Power Supplies
Figure 28
35 WATT TRANSISTOR
POWER SUPPLY
Two 2N30 I A power transistors are used in
this midget supply. Transistors are mounted
on sanded portion of chassis deck which acts
as ''heat sink." See text tor details.
32-7
Two
Transistorized
Mobile Supplies
Figure 29
SCHEMATIC, TRANSISTOR
POWER SUPPLY FOR
12 VOLT AUTOMOTIVE
SYSTEM
T ,-Transistor power transformer.
12 volt primary, to provide 275
volts at 125 ma. Chicago Standard DCT-1.
D,-D,--Sarkes-Tarzian silicon rectifier, type M-500, or equivalent.
27!S
25K
TIY
12 V. BATTERY
v.
AT12.5MA,
HANDBOOK
at 50 milliamperes, simultaneously). Both
power units operate from a 12 volt primary
source.
The 35 Watt The 35 watt power unit uses
Supply
two inexpensive RCA 2N301A
P-N-P-type power transistors
for the switching elements and four silicon
diodes for the high voltage rectifiers. The
complete schematic is shown in figure 29.
Because of the relatively high switching frequency only a single 20 1-'fd. filter capacitor
is required to provide pure d.c.
Regulation of the supply is remarkably good.
No load voltage is 310 volts, dropping to
275 volts at maximum current drain of 125
milliamperes.
The complete power package is built upon
an aluminum chassis-box measuring 5V<i"x
3"x2". Paint is removed from the center portion of the box to form a simple heat sink
for the transistors. The box therefore conducts
heat away from the collector elements of the
transistors. The collector of the transistor is
the metal case terminal and in this circuit is
returned to the negative terminal of the primary supply. If the negative of the automobile
battery is grounded to the frame of the car
the case of the transistor may be directly
grounded to the unpainted area of the chassis.
If the positive terminal of the car battery is
grounded it is necessary to electrically insulate
the transistor from the aluminum chassis, yet
at the same time permit a low thermal barrier
to exist between the transistor case and the
power supply chassis. A simple method of
accomplishing this is to insert a thin mica
sheet between the transistor and the chassis.
"Two Mil" (0.002") mica washers for transistors are avaihble at many large radio supply houses. The mica is placed between the
transistor and the chassis deck, and fibre washers are placed under the retaining nuts holding the transistor in place. When the transistors are mounted in place, measure the
collector to ground resistance with an ohmmeter. It should be 100 megohms or higher
in dry air. After the mounting is completed,
spray the transistor and the bare chassis section with plastic Krylon to retard oxidation ..
Several manufacturers produce anodized aluminum washers that serve as mounting insulators. These may be used in place of the mica
washers, if desired. The under-chassis wiring
of the supply may be seen in figure 30.
The 85 Watt Figure 31 shows the schematic
Supply
of a dual voltage transistorized
mobile power supply. A bridge
Components
707
Figure 30
UNDER-CHASSIS LAYOUT OF PARTS
Two 10 !'ld. capacitors are connected in
parallel lor 20 !'ld. output filter capacitor.
Silicon rectifiers are mounted in dual fuse
clips at end of chassis. Transistors are insulated from chassis with thin mica sheets and
fibre washers if s':fply is used with positivegrounde primary system.
32-8
Power Supply
Components
Filter
Capacitors
708
Power Supplies
THE RADIO
2N278
2.5 K
470
~
..,-w-
SOK
10W
Figure 31
SCHEMATIC,
85 WATT
TRANSISTOR
POWER SUPPLY
FOR 12 VOLT
AUTOMOTIVE
SYSTEM
T1-Transistor power
transformer. 12 volt
primary to provide 275
12 V. BATTERY+
pacitors are used in filter circuits of highV'Oltage supplies, the capacitors should be connected in series. The positive terminal of one
capacitor must connect to the negative terminal of the other, in the same manner as
dry batteries are connected in series.
It is not necessary to connect shunt resistors across each electrulytic capacitor section
as it is with paper capacitors connected in
series, because electrolytic capacitors have
fairly low internal d-e resistance as compared
to paper capacitors. Also, if there is any variation in resistance, it is that electrolytic unit
in the poorest condition which will have the
highest leakage current, and therefore the voltage across this capacitor will be lower than
that across one of the series connected units
in better condition and having higher internal
resistance. Thus we see that equalizing resistors are not only unnecessary across seriesconnected electrolytic capacitors but are actually undesirable. This assumes, of course,
similar capacitors by the same manufacturer
and of the same capacitance and voltage rating. It is not advisable to connect in series
electrolytic capacitors of different make or
ratings.
There is very little economy in using electrolytic capacitors in series in circuits where
more than two of these capacitors would be
required to prevent voltage breakdown.
Electrolytic capacitors can be greatly reduced in size by the use of etched aluminum
foil for the anode. This greatly increases the
surface area, and the dielectric film covering
it, but raises the power factor slightly. For
this reason, ultra-midget electrolytic capacitors
ordinarily should not be used at full rated d-e
voltage when a high a-c component is present,
HANDBOOK
such as would be the case for the input capacitor in a capacitor-input filter.
A heavy duty resistor should be
connected across the output of a
filter in order to draw some load
current at all time. This resistor avoids soaring of the voltage at no load when swinging
choke input is used, and also provides a means
for discharging the filter capacitors when no
external vacuum-tube circuit load is connected
to the filter. This bleeder resistor should normally draw approximately 10 per cent of the
full load current.
The power dissipated in the bleeder resistor
can be calculated by dividing the square of
the d-e voltage by the resistance. This power
is dissipated in the form of heat, and, if the
resistor is not in a well-ventilated position,
the wattage rating should be higher than the
actual wattage being dissipated. High-voltage,
high-capacitance filter capacitors can hold a
dangerous charge if not bled off, and wirewound resistors occasionally open up without
warning. Hence it is wise to place carbon resistors in series across the regular wire-wound
bleeder.
When purchasing a bleeder resistor, be sure
that the resistor will stand not only the required wattage, but also the voltage. Some resistors have a voltage limitation which makes
it impossible to force sufficient current through
them to result in rated wattage dissipation.
This type of resistor usually is provided with
slider taps, and is designed for voltage divider
service. An untapped, non-adjustable resistor
is preferable as a high voltage bleeder, and is
less expensive. Several small resistors may be
connected in series, if desired, to obtain the
required wattage and voltage rating.
Bleeder
Resistors
Transformers
Special Supplies
709
32-9
Special Power
Supplies
Regulated
SuppliesV-R Tubes
710
Power Supplies
THE RADIO
If a high resistance is connected across the
VR tube, it will not impair its ability to maintain a fixed voltage drop. However, if the load
is made too low, a variable 5000 to 30,000
ohm shunt resistance (the VR-150) will not
exert sufficient effect upon the resulting resistance to provide constant voltage except
over a very limited change in supply voltage
or load resistance. The tube will supply maximum regulation, or regulate the largest load,
when the source of supply voltage has high
internal cr high series resistance, because a
variation in the effective internal resistance
of the VR tube will then have more controlling effect upon the load shunted across it.
In order to provide greatest range of regulation, a VR tube (or two in series) should be
used with a series resistor (to effect a poorly
regulated voltage source) of such a value that
it will permit the VR tube to draw from 8 to
20 rna. under normal or average conditions
of supply voltage and load impedance. For
maximum control range, the series resistance
should be not less than approximately 20,000
ohms, which will necessitate a source of voltage considerably in excess of 150 volts. However, where the supply voltage is limited, good
connrol over a limited range can be obtained
with as little as 3000 ohms series resistance.
If it takes less than 3000 ohms series resistance to make the VR tube draw 15 to 20
rna. when the VR tube is connected to the
load, then the supply voltage is not high
enough for proper operation.
Should the current through a VR -15 0, VR10 5, or VR- 7 5 be allowed to exceed 40 rna.,
the life of the tube will be shortened. If the
current falls below 5 rna., operation will become unstable. Therefore, the tube must operate within this range, and within the two
extremes will maintain the voltage within 1.5
per cent. It takes a voltage excess of at least
10 to 15 per cent to "start" a VR type regulator; and to insure positive starting each time
the voltage supply should preferably exceed
the regulated output voltage raning about 20
per cent or more. This usually is automatically
taken care of by the fact that if sufficient
series resistance for good regulation is employed, the voltage impressed across the VR
tube before the VR tube ionizes and starts
passing current is quite a bit higher than the
starting voltage of the tube.
When a VR tube is to be used to regulate
the voltage applied to a circuit drawing less
than 15 ma. normal or average current, the
simplest method of adjusting the series resist-
HANDBOOK
Special Supplies
Es
RL
D.C. SUPPLY
VOLTAGE
VR TUBE
l-OAD
Figure 32
STANDARD VR-TUBE REGULATOR
CIRCUIT
The VR-tube regulator will maintain the voltage across its terminals constant within a
few volts for moderate variations in RL or E8
See text for discussion of the use of VR
tubes in various circuit applications.
711
Voltage Regulated
Power Supplies
Figure 33
SCHEMATIC OF VOLTAGE
REGULATED POVfER SUPPLY
T1-6 J5 or 520 volts each side of c.t., 300
712
THE RADIO
Power Supplies
T1
V1
115V.
50-60'\..
8,3V.
APPROXIMATE
OUTPUT VOLTAGE
COMPONENTS
T1
y,
10 H.
350-0-350
STANCOR PC~B409
MERIT P-3152
SYJca
375-0-375
STANCOR PC-8411
MERIT P-2954
400-0-400
STANCOR PG-8413
CHI
5Y3c;T
5U4-G
C-1001
IOH,
STANCOR
C-1001
MERIT
C-2993
MERIT
C-2993
3-13 H
STANCOR
C-!718
ME/UT
C-3187
2-12 H.
STANCOR
C-1402
7 H.
STANCOR
C-1421
MERIT
C-3180
MERIT
MERIT
STANCOR
c.
CH2
4 H.
STANCOR
C-1412
c-31a9
C-3 182
C2
10JJF,4~
V.
CORNELL-
20JJF,450V.
CORNELL-
DUBILIER
BR-1045
OUBILIER
BR-2045
IOJJF,450V,
CORNELL-
201JF1 45QV,
CORNELLDUB/L/ER
DUBILIER
BR-1045
6.3V.
MAX.
CURRENT FILAMEN
R1
NO
FULL
LOAD
LOAD
35K,10W
310
240
80MA.
3A.
35K,10W
330
230
140MA.
4.5A.
BR-2045
IOJJF 450 V.
CORNELL-
DUBILIER
BR-1045
10JJF,450 V.
CORNELLDUB ILlER
BR-1045
35K,IOW
300
270
250MA.
5A.
525-0-525
UTC S-40
5U4-t;B
5-25 H.
UTC S-32
20 H.
urc s-31
10.UF1 6QOV.
MALLORY
TC-92
IO.UF,600 V,
MALLORY
TC-92
35K,10W
460
37>
240MA.
4A.
600-0-600
UTC S-41
5R4-GY
5-25 H.
UTC S-32
20 H.
UTC S-31
8JJF. 600 v.
SPRAGUE
CR-86
81JF, 600 v.
SPRAGUE
CR-86
35K,25W.
.40
410
200r.4A.
4A.
900-0-900
urc s-45
5R4CO.Y
S-25H.
UTC S-32
20H.
UTC S-31
41JF, 1 KV.
SPRAGUE
CR-41
81JF, 1 KV.
SPRAGUE
CR-81
50K,2.5W.
630
175r.4 ....
Figure 34
DESIGN CHART FOR CHOKE-INPUT POWER SUPPLIES
should be connected to the 816's. Some variation in the output range of the power supply
may be obtained by varying the values of the
resistors and the potentiometer across the output. However, be sure that the total plate
dissipation rating of 26 watts on the 6AS7-G
series regulator is not exceeded at maximum
current output from the supply. The total dissipation in the 6AS7-G is equal to the current through it (output current plus the current passing through the two bleeder strings)
multiplied by the drop through the tube (voltage across the filter capacitor minus the output voltage of the supply).
32-10
Power Supply
Design
Power supplies may either be of the choke
input type illustrated in figure 34, or the capacitor input type, illustrated in figure 35. Capacitor input filter systems are characterized
by a d-e supply output voltage that runs from
0.9 to about 1.3 times the r.m.s. voltage of
one-half of the high voltage secondary winding of the transformer. The approximate regulation of a capacitor input filter system is
shown in figure 36. Capacitor input filter
systems are not recommended for use with
HANDBOOK
Special Supplies
T1
11!>
713
V1
v,
so-eo"'
APPROXIMATE
OUTPUT VOLTAGE
6.3V.
MAX.
CURRENT FILAMENT
NO
FULL
LOAD
LOAD
COMPONENTS
Tl
VI
2.60-0-2.60
STANCOR PC~8404
MERIT P-3148
5Y3-GT
375-0-375
STANCOR PC-8411
MERIT P-2.954
435-0-43.5
MERIT' P-31515
SY3-CT
5U4-G
CHI
600-0-800
5R4-GY
2.0.UF,4SOV.
CORNELLDUSIL!ER
BR-2045
20.UF, 4SO v.
CORNELL35K,10W
DUB ILlER
7 H.
STANCOR
C-1.12.1
10.UF,600 V.
MALLORY
10JJF,800
MERIT
TC-92
8.UF,800V.
SPRAGUE
CR-86
SPRAGUE
MERIT
STANCOR
C-1412
MERIT
4.UF, 1 KY.
SPRAfiUE
CR-41
8.UF, 1 KV.
SPRAfiUE
CR-81
2.0 H.
UTC S-31
4lJF, t.!IKV.
SPRAGUE
CR-415
llJF. 1.bKV.
SPRA,UE
7!1K 2!1W
CR-815
C-3180
4H.
STANCOR
C-1412
c-Jtsz
900-0-900
UTC S-45
~R4-GY
R1
C2
10 H.
STANCOR
C-1001
MERIT
C-2993
C-3182
4 H.
STANCOR PC-8414
Cl
340
240
80MA.
3A.
35K,t0W
480
3>0
12..5MA.
4.SA.
35K,Z5W
800
400
22.5 MA.
8 A.
50K,25W
800
800
ZOOMA.
8A.
1200
910
1!10 t.4A.
BR-2.045
v.
MALLORY'
TC-92
81JF1 &00 V.
CR-88
Figure 35
mercury vapor rectifier tubes, as the peak rectifier current may run as high as five or six
times the d-e load current of the power supply. It is possible, however, to employ type
872-A mercury vapor rectifier tubes in capacitor input circuits wherein the load current is less than 600 milliamperes or so, and
where a low resistance bleeder is used to hold
the minimum current drain of the supply to
a value greater than 50 milliamperes or so.
Under these conditions the peak plate current
of the 872-A mercury vapor tubes will not
be exceeded if the input filter capacitor is
4 /Lfd. or less.
Choke input filter systems are characterized
by lower peak load currents ( 1.1 to 1.3 times
the average load current) than the capacitor
input filter, and by better voltage regulation.
Design Charts for capacitor and choke input
filter supplies for various voltages and load
currents are shown in figures 34, 35, and 37.
The construction of power supplies for transmitters, receivers and accessory equipment is
a relatively simple matter electrically since
lead lengths and placement of parts are of
minor importance and since the circuits themselves are quite simple. Under-chassis wiring
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
t.4
RATIO OF D.C. OUTPUT VOLTAGE TO R.M.S VOLTAGE
OF
Figure 36
APPROXIMATE REGULATION OF
CAPACITOR-INPUT FILTER SYSTEM
714
Power Supplies
THE RADIO
Tz
COMPONENTS
Tz
T
11.50-0-11~0
2.5V.,10A.
CHICAGO TRANS.
P-!07
CHI. TRAN.
F-210
1710-0-1710
2.5V., lOA.
CHICAGO TRANS. CHI. TRAN.
P-1512
F-210H
2900-0-2900
CHICAGO TRANS.
P-2126
3500-0-3500
UTC CG-309
4600-0-4600
UTC CG-310
CHICAGO TRANS.
P-4353
5 V., lOA.
CHI. TRAN.
F-510H
5 V., fOA.
11rc
LS-82
~v.,
20A.
11rc
LS-83
V1-V2
888-A
868-A
886-A
see-A
872-A
872-A
872-A
872-A
~75-A
.57.5-A
CH1
6 H.
CHI.TRAN.
CH2
c.
C2
R1
APPROXIMATE
MAX.
OUTPUT VOL TAG
CURRENT
NO
FULL
(I CAS)
LOAD
LOAD
IOH.
4JJF, 1.5KV. 8JJF, 1.5 KV.
CHI. TRAN. SANGAMO SANGAMO 40K,75W
R-103
llts-4
7115-8
1150
1000
350t.4A.
6 H.
IOH.
4lJF, 2 KY. 8.UF, 2 KY.
CHI. TRAN. CHI.TRAN. SANGAMO SANGAMO MK,75W
R-tJ5
R-105
7120-4
7120-B
1700
uoo
4Z5MA.
R-G3
6 H.
CHI. TRAN.
R-tJl
10 H.
70K
200W
2750
2500
700 MA.
4J.JF, 4KV.
CORNELLDUBILIER DUBILIER
T40040-A
T40040-A
100 K
200W
3400
3000
1000 t.<IA.
4lJF, 5K\/.
AERO VOX
JP-09
100 K
300W
4400
4000
600 MA.
6 H.
10 H.
11rc
11rc
C6-1S
Cfi-tS
IOH.
10 H.
11rc
11rc
C(i-1$
C(i-1$
~~NiL~~
4J.JF, SKV
AERO VOX
JP-09
Figure 37
Bridge supplies may also be used to advantage to obtain relatively high plate voltages for high powered transmitting equipment. Type 866-A and 872-A rectifier tubes
can only serve in a supply delivering under
3500 volts in a full-wave circuit. Above this
voltage, the peak inverse voltage rating of the
rectifier tube will be exceeded, and danger
of flash-back within the rectifier tube will be
present. However, with bridge circuits, the
same tubes may deliver up to as much as 7000
volts d.c. without exceeding the peak inverse
voltage rating.
The bridge circuit also permits the use of
the so-called "pole transformer" in high voltage power supplies. Two KVA transformers of
this type having a 110/220 volt secondary
winding and a split 2200 volt primary winding may often be picked up in salvage yards
for a dollar or two. If reversed, and either
110 or 220 volts applied to the "primary"
winding approximately 2200 volts r.m.s. will
be developed across the new "secondary" winding. If used in a bridge circuit as shown in
Figure 38
UNDER-CHASSIS
POWER SUPPLY ASSEMBLY
All components are firmly mounted to the
steel chassis and all wiring is cabled. High
voltage leads are run in automobile ignition
cables. Heavy-duty terminal strips are mounted
along the rear edge ol the chassis. The control panel ol this supply is shown in ligure 1
ol this chapter.
HANDBOOK
Special
6.3
v.
COMPONENTS
T1
V1-V2.
V3
360-0-360
STANCORPC-8410
6X5-GT
5V4G
400-0-400
T2.,T3=6.3V., 1 A.
STANCOR P-6134
STANCDRPC-8412
6AX5-GT 5U4-GB
C1-C2. C3-C4
16JJF
450
v.
16JJF.
450
v.
715
Supplies
CH1
CH2
R1-R2
R3
16JJF.
450V.
IOH.
12.0MA.
8 H.
100 K
20K,10W.
SOMA.
IW
15JJF,
4SOV.
10 H.
225MA.
8 H.
100 K
20K lOW.
75MA.
v
~AX.
CURRENT
HV#1
HV#2
#1
600
240
100 MA.
40MA.
#2
625
2.60
115 MA
50 MA.
115V.
S0-60'\..o
Figure 39
DUAL VOLTAGE BRIDGE POWER SUPPLIES
32-11
300 Volt,
SO Ma. Power Supply
There are many applications in the laboratory and amateur station for a simple low
drain power supply. The most common appli-
COMPONENTS
T1
Figure 40
HIGH-VOLTAGE
POWER SUPPLY
22.00-VOLT
POLE
TRANSFOR~ER
2. KVA
T2
UTC
S-71
3~0003~00
1/TC
UTC CG-308
LS-121-Y
V1-Y4
CHI
20H.
866-A
~OOMA.
urc s-31
10H.
872-A
j~gi:-~01
C1
R1
10.JJF.
2.~00
v.
8.UF
6800
v.
BK
2.00W.
200 K
300W.
VOLTAGE
CURRENT
(I CAS)
1900
~00
6000
~OOMA.
MA.
Figure 41
cation in the amateur station for such a supply is for items of test equipment such as the
type LM and BC-221 frequency meters, for
frequency converters to be used in conjunction
with the station receiver, and for auxiliary
equipment such as high selectivity i-f strips
or variable frequency oscillators. Equipmen~s
such as these may be operated from a supply
delivering 250 to 300 volts at up to 50 milliamperes of plate current. A filament source of
6.3 or 12 volts may also be required, as will
a source of regulated voltage.
The simple power supply illustrated in figures 41 and 42 is capable of meeting these
requirements. A two section capacitor input
filter system is employed to provide minimum ripple content and a switch ( S,) is
provided to insert a VR-150 regulator tube
in the circuit to provide 150 volts at approximately 3 5 milliamperes.
A separate 6.3 volt filament transformer is
connected in series with the 6.3 volt winding of power transformer T, to provide 12.6
volts at 1.2 amperes for operating "12 volt"
tubes or a string of two "6 volt" tubes connected in series. The secondary winding of
T, must be polarized correctly to provide 12.6
volts across the two windings.
Resistor R, must be adjusted to "fire" the
voltage regulator tube. It should be adjusted
so that approximately 15 milliamperes pass
through the tube. For maximum permissible
current drain from the high voltage tap of
the supply the VR tube should be switched
out of the circuit.
32-12
500 Volt,
200 Milliampere
Power Supply
5Y3-GT
Figure 42
SCHEMATIC, LIGHT DUTY SUPPLY
T ,-350 - 0 - 350 volts at 50 milliamperes, 5
volts at 2 amperes,
6.3 volts at 3 amperes
11
11
tep/acement
transformer.
'
717
T1
"'-----;:::::;=.;:::::::::::=::;-----1:~6.3 v.
REGULATION
LOAD(MA) VOLTS
Figure 43
100 WATT "ECONOMY MODEL"
POWER SUPPLY
Employing a TV-type voltage doubler trans-
former
and
inexpensive
selenium
rectifiers,
this supply delivers 500 volts at 200 milliamperes with good regulation.
The
selenium
32-13
1500 Volt,
425 Milliampere
Power Supply
11sv. rv
0
100
200
600
550
sao
Figure 44
SCHEMATIC, ECONOMY SUPPLY
T1-l 17 volt secondary rated at 280 ma for
doubler service. Three 6.3 volt fi/a;,ent
windings. Stancor P-8336.
CH,-8.5 henry at 200 ma. Stancor C-1721.
SR,-SR,-;-500 ma. selenium rectifier. SarkesTarzan or equivalent.
Figure 45
UNDER-CHASSIS VIEW
OF ECONOMY SUPPLY
Two 20 yfd., 450 volt capacitors are connected
1n parallel for each 80 !lfd. unit.
718
THE RADIO
Power Supplies
RYI
866
,~oo/7~o
v.
AT 425 MA.
llli.
sow
35"
;ow
Figure 46
SCHEMATIC, 1500 VOLT, 425 MILLIAMPERE SUPPLY
1,_1110- 0- 1710 volts, 425 ma. 115/230 volt primary. Chicago P-1512
T.-2.5 volt, 10 ampere, 10 KV insulation. Stancor P-3060
CHJ-6 henry at 300 ma., CCS. Chicago R-63
RFC-"Hash" suppression choke. Millen 77866
32-14
A Dual Voltage
Transmitter Supply
32-15
A Kilowatt
Power Supply
HANDBOOK
Special Supplies
CH1
719
(MOD,)
'-1---1--0+ 17 50 v.
R1
AT 150 MA.
(R.F.)
"--1.----..---o +AT2000
v.
160MA.
R~
TRANSMIT
SWITCH
ANTENNA
RELAY
Figure 47
872As
CH
CHICAGO R-67
C!-0.15.UF, 5000-VOLT.
Cz.-
THREE 4-uF
3000-VOLT
co.
N 7868
Figure 48
CHAPTER THIRTY-THREE
33-1
Tools
720
Tools
of tools is an economical move. It also determines if one should buy the less expensive
type offered at surprisingly low prices by the
familiar mail order houses, "five and ten"
stores and chain auto-supply stores, or whether
one should spend more money and get firstgrade tools. The latter cost considerably more
and work but little better when new, but will
outlast several sets of the cheaper tools.
Therefore they are a wise investment for the
experimenter who does lots of construction
work (if he can afford the initial cash outlay).
The amateur who constructs only an occasional
piece of apparatus need not be so concerned
with tool life, as even the cheaper grade tools
will last him several years, if they are given
proper care.
The hand tools and materials in the accompanying lists will be found very useful around
the home workshop. Materials not listed but
ordinarily used, such as paint, can best be
purchased as required for each individual job.
ESSENTIAL HAND TOOLS AND
MATERIALS
1 Good electric soldering iron, about 100
watts,
Spool rosin-core wire solder
Each large, medium, small, and midget
screwdrivers
Good hand drill (eggbeater type), preferably two-speed
1 Pair regular pliers, 6 inch
Pair long nose pliers, 6 inch
Pair cutting pliers (diagonals), 5 inch or
6 inch
1 Ys-inch tube-socket punch
1 "Boy Scout" knife
1 Combination square and steel rule, 1 foot
1 Yardstick or steel pushrule
1 Scratch awl or ice pick scribe
1 Center punch
1 Dozen or more assorted round shank drills
(as many as you can afford between no.
50 and 14 or Ys inch, depending upon
size of hand drill chuck)
Combination oil stone
Light machine oil (in squirt can)
Friction tape
1 Hacksaw and blades
1 Medium file and handle
721-A
THE RADIO
Figure 1
SOFT ALUMINUM
SHEET MAY BE CUT
WITH HEAVY
KITCHEN SHEARS
grinding head, etc. If power equipment is purchased, obviously some of the hand tools and
accessories listed will be superfluous. A drill
press greatly facilitates construction work,
arid it is unfortunate that a good one costs as
much as a small transmitter.
Not listed in the table are several specialpurpose radio tools which are somewhat of a
luxury, but are nevertheless quite handy, such
as various around-the-corner screwdrivers and
wrenches, special soldering iron tips, etc.
These can be found in the larger radio parts
stores and are usually listed in their mail order catalogs.
If it is contemplated to use the newer and
very popular miniature series of tubes ( 6AK5,
6C4, 6BA6, etc.) in the construction of equipment certain additional tools will be required
to mount the smaller components. Miniature
Figure 2
CONVENTIONAL
WOOD EXPANSION
BIT IS EFFECTIVE IN
DRILLING SOCKET
HOLES IN REYNOLDS
DO-IT-YOURSELF
ALUMINUM
HANDBOOK
Material
723-A
Figure 3
SOFT ALUMINUM
TUBING MAY BE
BENT AROUND
WOODEN FORM
BLOCKS. TO PREVENT
THE TUBE FROM
COLLAPSING ON
SHARP BENDS, IT IS
PACKED WITH
WET SAND.
33-2
The Material
Figure 4
A WOODWORKING
PLANE MAY BE USED
TO SMOOTH OR
TRIM THE EDGES OF
REYNOLDS
DO-IT-YOURSELF
ALUMINUM STOCK.
Special
Frameworks
THE RADIO
DESK
2. Top-flush door
3. Shelves- .1" plywood
~----- 6'0" - -
Figure 6
TVI ENCLOSURE MADE FROM
SINGLE SHEET OF
PERFORATED ALUMINUM
Reynolds Metal Co. "Do-it-yourself" aluminum
sheet may be cut and folded to form TVIproof enclosure. One-hal# inch lip on edges is
bolted to center section with 6-32 machine
screws.
33-3
Figure S
TV I-Proof
Enclosures
Openings
HANDBOOK
725-A
33-4
Enclosure
Openings
Figure 7
TVI-PROOF ENCLOSURE" BUILT OF
PERFORATED ALUMINUM SHEET
AND ANGLE STOCK
33-5
Summation
of the Problem
726-A
33-6
Construction
Practice
THE RADIO
Workshop Practice
r!JOCOOO~
o,
troQQ_Qdj
IY.>."""'"-'~""_j
BREAK OUT
PIECE INSIDE
DRILL HOLES.
D
0
FILE
SMOOTH
Figure 8
Removing
Burrs
HANDBOOK
Construction Practice
1
..
2 ..... --3 -- ................
4
5 - .................
6 -- ----- ---------7 ....
-- .........
.............
8
9 ---10* __
-11
12* --------------------13
--
14 ... ---------------15 .... --------------16 --- -------17
---18* __
19
-20
.............
21--22 -- ................
23
--- ............
24
25* - -- ............
26 ......................
27 -- ................
28 --- .................
29*. --- ................
30 ----------31 ..
----------32 .. --- . ...........
33* __
--
34
--
35 ---------------
36 ---------
37
-----
38 -------------------39* ------------------
40
-------------41
--------42
43 ---------------44 ..... ------45*--
Dla meter
(in.)
.228
.221
.213
.209
.205
.204
.201
.199
.196
.193
.191
.189
.185
.182
.180
.177
.173
.169
.166
.161
.159
.157
.154
.152
.149
.147
.144
.140
.136
.128
.120
.116
.113
.111
.110
.106
.104
.102
.100
.098
.096
.093
.089
.086
.082
Clears
Correct for
Tapping
Steel or
Screw
Brasst
12-24
14-24
12-20
10-32
10-24
12-24
8-32
12-20
10-32
10-24
6-32
8-32
4-36 4-40
6-32
3-48
4-36 4-40
2-56
3-48
Figure 9
727-A
Soldering
728-A
Workshop Practice
COIL
Figure 10
Figure 11
come completely solid, a "cold" joint will result. This can be identified immediately, because the solder will have a dull "white" appearance rather than one of shiny "silver."
Such joints tend to be of high resistance and
will very likely have a bad effect upon a circuit. The cure is simple, merely reheat the
joint and do the job correctly.
Wipe away all surplus flux when the joint
has cooled if you are using a paste type flux.
Be sure it is non-corrosive, and use it with
plain (not rosin core) solder.
Figure 12
GOOD SHOP
LAYOUT AIDS
CAREFUL
WORKMANSHIP
Built in a corner of a
garage, this shop has all
33-7
Shop Layout
The size of your workshop is relatively unimportant since the shop layout will determine its efficiency and the ease with which
you may complete your work.
Shown in figure 12 is a workshop built
729-A
730-A
Workshop Practice
Figure 13
CHAPTER THIRTY-FOUR
Electronic
Test Equipment
variably requires the use of some type of fieldstrength meter, and a standing-wave meter of
some type is very helpful. Lastly, if much v-h-f
work is to be done, a simple grid-dip meter
will be found to be one of the most used items
of test equipment in the station.
34-1
Voltage,
Current and Power
721-B
722-B
THE RADIO
Test Equipment
+100
+fO
fOK
lOOK
+2.50
250K
+1000
I MEG.
@
+100
+fO
+250
+1000
Figure 2
VOLT-OHMMETER CIRCUIT
tOK
90K
150 K
750K
@
+
With the switch In position 1, the 0-1 milliammeter would be connected directly to the
terminals. In position 2 the meter would read
from 0-100,000 ohms, approximately, with a
resistance value of 4500 ohms at half scale.
(Note: The half-scale resistance value of an
ohmmeter using this circuit is equal to the
fOK
Figure 1
MULTI-VOLTMETER CIRCUITS
(A) shows o circuit whereby individual multi-
Jess resistance, and hence are Jess expensive when precision wirewound resistors are
to be used. (C) shows a circuit essentially
the same as at (A), except that a range
switch is used. With a 0-500 d-e microammeter substituted for the 0-1 milliammeter
shown
would be
HANDBOOK
not be measured accurately with the circuit
constants shown; however, by increasing the
ohmmeter battery to 45 volts and multiplying
the 4000-ohm resistor and 1000-ohm potentiometer by 10, the ohms scale also will be
multiplied by 10_ This would permit accurate
measurements up to 1 megohm_
0-1 d-e milliammeters are available wi~h
special volt-ohmmeter scales which make individual calibration unnecessary. Or, special
scales can be purchased separately and substituted for the original scale on the milliammeter.
Obviously, the accuracy of the instrument
either as a voltmeter or as an ammeter can be
no better than the accuracy of the milliammeter and the resistors.
Because volt-ohmmeters are so widely used
and because the circuit is standardized to a
considerable extent, it is possible to purchase
a factory-built volt-ohmmeter for no more than
the component parts would cost if purchased
individually. For this reason no construction
details are given. However, anyone already
possessing a suitable milliammeter and desirous of incorporating it in a simple voltohmmeter should be able to build one from the
schematic diagram and design data given here.
Special, precision (accurately calibrated) multiplier resistors are available if a high degree
of accuracy is desired. Alternatively, good
quality carbon resistors whose actual resistance has been checked may be used as multipliers where less accuracy is required.
MoM ohmmeters, including the
one just described, are not
adapted for accurate measurement of low-resistances-in the
neighborhood of 100 ohms, for instance.
The ohmmeter diagrammed in figure 3 was
especially designed for the reasonably accurate reading of resistances down to 1 ohm. Two
scales are provided, one going in one direction and the other scale going in the other
direction because of the different manner in
which the milliammeter is used in each case.
The low scale covers from 1 to 100 ohms and
the high scale from 100 to 10,000 ohms. The
high scale is in reality a medium-range scale.
For accurate reading of resistances over 10,000
ohms, an ohmmeter of the type previously
described should be used.
The 1-100 ohm scale is useful for checking
transformers, chokes, r-f coils, etc., which often
Medium- and
Low-Range
Ohmmeter
Ohmmeters
723-B
D. P.O. T.
SWITCH
1.5V.
.-----+4~V?
7~0
0-1.!)
MA .
n.
Rx
LEADS
Figure 3
SCHEMATIC OF A LOW-RANGE
OHMMETER
A description of the operation of this circuit
is given in the text. With the switch in the
left position the half-scale reading of the
meter will occur with an external resistance
of 1000 ohms. With the switch in the right
position, half-scale deflection will be obtained with an external resistance equal to
the d-e resistance of the milliammeter (20 to
50 ohms depending upon the make of instrument).
strument is commonly used. For audio frequency a.c. ( 50-20,000 cycles) a d'Arsonval
724-B
THE RADIO
Test Equipment
:to---+--{
Figure 4
SLIDE-BACK V-T VOLTMETER
By connecting a variable source of voltage
in series with the input to a conventional
v-t voltmeter, or in series with the simple
triode voltmeter shown above, a slide-back
a-c voltmeter for peak voltage measurement
con be constructed. Resistor R should be
about 1000 ohms per volt used at battery B.
This type of v-t voltmeter has the advantage
that it can give a reading of the actual peak
voltage of the wave being measured, without
any current drain from the source of voltage.
High-Voltage
Diode Peak
Voltmeter
Power Measurement
HANDBOOK
725-B
2X2/879
2.~
A.C.
VOLTAGE
v.
R1
FROM
SOURCE
WITH
D.C.
RETURN
PATH
C1
:~~
+
C
CONVENTIONAL
HIGH-SENSITIVITY
VOLTMETER
fUV.
Figure 5
SCHEMATIC OF A HIGH-VOLTAGE PEAK
VOLTMETER
Figure 6
PEAK-VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT
CIRCUIT
P=EI
P=E'/R
P=I'R
726-B
THE RADIO
Test Equipment
Figure 7
100-WATT DUMMY LOAD SUITABLE FOR
RANGER, OR SIMILAR TYPE
TRANSMITTER
HANDBOOK
Measurement of Constants
34-2
Measurement
of Circuit Constants
The Impedance
Method
727-B
Figure 8
1.6-KILOWATT DUMMY LOAD SCHEMATIC
728-B
Test Equipment
THE RADIO
"'~--~:=
~-
"
RAj
52
Rx;
~:
Rs
Figure 9
TWO WHEATSTONE BRIDGE CIRCUITS
These circuits are used lor the measurement
of d-e resistance. In (A) the tatio arms" R8
and RA are fixed and balancing of the bridge
is accomplished by variation of the standard
R 8 The standard in this case usually consists of a decade box giving resistance in
1-ohm steps from 0 to 1110 or to 11,110 ohms.
In (B) a fixed standard is used for each range
and the ratio arm is varied to obtain balance,
A calibrated slide-wire or potentiometer calibrated by resistance in terms of degrees is
usually employed as RA and RB. It will be
noticed that the formula for determining the
unknown resistance from the known is the
same in either case.
11
1
L=----47T'f,' ( C
Co)
The determination of an unknown capacitance is somewhat less complicated than the
above. A tuned circuit including a coil, the
unknown capacitor and the standard capacitor,
all in parallel, is resonated to some convenient frequency. The capacitance of the standard capacitor is noted. Then the unknown capacitor is removed and the circuit re-resonated
by means of the standard capacitor. The difference between the two readings of the standard capacitor is then equal to the capacitance
of the unknown capacitor.
34-3
Measurements
with a Bridge
terminations accurate to four significant figures. With an a-c bridge operating within its
normal rating as to frequency and range of
measurement it is possible to obtain results
accurate to three significant figures.
Both the a-c and the d-e bridges consist of
a source of energy, a standard or reference of
measurement, a means of balancing this standard against the unknown, and a means of indicating when this balance has been reached.
The source of energy in the d-e bridge is a
battery; the indicator is a sensitive galvanometer. In the a-c bridge the source of energy
is an audio oscillator (usually in the vicinity
of 1000 cycles), and the indicator is usually
a pair of headphones. The standard for the d-e
bridge is a resistance, usually in the form of
a decade box. Standards for the a-c bridge can
be resistance, capacitance, and inductance in
va.rying forms.
Figure 9 shows two general types of the
Wheatstone or d-e bridge. In (A) ,the so-called
"ratio arms" RA and Rn are fixed (usually in
a ratio of 1-to-1, 1-to-10, 1-to-100, or 1-to1,000) and the ~tandard resistor Rs is varied
until the bridge is in balance. In commercially
manufactured bridges there are usually two or
more buttons on the galvanometer for progressively increasing its sensitivity as balance is
approached. Figure 9B is the slide wire type
of bridge in which fixed standards are used
and the ratio arm is continuously variable.
The slide wire may actually consist of a moving contact along a length of wire of uniform cross section in which case the ratio of
RA to Rn may be read off directly in centimeters or inches, or in degrees of rotation if
the slide wire is bent around a circular former.
Alternatively, the slide wire may consist of
linear-wound potentiometer with its dial calibrated in degrees or in resistance from each
end.
Figure lOA shows a simple type of a-c
bridge for the measurement of capacitance and
inductance. It can also, if desired, be used
for the measurement of resistance. The four
arms of the bridge may be made up in a variety of ways. As before, Rn and R-' make up
the ratio arms of the device and may be either
of the slide wire type, as indicated, or they
may be fixed and a variable standard used to
obtain balance. In any case it is always necessary with this type of bridge to use a standard
which presents the same type of impedance as
the unknown being measured: resistance standard for a resistance measurement, capacitance
standard for capacitance, and inductance stand-
HANDBOOK
Frequency Measurement
729-B
circuits in common use for measuring inductance with a capacitance standard, frequency
riods of four minutes each. This tone is interrupted at the beginning of the 59th minute
RA
Zx= ""J!5:B Zs
Xx=
=~
Xs
Zx
WAGNER
/ GROUND
Ro F
Figure 10
TWO A-C BRIDGE CIRCUITS
The operation of these bridges is essentially
the same as those of figure 9 except that
a.c. is fed into the bridge instead of d.c. and
a pair of phones is used as the indicator in
34-4
Frequency
Measurements
730-B
THE RADIO
Test Equipment
Figure 11
the wrong harmonic of the oscillator to obtain the beat, but with a self-excited oscillator
it will be wise to insure that the reference
oscillator is operating exactly on 50, 100, or
200 kc. (whichever frequency has been
chosen) by making sure that zero beat is obtained simultaneously on all the frequencies
of WWV that can be heard, and by noting
whether or not the harmonics of the oscillator
in the amateur bands fall on the approximate
calibration marks of the receiver.
A simple frequency spotter is diagrammed
in figure 11.
34-5
Antenna and
Transmission
Line Measurements
HANDBOOK
731
Antenna Measurements
OUTPUT
TO
ANTENNA
FEED LINE
Figure 12
DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENT AT ION
OF A SLOTTED LINE
The conductor ratios in the slotted line, including the tapered end sections should be
such that the characteristic impedance of the
equipment is the same as that of the transmission line with which the equipment is to
be used. The indicating instrument may be
operated by the d-e output of the rectifier
coupled to the probe, or it may be operated
by the '!c components of the rectified signal
f the sgnal generator or transmitter is amplitude modulated by a constant percentage.
Commercially built slotted lines are very expensive since they are constructed with a high
degree of accuracy for precise laboratory work.
The slotted line consists essentially of a
section of air-dielectric line having the same
characteristic impedance as the transmission
line into which it is inserted. Tapered fittings
for the transmission line connectors at each
end of the slotted line usually are required due
to differences in the diameters of the slotted
line and the line into which it is inserted. A
narrow slot from Ys-inch to 0,-inch in width
is cut into the outer conductor of the line. A
probe then is inserted into the slot so that it
is coupled to the field inside the line. Some
sort of accurately machined track or lead screw
must be provided to insure that the probe
maintains a constant spacing from the inner
conductor as it is moved from one end of the
~lotted line to the other. The probe usually
Includes some type of rectifying element
whose output is fed to an indicating instrument alongside the slotted line.
The unfortunate part of the slooted-line system of measurement is that the line must be
somewhat over one-half wavelength long at
the test frequency, and for boot results should
be a full wavelength long. This requirement is
easily met at frequencies of 420 Me. and above
where a full wavelength is 28 inches or less.
But for the lower frequencies such an instrument is mechanically impracticable.
Bridge- Type
Standing-Wave
Indicators
Figure 13
RESISTOR-BRIDGE
STANDING-WAVE INDICATOR
This type of test equipment is suitable
for use with coaxial feed lines.
C,-0.001-p,fd. midget ceramic capacitor
c, C,-.001 disc ceramic
R,, Rr-22-ohm 2-watt carbon resistors
R,-Resistor equal in resistance to the characteristic impedance of the coaxial transmission line to be used (I watt)
R,,-5000-ohm wire-wound potentiometer
Rs-!0,000-ohm !-watt resistor
RFC-R-f choke suitable for operation at the
measurement frequency
732
THE RADIO
Test Equipment
REFLECTOMETER
OUTER SHELL
23
20
8
o' 09
f-
<(
8
7
>
<(
a:
w
4.
4
3.
~
<(
t;;
2.
,---------,
,,
,
,
2
1. 5
,/
1.2
1
0
I/
R2
I
I
.01
A=~
ZR + Zo
S-W-R= :
IL
FORWARD
POWER
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __j
INDICATOR
~ :~: , -
COMPONENT PARTS
END DISC= 2 3/8" DIAMETER X
Q.1
10 K
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
OUTER SHELL= 2 3/8" 1.0. X 6"
Figure 14
standing-wave ratio.
(2 REQ.)
(I REQ.)
(2 REQ.)
RECEPTACLEs= S0-239
1/4"
BINDING POSTS:
(2 REQ.)
(Jt,J2)
(3 REQ.)
Figure 15
SCHEMATIC, REFLECTOMETER
D1, Dz--Crystal diode, 1N34A or 1N82
R1-210 ohm, 1 watt composition resistor.
/RC type BTA, matched pair.
M--0-1 d.c. milliammeter
J,, ):-Coaxial receptacle, S0-239.
34-6
A Simple
Coaxial Reflectometer
The re/lectometer is a short section of coaxial transmission line containing two r-f voltmeters. One voltmeter reads the incident component of voltage in the line, and the other
HANDBOOK
Reflectometer
733
Figure 16
INTERIOR VIEW OF COAXIAL REFLECTOMETER
The Reflectometer is a short section of transmission line containing two r-1 voltmeters. Center conductor
of line is a section of brass rod soldered to center pins of input and output receptacles. At either end
of unit are the crystal diodes, bypass capacitors and terminals. Diode load resistors are at center of
instrument, grounded to brass alignment rod.
734
THE RADIO
Test Equipment
If a reflected reading of zero is not obtainable, the harmonic content of the r-f source
might be causing a slight residual meter reading. Coupling the reflectometer to the r-f
source through a tuned circuit ("antenna
tuner") will remove the offending harmonic
and permit an accurate null indication. Be
sure to hold the r-f input power to a low
value to prevent overheating the dummy load
resistors.
The bridge may be used up to
150 Me. It is placed in the
transmission line at a convenient point, preferably be/ore any tuner, balun,
or TVI filter. The indicator should be set to
read forward power, with a maximum of resistance in the circuit. Power is applied and
the indicator resistor is adjusted for a full
scale reading. The switch is then thrown to
read reflected power (indicated as A, figure
14). Assume that the forward power meter
reading is 1.0 and the reflected power reading is 0.5. Substituting these values in the
SWR formula of figure 14 shows the SWR
~o be 3. If forward power is always set to
1.0 on the meter, the reflected power (A)
can be read directly from the curve of figure
14 with little error.
If the meter is adjusted so as to provide a
half-,scale reading of the forward power, the
reflectometer may be used as a transmitter
power output meter. Tuning adjustments may
then be undertaken to provide greatest meter
reading.
Using the
Reflectometer
34-7
Measurements
on Balanced
Transmission Lines
Measurements made on balanced transmission lines may be conducted in the same manner as those made on coaxial Jines. In the
case of the coaxial Jines, care must be mken
to prevent flow of r-f current on the outer
surface of the line as this unwanted component will introduce errors in measurements
made on the line. In like fashion, the currents in a balanced transmission line must
be 180 degrees out of phase and balanced
with respect to ground in order to obtain a
realistic relationship between incident and reflected power. This situation is not always
easy to obtain in practice because of the proximity effects of metallic object's or the earth
to the transmission line. All transmission line
measurements, therefore, should be conducted
with the realization of the physical limitations
HANDBOOK
S.W.R. Indicator
735
Figure 18
OPERATION OF THE "TWIN LAMP"
INDICATOR
Figure 17
SKETCH OF THE "TWIN-LAMP"
TYPE OF S-W-R INDICATOR
The short section of line with lamps at each
end usually is taped to the main transmission
line with plastic electrical tape.
736
Test Equipment
Figure 19
SWR BRIDGE FOR BALANCED
TRANSMISSION LINE
A double bridge can be used lor two wire
transmission lines. Bridge is inserted in line
and may be driven with grid-dip oscillator or
other low power r-1 source.
Bridge
Construction
34-8
11
11
A Balanced
SWR Bridge
R1
001
~
OUTPUT:
250
RFC
250
R1
INPUT
51
T.
SWR
R1
250
RFC
R1
.001
......--
250
250
R1
Figure 20
SCHEMATIC OF BRIDGE FOR
BALANCED LINES
M-0-200 d-e microammeter
R1-Note: Six 250 ohm resistors are composition, non-inductive units. IRC type BT, or
Ohmite Little Devil" l-watt resistors may
11
figure 21
INTERIOR VIEW OF
BALANCED BRIDGE
SHOWING PARTS
PLACEMENT
Diode rectifiers are placed
at right angles to the
short section of transmission line. Both sides
of bridge are balanced
to ground by virtue of
symmetrical construction
of unit.
737
738
THE RADIO
Test Equipment
1000
R1
1000
IIN34
GUT
IN
50
R2
- - _ __j
Figure 23
SCHEMATIC, ANTENNASCOPE
R,-1000 ohm composition potentiometer ohmite type AB or Allen Bradley type J,
linear taper
R:-50 ohm, 1-watt composition resistor, IRC
type BT, or ohmite "Little Devil" (see
text)
M-0-200 d-e microammeter
Figure 22
THE ANTENNASCOPE
The radiation resistance of r-f loads connected
across the output receptacle may be quickly
determined by a direct dial reading. The Antennascope may be driven with a grid-dip
oscillator, covering r-f impedance range of 5
to 1000 ohms.
34-9
The Antennascope
HANDBOOK
Antennascope
739
Testing the
Antennascope
Using the
Antennascope
Figure 24
PLACEMENT OF PARTS WITHIN
THE ANTENNASCOPE
With the length of leads shown this model
is useful up to about 100 Me. Crystal diode
should be placed at right angles to 50 ohm
composition resistor.
740
Test Equipment
THE RADIO
SHIELDED !NCLOSUR!
Figure 26
Figure 25
34-10
A Silicon Crystal
Noise Generator
HANDBOOK
Figure 27
Noise Generator
741
CHAPTER THIRTY-FIVE
Radio Mathematics
and Calculations
Radiomen often have occasion to calculate sizes and values of required parts. This
requires some knowledge of mathematics. The
following pages contain a review of those parts
of mathematics necessary to understand and
apply the information contained in this book.
It is assumed that the reader has had some
mathematical training; this chapter is not intended to teach those who have never learned
anything of the subject.
Fortunately only a knowledge of fundamentals is necessary, although this knowledge must
include several branches of the subject. Fortunately, too, the majority of practical applications in radio work reduce to the solution of
equations or formulas or the interpretation of
graphs.
Arithmetic
In writing numbers in the Arabic system we employ ten dif
Numbers
ferent symbols, digits, or figures: 1, 2, 3, 4, 'i, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 0, and place
them in a definite sequence. If there is more
than one figure in the number the position of
each figure or digit is as important in determining its value as is the digit itself. When we
deal with whole numbers the righthandmost
digit represents units, the next to the left represents tens, the next hundreds, the next thousands, from which we derive the rule that every time a digit is placed one space further to
the left its value is multiplied by ten.
Notation of
8 1 4 3
thousands
hundreds
tens
uni.ts
thousands I 10 x 10 x 10)
hundreds I 10 x 10)
4 tens
3 units
8143
The number in the units pos1t10n is sometimes referred to as a first order number, that
in the tens position is of the second order, that
in the hundreds position the third order, etc.
The idea of letting the position of the symbol denote its value is an outcome of the abacus. The abacus had only a limited number of wires with beads, but it soon became
apparent that the quantity of symbols might
be continued indefinitely towards the left,
each further space multiplying the digit's
value by ten. Thus any quantity, however
large, may readily be indicated.
It has become customary for ease of reading
to divide large numbers into groups of three
digits, separating them by commas.
6,000,000 rather than 6000000
Our system of notation then is characterized
by two things: the use of positions to indicate
the value of each symbol, and the use of ten
symbols, from which we derive the name decimal system.
Retaining the same use of positions, we
might have used a different number of symbols, and displacing a symbol one place to the
left might multiply its value by any other factor such as 2, 6 or 12. Such other systems have
been in use in history, but will not be discussed
here. There are also systems in which displacing a symbol to the left multiplies its value by
742
Decimal Fractions
4
0.5
743
Figure I.
AN ILLUSTRATION OF LINEAR FRACTIONS.
varying factors in accordance with complicated rules. The English system of measurements
is such an inconsistent and inferior system.
Since we can extend a
number indefinitely to
the left to make it bigger, it is a logical step to
extend it towards the right to make it smaller.
Numbers smaller than unity are fractions and
if a displacement one position to the right divides its value by ten, then the number is referred to as a decimal fraction. Thus a digit
to the right of the units column indicates the
number of tenths, the second digit to the right
. represents the number of hundredths, the third,
the number of thousandths, etc. Some distinguishing mark must be used to divide unit from
tenths so that one may properly evaluate each
symbol. This mark is the decimal point.
A decimal fraction like four-tenths may be
written .4 or 0.4 as desired, the latter probably
Decimal Fractions
Ar------------,-------------,------------,-------------r-----------~8
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
G
0
ci
ci
ci
ci
ci
K
0
ci
ci
ci
0 ~~~~~~----------~----------L_
H
________
_ L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~c
Figure 2.
IN THIS ILLUSTRATION FRACTIONAL PORTIONS ARE REPRESENTED IN THE
FORM OF RECTANGLES RATHER THAN LINEARLY.
ABCD
I.O;GFED
0.1;
KJEH
= 0.01;
744
THE
RADIO
product.
From the examples to follow it will be obvious that there are as many partial products
as there are digits in the multiplier. In the following examples note that the righthandmost
digit of each partial product is placed one
space farther to the left than the previous one.
654
32
53041
0.654
3.2
53.041
654
32
5304.1
53727
56.895
5990.1
Subtraction
subtrahend
-minuend
remainder
Examples:
65.4
-32
65.4
-32.21
33.4
33.19
834
X 26
834
X 206
5004
1668
5004
000
1668
21684
171804
xo.n
1086
3 801
3.9096
Multiplication
multiplicand
X multiplier
partial product
partial product
product
2 places
0.04
2+2=4 places
xo.oo3
2 places
3 places
0.00012
2+3=5 places
HANDBOOK
Division
745
155
153
or
dividend 7 divisor= quotient
or
dividend
--- =
quotient
divisor
Examples:
126
834) 105084
834
49
49) 2436
196
In a case where the dividend has fewer decimals than the divisor the same rules still may
Le applied by adding ciphers. For example to
divide 0.49 by 0.006 we must move the
decimal point three places to the right. The
0.49 now becomes 490 and we write:
81
6 ')4'9'0
48
476
441
2168
1668
35 remainder
5004
5004
10
6
4
1.26
834 ) I 050.84
834
2168
1668
5004
5004
20
18
20
18
2
This operation is not very often required
in radio work since the accuracy of the measurements from which our problems start
seldom justifies the use of more than three
significant figures. This point will be covered further later in this chapter.
Quantities of less than one
(unity) are called fractions. They
may be expressed by decimal notation as we
have seen, or they may be expressed as vulgar
fractions. Examples of vulgar fractions:
Fractions
746
numerator
denominator
5
2
T= 13
4= 1 4
I
1
[lx3
lx2]
3
2
5
2 + 3 = 2x3 + 3x2 = 6 + 6 = 6
2
[3
4 - s = 4xs -sx4
J=Tcf-20=20
IS
21
2x7 + 3
1
2..!..+
3 __!__..!!_
7
4 - 7 +..!!4 - [17x4
7x4 +~]
4x7
68
105
173
=n+n=n
17
=7
5
621
All vulgar fractions are multiplied by multiplying the numerators together and the denominators together, as shown in the following example:
Multiplying
Fractions
2
[3x2]
6
3
X-s-= 4X5 =20=10
RADIO
Adding or Subtracting
Fractions
THE
3
1
3
13
39
13
nX 4 -3-=nXT=69=n
Fractions may be most easily
divided by inverting the divisor and then multiplying.
Division of
Fractions
Example:
2
5-:-4=-s-X3=15
In the above example it will be seen that to
divide by % is exactly the same thing as to
multiply by 4/3. Actual division of fractions
is a rather rare operation and if necessary is
usually postponed until the final answer is secured when it is often desired to reduce the
resulting vulgar fraction to a decimal fraction by division. It is more common and
usually results in least overall work to reduce vulgar fractions to decimals at the beginning of a problem. Examples:
3
a=
32 = 0.15625
0.375
0.15625
32 ) 5.00000
32
lio
1 60
200
192
so
64
i6o
160
HANDBOOK
Division of Fractions
+=
0.3333 ....
=0-P
0.142857142857 ....
o-}4285/
The foregoing examples contained only repeating digits. In the following example a
non-repeating digit precedes the repeating
digit:
7
30
747
2'
= 2power
X 2 X 2, or 2 cubed, or the third
of 2
V5 =
2.2361 ..
748
THE
RADIO
not handy.
Extracting the
Square Root
s.
7
3
v56' 78.91
49
y56' 78.91
..rs6' 78.91
49
7 5
vs6' 78.91
49
140
145 X 5
7 78
7 25
140
145 X 5
1500
1503 X 3
7 78
7 25
53 91
45 09
8 82
Each digit of the root should be placed directly above the group of the dividend from
which it was derived; if this is done the
decimal point of the root will come directly
above the decimal point of the dividend .
Sometimes the remainder after a square
has been subtracted (such as the 1 in the following example) will not be sufficiently large
to contain twice the root already found even
after the next group of .figures has been
brought down. In this case we write a cipher
above the group just brought down and bring
down another group.
7. 0 8 2
v5o.16' oo oo
49
1400
1408 X 8
14160
14162 X 2
1 16 00
1 12 64
3 36 00
2 83 24
52 76
In the above example the amount 116 was not
sufficient to contain twice the root already
found with a cipher annexed to it; that is,
it was not sufficient to contain 140. Therefore we write a zero above 16 and bring down
the next group, which in this example is a
pair of ciphers.
53
The next step is an exact repetition of the
previous step. Bring down the third group
and annex it to the remainder of 53, giving
5391. Write down twice the root already
One frequently encounters problems in which several of the fundamental operations of arithmetic which have been described are to be performed. The order in which these operations
Order of
Operations
HANDBOOK
Order of Operations
749
must be performed is important. First al! powers and roots should be calculated; multipli
cation and division come next; adding and
subtraction come last. In the example
+5X 2
+2+3=
12
6
10
22
+ 2 + 3 = 11= 2
2 + 3 X 4' = 2 + 3 X 16 = 2 + 48 = SO
<2 + 3) X 4' = 5 X 4' = 5 X 16 = 80
2 + (3 X 4)'= 2 + 12' = 2 + 144::::: 146
In connection with the radical sign, brackets
may be used or the "hat" of the radical may
be extended over the entire quantity whose
root is to be extracted. Example:
Algebra
Algebra is not a separate branch of mathematics but is merely a form of generalized
arithmetic in which letters of the alphabet and
occasional other symbols are substituted for
numbers, from which it is often referred to as
literal notation. It is simply a shorthand method of writing operations which could be spelled
out.
The laws of most common electrical phenomena and circuits (including of course radio phenomena and circuits) lend themselves
particularly well to representation by literal notation and solution by algebraic equations or
formulas.
While we may write a particular problem in
Ohm's Law as an ordinary division or multi
plication, the general statement of all such
problems calls for the replacement of the numbers by symbols. We might be explicit and
write out the names of the units and use these
names as symbols:
volts
v4+5= V4+S=2+5=7
v (4 +
5)
= ,f4:j:5 = Y9 = 3
= amperes
X ohms
Cancellation
750
THE
where E
I
R
Similarly, we have:
= e.m.f. in volts
= current in amperes
a+ (-b)= a - b
= resistance in ohms
In practical applications of algebra, an expression usually states some physical law and
each letter represents a variable quantity which
is therefore called a variable. A fixed number
in front of such a quantity (by which it is to
be multiplied) is known as the coefficient.
Sometimes the coefficient may be unknown, yet
to be determined; it is then also written as a
letter; k is most commonly usee\ for this purpose.
In ordinary arithmetic we
seldom work with negative
numbers, although we may
be "short" in a subtraction. In algebra, however, a number may be either negative or positive. Such a thing may seem academic but a
negative quantity can have a real existence.
We need only refer to a debt being considered
a negative possession. In electrical work, however, a result of a problem might be a negative
number of amperes or volts, indicating that the
direction of the current is opposite to the direction chosen as positive. We shall have illustrations of this shortly.
Having established the existence of negative
quantities, we must now learn how to work
with these negative quantities in addition, subtraction, multiplication and so forth.
In addition, a negative number !dded to a
positive number is the same as subtracting a
positive number from it.
The Negative
Sign
7
-3
- - (add) IS
the same as
4
or we might write it
RADIO
7
3
(subtract)
7+C-3l=7-3=4
When a minus sign is in front of an expression in brackets, this minus sign has the effect
of reversing the signs of every term within the
brackets:
-
(a -
(2a + 3b -
b)
5cl
=-
= -
2a -
b
3b + 5c
+X+=+
-X+=-
+X-=X-=+
+
-=+
+
-=
-=
-=+
Addition and
Subtraction
a3
5 ab'
- b'
HANDBOOK
Collecting terms. When an expression contains more than one term of the same name,
these can be added together and the expression
made simpler:
5 x' + 2 xy + 3 xy' 5 x' -
751
Division
3 x' + 7 xy
3 x' + 2 xy + 7 xy + 3 xy'
a'+ 4 ab 7b'
2a- 3b) 2a' + 5a'b- 26 ab' + 21b'
2a'- 3o'b
+ Sa'b + Sa'b -
26ab'
I lab'
14ab' + 21b 3
14ab' + 21b'
2 x' + 9 xy + 3 xy'
them together.
a X b is written as ab
a X b' is written as ab'
y3
x' + xy +
x'y
x'y -xy'
+ xy'-
y'
xy'- y'
= ab
When two bracketed quantities are multiplied, each term of the first bracketed quantity
is to be multiplied by each term of the second
bracketed quantity, thereby making every possible combination.
(a + b) (c + dl
= ac +
ad + be + bd
(a + bl (a + b) = a' + ab + ab + b'
a'+ lab + b'
b) = a' - ab - ab + b'
a- 2 ab + b'
(a + b) (a -
(a -
bl ( a -
ab -
2a -
Very often it is necessary to simplify expressions by finding a factor. This is done by collecting two or more
terms having the same factor and bringing the
factor outside the brackets:
Factoring
+ ac + ad
26ab' by
3b
6ab + 3ac
= 3a(2b +c)
In a four term expression one can take together two terms at a time; the intention is to
try getting the terms within the brackets the
same after the factor has been removed:
30ac - ISbc + lOad- 6bd =
6c (5a - 3b) + 2d (5o - 3b) =
(5o - 3bl (6c + 2dl
and (-3xy) (--4xy) = 12 x'y'. It is notalways possible to do this and there are then no
simple factors.
752
THE
Working with
Powen
and Roots
tiplied,
added.
the
exponents
are
c' X c'
= c"
~- _l>b_bbb bbb
b'
or
b'
Now we are logically led into some important new ways of notation. We have seen that
when dividing, the exponents are subtracted.
This can be continued into negative exponents.
In the following series, we successively divide
by a and since this can now be done in two
ways, the two ways of notation must have the
same meaning and be identical.
a
a-'=__!_
a'
a'=
a- =
~.
a'= 1
a- =
~.
vax va=a
= a\.11+1-11 = a' = a
=1
_1_- __!__
b-'12 --
c-'13
b 1h - yb
= _,,-
!A>
v c
b'
b3
RADIO
(b-'l'
(b-')
b"'
-= b'
_r-
Va-VaXVa-ava
Thus, V9- V 4
3 - 2 = I
but /9='4
VS 2.2361
Likewise Va + v'b is not the same as v"Ci+b
3a
Va +
Vi) In t
h'
IS
va+Jb
HANDBOOK
be accounted for separately, has found a symbolic application in vector notation. These are
covered later in this chapter.
Algebraic expressions usually come in the form of
equations, that is, one set
of terms equals another set of terms. The simplest example of this is Ohm's Law:
Equations of the
First Degree
or, in general
-.r::a =iVa
E = IR
One of the three quantities may be unknown
but if the other two are known, the third can
be found readily by substituting the known
values in the equation. This is very easy if it
is E in the above example that is to be found;
but suppose we wish to find I while E and R
are given. We must then rearrange the equation so that I comes to stand alone to the left
of the equality sign. This is known as solving
the equation for I.
Solution of the equation in this case is done
simply by transposing. If two things are equal
then they must still be equal if both are multiplied or divided by the same number. Dividing
both sides of the equation by R:
E _
Since i
Y-1, the powers of i have the
following values:
i
i3 =
-1 Xi= -i
by I.
E
- 1 = R orR= 1
i'=+1Xi=i
IR
R - R = I or I= I t
If it were required to solve the equation for
-1
i'= +1
753
+ 4 v'=1
X=
1
2nfC
To solve this equation for C, we may multiply both sides of the equation by C and divide
both sides by X
X X~X-- -2nfC
-1- - x ~
or
X'
1
a+ bi =a+ bv=T
C=~
a
bi = c
di
a must equal c and bi must equal di
754
THE
"2-=x:--.3.-.1"4'x=-1',o"o"'o"'t,o"o"'o-:x:<2>o5~x;;-;-1n:o-=tn1
X
X
6.21xfo x 25 x 1o-u
= 6360 ohms
= 6.2810x 25
A bias resistor of 1000 ohms should be bypassed, so that at the lowest frequency the reactance of the condenser is 1/1 Oth of that of
the resistor. Assume the lowest frequency to be
50 cycles, then the required capacity should
have a reactance of 100 ohms, at 50 cycles:
= 2x3.14x50x100 forads
1b
C = 6 _28 x 5000 microfarads
1
RADIO
6x + lOy= 14
4x- lOy= 3
------add
lOx
17
X=
1.7
5.1
+ 5y = 7 .-. 5y =
=
7 - 5.1 0.38
1.9 :.
c=
32 pfd.
X=21tfe
1
= -..2""n,.=:c...,x,....
=
f
1
0 _01884 cycles
= 53 cycles
+ 5y = 7
4x- lOy= 3
= 7 - 5y .". x =
7 - 5y
3
I,+ 1;,:
IOOOOHMS
~r
B
lOOOOHMS
2000
OHMS
'
c
Figure 3.
(I,+
I.=
+ 3000 I,= 0
1,)
-2000 11
2000
1000 '
=6
HANDBOOK
6000 1,
+ 9000 I, -
10
=0
Figure 4.
-27000" - 10 = 0
13 = - 10/27000 = -0.00037 amp.
A similar problem but requiring three equations is shown in Figure 4. This consists of an
unbalanced bridge and the problem is to find
the current in the bridge-branch, I,. We again
assign directions to the different currents,
guessing at the one marked L. The voltages
around closed loops ABC ( eq. ( 1)} and BDC
( eq. ( 2) ] equal zero and are assumed to be
positive in a counterclockwise direction; that
from D to A equals 10 volts (eq. (3)}.
1000 Ia
10
1000 Ia -
10 = 0
- 1000 I, -
P = El = 100 and E = IR =I X 49
Substitute the second equation into the first
equation
P = El =
= 1.43
amp.
(2)
2000 I, -
. . I --
(1)
A somewhat similar
problem in radio would
be, if power in watts
and resistance in ohms of a circuit are given,
to find the voltage and the current. Example:
When lighted to normal brilliancy, a 100 watt
lamp has a resistance of 49 ohms; for what
line voltage was the lamp designed and what
current would it take~
Here we have to use the simultaneous equations:
P = El and E = IR
Second Degree or
Quadratic Equations
6000 Ia = 0
general form
ax'
bx
=0
756
constants.
This type of equation can sometimes be
solved by the method of factoring a threeterm expression as follows:
2x2
2r +
factoring:
+ 7x + 6 = 0
4x + 3x + 6 =
2x,
+3=
=
2x,
x,
and
x.+2=0
-3
X.=
-2
-1Yz
Since factoring is not always easy, the following general solution can usually be employed; in this equation a, b, and c are the coefficients referred to above.
X --
= " z -
Logarithms
A logarithm is the power (or exponent) to which we must raise
one number to obtain another.
Although the large numbers used in logarithmic work may make them seem difficult or
complicated, in reality the principal use of
logarithms is to simplify calculations which
would otherwise be extremely laborious.
We have seen so far that every operation
in arithmetic can be reversed. If we have the
addition:
Definition
and Use
2a
X _-7v49-8X6_-7VJ
4
4
-7 + 1
x' = -4- - = -
X. --
-7-1 -
-71
--4-
P/z
--
=V R + IXL 2
Xol 2
z =
and R'
%' - R2
c-a=b
-bvb-4ac
(XL - Xo>
RADIO
But here we do not know the sign of the solution unless there are other facts which indicate it. To find either XL or Xc alone it would
have to be known whether the one or the other
is the larger.
2x (x + 2) + 3 (x + 2) = 0
(2x + 3) (x + 2)
THE
R2
(XL - Xol 1
= zt -
orR= "
r -
(XL - Xo)
(XL - Xo) 1
ab
Vc=a
This operation we call taking the root. But
there is a third possibility: that a and c are
given, and that we wish to know b. In other
HANDBOOK
words, the question is "to which power must
we raise a so as to obtain c?". This operation
is known as taking the logarithm, and b is the
logarithm of c to the base a. We write this
operation as follows:
log. c
757
Logarithms
=
100 = log 10' = 2
1,000
= log 10 = 3
log
10
log
log 10'
log
10,000
log
log 10' =4
log
= log 10' =
log 0.1
= log 1o-l =
log 0.01
=log 1o- = -2
log 0.001
=log 10-' = -3
log ob
log o
+ log b
~-~-~o-~l~~
7443
7520
7597
7672
7745
7451
7528
7679
7752
7466
7543
7619
7694
7767
7474
7551
7527
7701
7774
0
0....
7604
7459
7536
7612
7686
7760
0
.......
::::J
;:o
0414
0792
1139
1461
0043
0453
0828
1173
1492
0086
0492
0864
1206
1523
0128
0531
0899
1239
1553
0170
0569
0934
1271
1584
0212
0607
0969
1303
1614
0253
0645
1004
1335
1644
0294
0682
1038
1367
1673
0334
0719
1072
1399
1703
0374
0755
1106
1430
1732
55
56
57
58
59
7404
7482
7559
7634
7709
7412
7490
7566
7642
7716
15
16
17
18
19
1761
2041
2304
2553
2788
1790
2068
2330
2577
2810
1818
2095
2355
2601
2833
1847
2122
2380
2625
2856
1875
2148
2405
2648
2878
1903
2175
2430
2672
2900
1931
2201
2455
2695
2923
1959
2227
2480
2718
2945
1987
2253
2504
2742
2967
2014
2279
2529
2765
2989
60
61
62
63
64
7782
7853
7924
7993
8062
7789
7860
7931
8000
8069
7796
7868
7938
8007
8075
7803
7875
7945
8014
8082
7810
7882
7952
8021
8089
7818
7889
7959
8028
8096
7825
7896
7966
8035
8102
7832
7903
7973
8041
8109
7839
7910
7980
8048
8116
7846
7917
7987
8055
8122
20
21
22
23
24
3010
3222
3424
3617
3032
3243
3054
3263
3464
3655
3838
3075
3284
3483
3674
3856
3096
3304
3502
3692
3874
3118
3324
3522
3711
3892
3139
3345
3541
3729
3909
3160
3365
3560
3747
3927
3181
3385
3579
3766
3945
3201
3404
3598
3784
3962
65
66
67
68
69
8129
8195
8261
8325
8388
8136
8202
8267
8331
8395
8142
8209
8274
8338
8401
8149
8215
8280
8344
8407
8156
8222
8287
8351
8414
8162
8228
8293
8357
8420
8169
8235
8299
8363
8426
8176
8241
8306
8370
8432
8182
8248
8312
8376
8439
8189
8254
8319
83&1
8445
25
26
27
28
29
3979
4150
4314
4472
4624
3997
4166
4330
4031
4200
4362
4518
4669
4048
4216
4378
4533
4683
4065
4232
4393
4548
4698
4082
4639
4014
4183
4346
4502
4654
4249
4409
4564
4713
4099
4265
4425
4579
4728
4116
4281
4440
4594
4742
4133
4298
4456
4609
4757
70
71
72
73
74
8451
8513
8573
8633
8692
8457
8519
8579
8639
8698
8463
8525
8585
8645
8704
8470
8531
8591
8651
8710
8476
8537
8597
8657
8716
8482
8543
8603
8663
8722
8488
8549
8609
8669
8727
8494
8555
8615
8675
8733
8500
8561
8621
8681
8739
8506
8567
8627
8686
8745
30
31
32
4786
4928
5065
5198
5328
4800
4942
5079
5211
5340
4814
4955
5092
5224
5353
4829
4969
5105
5237
5366
4843
4983
5119
5250
5378
4857
4997
5132
5263
5391
4871
5011
5145
5276
5403
4886
5024
5159
5289
5416
4900
5038
5172
5302
5428
75
76
34
4771
4914
5051
5185
5315
78
79
8751
8808
8865
8921
8976
8756
8814
8871
8927
8982
8762
8820
8876
8932
8987
8768
8825
8882
8938
8993
8774
8831
8887
8943
8998
8779
8837
8893
8949
9004
8785
8842
8899
8954
9009
8791
8848
8904
8960
9015
8797
8854
8910
8965
9020
8802
8859
8915
8971
9025
35
36
37
38
39
5441
5563
5682
5798
5911
5453
5575
5694
5478
5599
5717
5832
5944
5490
5611
5729
5843
5955
5502
5623
5740
5855
5966
5514
5635
5752
5866
5977
5527
5647
5763
5877
5988
5539
5658
5775
5888
5999
5551
5670
5786
5899
6010
80
81
82
83
84
9031
9085
9138
9191
9243
9036
9090
9143
9196
9248
9042
9096
9149
9201
9253
9047
9101
9154
9206
9258
9053
9106
9159
9212
9263
9058
9112
9165
9217
9269
9063
9117
9170
9222
9274
9069
9122
9175
9227
9279
9074
9128
9180
9232
9284
9079
5922
5465
5587
5705
5821
5933
40
41
42
43
44
6021
6128
6232
6335
6435
6031
6138
6243
6345
6444
6149
6253
6355
6454
6042
6053
6160
6263
6365
6464
6064
6170
6274
6375
6474
6075
6180
6284
6385
6484
6085
6191
6294
6395
6493
6201
6304
6405
6503
6096
6107
6212
6314
6415
6513
6117
6222
6325
6425
6522
85
86
87
88
89
9294
9345
9395
9445
9494
9299
9350
9400
9450
9499
9304
9355
9405
9455
9504
9309
9360
9410
9460
9509
9315
9365
9415
9465
9513
9320
9370
9420
9469
9518
9325
9375
9425
9474
9523
9330
9380
9430
9479
9528
9335
9385
9435
9484
9533
9340
9390
9440
-f
:I:
45
46
47
48
49
6532
6628
6721
6812
6902
6542
6637
6730
6821
6911
6551
6646
6739
6830
6920
6561
6656
6749
6839
6928
6571
6665
6758
6848
6937
6580
6675
6767
6857
6946
6590
6684
6776
6866
6955
6599
6693
6785
6875
6964
6609
6702
6794
6884
6972
6618
6712
6803
6893
6981
90
91
92
93
94
9542
9590
9638
9685
9731
9547
9595
9643
9689
9736
9552
9600
9647
9694
9741
9557
9605
9652
9699
9745
9562
9609
9657
9703
9750
9566
9614
9661
9708
9754
9571
9619
9666
9713
9759
9576
9624
9671
9717
9763
9581
9628
9675
9722
9768
9586
9633
9680
9727
9773
"'
50
51
52
53
54
6990
7076
7160
7243
7324
6998
7084
7168
7251
7332
7007
7093
7177
7259
7340
7016
7101
7185
7267
7348
7024
7110
7193
7275
7356
7033
7118
7202
7284
7364
7042
7126
7210
7292
7372
7050
7135
7218
7300
7380
7059
7143
7226
7308
7388
7067
7152
7235
7316
7396
95
96
97
98
99
9777
9823
9868
9912
9956
9782
9827
9872
9917
9961
9786
9832
9877
9921
9965
9791
9836
9881
9926
9969
9795
9841
9886
9930
9974
9800
9845
9890
9934
9978
9805
9850
9894
9939
9983
9809
9854
9899
9943
9987
9814
9859
9903
9948
9991
9818
9863
9908
10
11
12
13
14
0000
33
3802
3444
3636
3820
4487
5809
77
9133
9186
9238
9289
9489
9538
(1)
.......
()
{f)
:J
0....
()
0
()
c
0
.......
0
:J
{f)
995~
9996
HANDBOOK
Logarithm Tables
X b=
l01oga
1Q(Iogn-logb)
= 3 log a
or, in general:
8.918555- 10
7.918555- 10,etc.
-1
-0.34569
Va =_!_lag
a
n
829 =
2.918555
log
82.9 =
L918555
log
8.29
0.918555
= log
0.65431 - 1 or - 1.65431
log a" = n log a
lag 829
759
= -2.918555
(8.29 X 100)
log 100 = 0.918555
= log 8.29 +
+
Logarithm tables give the mantissas of logarithms only. The characteristic has to be determined by inspection. The characteristic is
equal to the number of digits to the left of the
decimal point minus one. In the case of logarithms of numbers less than unity, the characteristic is negative and is equal to the number
of ciphers to the right of the decimal point
plus one.
Logarithms are used for calculations involving multiplication, division, powers, and roots.
Especially when the numbers are large and for
higher, or fractional powers and roots, this becomes the most convenient way.
Logarithm tables are available giving the
logarithms to three places, some to four places,
others to five and six places. The table to use
depends on the accuracy required in the result
of our calculations. The four place table,
printed in this chapter, permits the finding of
answers to problems to four significant figures
which is good enough for most constructional
purposes. If greater accuracy is required a five
place table should be consulted. The five place
table is perhaps the most popular of all.
Referring now to the four place table, to
find a common logarithm of a number, proceed as follows. Suppose the number is 5576.
First, determine the characteristic. An inspection will show that the characteristic should
be 3. This figure is placed to the left of the
decimal point. The mantissa is now found by
reference to the logarithm table. The first two
numbers are 55; glance down the N column
until coming to these figures. Advance to the
right until coming in line with the column
headed 7; the mantissa will be 7459. (Note that
the column headed 7 corresponds to the third
figure in the number 5576.) Place the mantissa
7459 to the right of the decimal point, making
the logarithm of 5576 now read 3.7459. Important: do not consider the last figure 6 in the
lSI
252
253
254
255
L. 0 I
4 5
7
9
39 794 811 829 846 863 881 898 915 933 950
P.P.
18
40 140 157 175 192 209 226 243 261 278 295 I 1.8
312 329 346 364 381 398 415 432 449 466 2 3.6
483 500 518 535 552 569 586 603 620 637 3 5.4
4 7.2
654 671 688 705 722 739 756 773 790 807 etc.
Figure 6.
A SMALL SECTION OF A FIVE PLACE
LOGARITHM TABLE.
Logarithms may be found with greater accuracy with such tables, but they are only of
use when the accuracy of the original data
wa11ants greater precision In the figure work.
Slightly greater accuracy may be obtained for
Intermediate points by Interpolation, as explained In the text.
THE
RADIO
nthm of
0.025010
of 0.025013. Here we can interpolate by observing that the difference between the log of
0.02501 and 0.02502 is 829 - 811 or 18 in
the last two significant figures. Looking in' the
P.P. table marked 18 we find after 3 the number 'i.4 which is to be added to the logarithm.
-2.39811
5.4
In the following examples of the use of logarithms ~e sha~l use .only three places from the
tables pnnted .u~ th~s chapter since a greater
degree of preciSJ.On m our calculations would
n?t be warranted by the accuracy of the data
given.
In a 375 ohm bias resistor flows a current
41.5 milliamperes; how many watts are disSipated by the resistor?
We write the equation for power in watts:
o!
P = I"R
HANDBOOK
The Decibel
Taking logarithms,
antilog
= 0.646.
Answer
-1.810
0.646 watts
= 7.236-10
=
2.574
log P
9.810-10
6 0 . - 1(60
X,-_0.55
or. x - lO:SS
Taking logarithms:
log 60
1.778
log 0.55 -1.740
- - - subtract
2.038
Remember again that the mantissas are positive and the characteristic alone can be negative. Subtracting -1 is the same as adding +1.
log x
=-,- = 0.408
2.038
antilog 0.408
3
4
6
7
8
9
10
20
30
40
so
60
70
80
Figure 7.
A TABLE OF DECIBEL GAINS VERSUS
POWER RATIOS.
The Decibel
8.618-10
17.236-20
log 375
Another example follows which demonstrates the ease in handling powers and roots.
Assume an all-wave receiver is to be built,
covering from 550 kc. to 60 me. Can this be
done in five ranges and what will be the required tuning ratio for each range if no overlapping is required? Call the tuning ratio of
one band, x. Then the total tuning ratio for
five such bands is x'. But the total tuning ratio
for all bands is 60/0.55. Therefore:
Iogx
Power
Ratio
1.00
1.26
1.58
2.00
2.51
3.16
3.98
5.01
6.31
7.94
10.00
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
1,000,000
10,000,000
100,000,000
db
0
1
log P
761
2.56
10 log ::
-,.-;-= 0.2 = 30
log 30 = 1.48
Po
6.
762
RATIO:: 3.!!1:1
20
20 log :: or 20 log
log 35
= 20
= 30.8 db
1.54
Decibels os
Power Level
+8
Figure 8.
STAGE GAIN.
Nctb
RADIO
STEP-UP
C:AIN=A
THE
"*
where the subscript, o, denotes the output voltage or current and , the input voltage or current. Remember, this equation is true only if
the volt:tge or current gain in question represents a power gain which is the square of it
and not if the power gain which results from
this is some other quantity due to impedance
changes. This should be quite clear when we
consider that a matching transformer to connect a speaker to a line or output tube does
not represent a gain or loss; there is a voltage
change and a current change yet the power remains the same for the impedance has changed.
On the other hand, when dealing with voltage amplifiers, we can figure the gain in a
stage by finding the voltage ratio from the grid
of the first tube to the grid .of the next tube.
Nctb
I 0 log _PPo
ret.
where N .. b is the desired power level in decibels, Po the output of the amplifier, P,.,_ the
arbitrary reference level.
The zero level most frequently used (but not
always) is 6 milliwatts or 0.006 watts. For this
zero level, the equation reduces to
N.. b
= I 0 log 0 ~o06
= 10
10 X log 500
.006
500
X 2.10
= 21.0
10 log
o.:~ 6
0.0015
I 0 log 0 _006
10 log 0.25
Log 0.25
-1.398 (from table). There(10 x -1
-10)
fore, 10 X -1.398
+ (10 X .398 3.98); adding the products
algebraically, gives -6.02 db.
The conversion chart reproduced in this
chapter will be of use in converting decibels to
watts and vice versa.
HANDBOOK
60
60
50
50
40
40
30
30
20
co
763
Decibel-Power Conversion
20
10
I0
co
-10
-1 oci
Ot:f
z-20
nm
[-.;;rOQ
-2 o..J
...,,
..J-30
-3 o>
w
..J
>
w
..J -40
-50
-50
...<::.
-60
"'
70
""'/;.
-eo
-90
-70
-s
2
POWER
-a0
3
~0
Figure 9.
764
THE
Converting Decibels
It is often convenient
to Power
to be able to convert a
Solution:
-17.3
decibel value to a power equivalent. The formula used for this operation is
P
= 0.006 X antilog ~:
10 l
Routine:
-74
+6
+6
-80
N"
10=
-80
antilog -8.6
+6
10
-8.6
0.000 000 04
.006 X 0.000 000 04
0.000 000 000 24 watt or
240 micro-micrawatt
2.7
-20
10=
~~"
Hb
RADIO
-20 + 2.7
10
Antilog -2.27
+ 2.7
+ 2.7
-2.27
= 0.0186
To double the output of any cascade amplifier, it is only necessary to connect in push-pull the
last amplifying stage, and replace the interstage and output transformers with push-pull
types.
To determine the voltage gain (voltage ratio) of a push-pull amplifier, take the ratio of
one half of the secondary winding of the pushpull transformer and multiply it by the p. of
one of the output tubes in the push-pull stage;
the product, when doubled, will be the voltage
amplification, or step-up .
Push-Pull
Amplifiers
When working with decibels one should not immediately take for granted
that the zero level is 6 milliwatts for th@re are
other zero levels in use.
In broadcast stations an entirely new system
is now employed. Measurements made in
HANDBOOK
Trigonometry
AC Meters With
Decibel Scales
db to be added= 10 log
500
THIRD
QUADRANT
765
FOURTH
QUADRANT
Figure 10.
THE CIRCLE IS DIVIDED INTO
FOUR QUADRANTS BY TWO PERPENDICULAR LINES AT RIGHT
ANGLES TO EACH OTHER.
The "northeast" quadrant thus formed is
known os the first quadrant; the others ore
numbered consecutively in o counterclockwise
direction.
Trigonometry
Trigonometry is the science of
mensuration of triangles. At first
glance triangles may seem to
have little to do with electrical phenomena;
however, in a.c. work most currents ,and voltages follow laws equivalent to those of the
various trigonometric relations which we are
about to examine briefly. Examples of their
application to a.c. work will be given in the
section on Vectors.
Angles are measured in degrees or in radians. The circle has been divided into 360
degrees, each degree into 60 minutes, and each
minute into 60 seconds. A decimal division of
the degree is also in use because it makes calculation easier. Degrees, minutes and seconds
are indicated by the following signs: 0 , ' and".
Example: 6 5' 23" means six degrees, five
minutes, twenty-three seconds. In the decimal
notation we simply write 8.4 7o, eight and
forty-seven hundredths of a degree.
When a circle is divided into four quadrants
by two perpendicular lines passing through
the center (Figure 10) the angle made by the
two lines is 90 degrees, known as a right angle.
Two right angles, or 180 equals a straight
angle.
The radian: If we take the radius of a circle
and bend it so it can cover a part of the circumference, the arc it covers subtends an angle
called a radian (Figure 11). Since the circumference of a circle equals 2 times the radius,
there are 271' radians in 360. So we have the
following relations:
1 radian=57 17' 45''=57.2958 71'=3.14159
1 degree= 0.017 45 radians
71' radians= 180.
71' /2 radians= 90
'TI' /3 radians= 60
Definition
and Use
766
THE
RADIO
. A =b
cosme
c
b
cotangent A =a
Figure 11.
THE RADIAN.
tangent A= b
In trigonometry we consider an angle generated by two lines, one stationary and the
other rotating as if it were hinged at 0, Figure
12. Angles can be greater than 180 degrees and
even greater than 360 degrees as illustrated in
this figure.
Two angles are complements of each other
when their sum is 90, or a right angle. A is
the complement of B and B is the complement
of A when
A=(90-B)
sin. 60 = a
2 V3 = V3
2
2
1
cot 60 = 2 V3 = V3 = % V3
tan 60 = a =
and when
A=(180-B)
cosecant A = ~
B=(90o-A)
Two angles are supplements of each other
when their sum is equal to a straight angle, or
180. A is the supplement of B and B is the
supplement of A when
secant A=
sec 60 = ~
b
% =2
esc 60
c
a =
2 V3 = 2!J V3
and
B=(180 -A)
A
?-A~ A~
~~~-----------x
0
Figure 12.
AN ANGLE IS GENERATED BY TWO LINES, ONE STATIONARY AND THE OTHER
ROTATING.
The line OX is stationary; the line with the small arrow at the far end rotates in a counterclockwise
direction. At the position Illustrated in the lelthandmost section of the drawing It makes an angle,
A, which is less than 90 o and is therefore In the first quadrant. In the position shown in the second
portion of the drawing the angle A ltas increased to such a value that It now lies In the third
quadrant; note that an angle can be greater than 180". In the third illustration the angle A is In
the fourth quadrant. In the fourth position the rotating vector has made more than one complete
revolution and is hence in the fifth quadrant; since the fifth quadrant is an exact repetition of the
first quadrant, its values will be the same as in the lefthandmost portion of the illustration.
HANDBOOK
767
Trigonometric Relations
c=a
a-'hVl
a= I
90"
A
b-0
Figure 13.
THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS.
In the right triangle shown in (A) the side opposite the ongle A is a, while the adjoining sides are
b and c; the trigonometric functions of the angle A are completely defined by the ratios of the
sides a, b and c. In (8) are shown the lengths of the sides a and b when angle A is 60' and side c
is I. In (C) angle A is 45'; a and b equal I, while c equals yf2. In (D) note that c equals a far a
right angle while b equals 0.
sin 45
cos 45 = Vz = %Vz
1
tan 45
Vz
sec 45
= 1
V2
Vz
sec90 =~=~= oo
cosec90 =_5_= 1
b
0
, a
When the angle is zero, a= 0 and b =c. The
values are then:
sin0 '=
~=~=
c
c
tan 0 =
c
sec 0 =b= 1
= 0
cos A = - sec A
1
cosec 4 5o = - - = Vz
1
smA = - - cosec A
cot 4 5o
=1
Relations Between
Functions
=%Vz
Vz
b
cos 0 = - = 1
c
b
b
cot 0 = - = -=
a
0
c
oo
cosec0 =-=-=
a
0
00
In general, for every angle, there will be definite values of the six functions. Conversely,
when any of the six functions is known, the
angle is defined. Tables have been calculated
giving the value of the functions for angles.
From the foregoing we can make up a small
table of our own (Figure 14), giving values of
the functions for some common angles.
a= b tan A
b =a cot A
768
THE
RADIO
POSITIVE FUNCTIONS
~IRST
SECOND OUADRANT
OUADRANT
all functions
sine, cosec
Figure 15.
In this figure the sides a, b, and c are used
to define the trigonometric functions of angle
8 as well as angle A.
sin
cos
tan
cot
B = b/c
B = a/c
B = b/a
B = a/b
b = c sin
a= c cos
b =a tan
a= b cot
B
B
B
cos A = - = neg.
a
tan A = _ b = neg.
c
-b
cosec A =
ac
= pos.
-a
-a
tan A = _ b = pos.
-b
-b
cot A=-=
pos.
-a
FOURTH QUADRANT
Figure 17.
c
sec A= -b =neg.
cosec A = - = neg.
-a
THIRD QUADRANT
-b
. A = -ca = pos.
sm
c
sec A = _ b = neg.
cosine, secant
tan, cot
-a
smA =-=neg.
c
tan A
-a
=b =neg.
sec A=
= pos.
b
cos A = -c- = pos.
cot A
b
= --a
= neg.
c
cosec A = - = neg.
-a
FOURTH
QUADRANT
THIRD
QUADRANT
Figure 16.
signs of the fwnctions vary crs listed In the text crnd in Flgwre 17.
HANDBOOK
Trigonometric Curves
(AI
0'
r--
Figure 18.
.
..."
.,".V'
,:
~
~
_,.
~
90'
~-
-r-
o-'-~:,.
180'
270'
360'
1-
t-
.,..., ~ r-
""'
1:1'
-JLr--
t- r-
7T
.'!1r
450
540"
630'
769
72 0'
12: r--
,_
- -
2Tr
1- !-- t -
,_ l"s
_,n-
57>"
r- !Z t:-::
'C!!
.,,.
tao
90'
3i.o
270'
54o
630'
450'
no
4SO'
270'
180'
360'
6lO'
540'
Figure 19.
Figure 20.
TANGENT CURVES.
COTANGENT CURVES.
co .
720'
Cotangent curves are the Inverse of the tangent curves. They vary from
oo to - oo In
uch pair of quadrants.
770
THE
RADIO
Figure 22.
Vectors may be added as shown in these
sketches. In each case the long vector represents the vector sum of the smaller vectors.
For many engineering applications sufficient
Figure 21.
ANOTHER REPRESENTATION OF
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS.
If the radius of a circle is considered as the
Vectors
A scalar quantity has magnitude only; a
11ector quantity has both magnitude and direction. When we speak of a speed of 50 miles
per hour, we are using a scalar quantity, but
when we say the wind is Northeast and has a
Vectors Defined
by Cartesian
Coordinates
+
i
B
Figure 23.
RESOLUTION OF VECTORS.
Vectors
HANDBOOK
Addition of Vectors
--J-
;.
771
.,.. __ -t__
R = Xl +
~1 - - -
i;
o Y,
"'-----~=::.....;:.___ _ _
-i.:------7.- - - - -
x.-----i:'--X~
Figure 24.
4j
R. = 5- 3i
Vector quantities are usually indicated by
some special typography, especially by using a
point over the letter indicating the vector, as
R..
The absolute or scalar
value of vectors such as Z
or R in Figure 23 is easily
found by the theorem of Pythagoras, which
states that in any right-angled triangle the
square of the side opposite the right angle is
equal to the sum of the squares of the sides
adjoining the right angle. In Figure 23, OAB
is a right-angled triangle; therefore, the square
of OB (or Z) is equal to the square of OA
(or x) plus the square of AB (or y). Thus the
absolute values of Z and R may be determined
as follows:
Absolute Value
af a Vector
IZI= R+"7
Iz I =
IR I=
v'T4 =
R.
5.83
+ i:
= x, + x. + i (y, + y,>
For the same reason we can carry out subtraction by subtracting the horizontal components and subtracting the vertical components
R. - i:
= x, -
x,
+i
(y, -
y,>
i'
= - 1 and j = vf=1
This is the imaginary number discussed before under algebra. In electrical engineering
the letter j is used rather than i, because i is
already known as the symbol for current.
When two vectors are
to be multiplied we can
perform the operation just as in algebra, remembering that j' = -1.
Multiplying Vectors
RZ =
(x,
Division has to be carried out so as to remove the j-term from the denominator. This
can be done by multiplying both denominator
and numerator by a quantity which will eliminate j from the denominator. Example:
R
z=
_
-
v 3' + 4' = 5
v 5' + 3' =
= x, + j y,
ADDITION OR SUBTRACTION OF
VECTORS.
i: =
jy,
x,
x,
(x, - jy,)
(x,- jy,)
-
x,y,)
A vector can also be defined in polar coordinates by its magnitude and its vectorial angle
with an arbitrary reference axis. In Figure 25
Polar Coordinates
772
THE
RADIO
Z=a+jb
TAN A=*
JZI= Va'+b'
Figure 26.
Vectors can be transformed from Cartesian
into polar notation as shown in this figure.
X
Figure 25.
IN THIS FIGURE A VECTOR HAS
BEEN REPRESENTED IN POLAR
INSTEAD OF CARTESIAN COORDINATES.
In polar coordinates a vector Is defined by
a magnitude and an angle, called the vectorial angle, instead ol by two magnitudes
as In Cartesian coordinates.
Z=
+ jb = Ya +
2
b2 Ltan-'
Z = pLA
= p cas A + jp sin A
= E sin 27Tft
IZ
= IR + jiX
Dividing by I
Z=R+iX
Due to the fact that a reactance rotates the
voltage vector ahead or behind the current
vector by 90 degrees, we must mark it with a
j in vector notation. Inductive reactance will
have a plus sign because it shifts the voltage
vector forwards; a capacitive reactance is neg-
HANDBOOK
Graphical Representation
--------------
773
~I
]:
: pSIN A
I'
..
.~ -IR .. ... .,
1------~
Figure 28.
Figure 27.
VECTOR REPRESENTATION OF A
SIMPLE SERIES CIRCUIT.
+ j 2<;TfL
Xc = - J.
Graphical Representation
1
2ntC
= I (IR)
but IR =
E cos
All of us have used coordinate systems without realizing it. For instance, in modern cities
we have numbered streets and numbered avenues. By this means we can define the location
of any spot in the city if the nearest street
crossings are named. This is nothing but an
application of Cartesian coordinates.
In the Cartesian coordinate system (named
after Descartes), we define the location of any
point in a plane by giving its distance from
each of two perpendicular lines or axes. Figure
30 illustrates this idea. The vertical axis is
called the Y-axis, the horizontal axis is the
X-axis. The intersection of the~e two axes is
called the origin, 0. The location of a point,
P, (Figure 30) is defined by measuring the
respective distances, x and y along the X-axis
and the Y-axis. In this example the distance
along the X-axis is 2 units and along the Yaxis is 3 units. Thus we define the point as
Coordinate Systems
9
.'. P = El cos 9
Q =X/R
Formulas and physical laws are often presented in graphical form; this gives us a
"bird's eye view" of various possible conditions
due to the variations of the quantities involved.
In some cases graphs permit us to solve equations with greater ease than ordinary algebra.
8 =
R/Z
Q=TAN
Z = R + jXr.
IZI = ....; R' + Xt'
POWER FACTOR=COS 9 =
e-~
Figure 29.
The figure of merit of a coil and its resistance
Is represented by the ratio of the inductive
reactance to the resistance, which as shown
X,
In this diagram is equal to If which equals
tan 8. For large values ol 9 (the phase angle)
this is approximately equal to the reciprocal
of the cos 9.
.B.
z
774
I FI~ST I
1-1- t- QUADRANT- -
1800
1600
5 ,_ '--
1400
1200
3
2
1000
8-7 -b-5-4-3 -2
01
7 8
-2
-3
-4
-5
THIRD
QUA~RA\"
FOURTH
-b - 1-- f-QUADRANT
1-- 1--7
-8
Figure 30.
CARTESIAN COORDINATES.
P 2, 3 or we might say x
2 and y
3. The
measurement x is called the abscissa of the
point and the distance y is called its ordinate.
It is arbitrarily agreed that distances measured
from 0 to the right along the X-axis shall be
reckoned positive and to the left negative. Distances measured along the Y-axis are positive
when measured upwards from 0 and negative
when measured downwards from 0. This is
illustrated in Figure 30. The two axes divide
the plane area into four parts called quadrants.
These four quadrants are numbered as shown
in the figure.
It follows from the foregoing statements,
that points lying within the first quadrant have
both x and y positive, as is the case with the
point P. A point in the second quadrant has a
negative abscissa, x, and a positive ordinate, y.
This is illustrated by the point Q, which has
-4 and y
+ 1. Points
the coordinates x
in the third quadrant have both x and y nega5 and y
-2 illustrates such a
tive. x
point, R. The point S, in the fourth quadrant
has a negative ordinate, y and a positive abscissa or x.
In practical applications we might draw
only as much of this plane as needed to illustrate our equation and therefore, the scales
along the X-axis and Y-axis might not start
with zero and may show only that part of the
scale which interests us.
Representation of
Functions
In the equation:
300,000
f=--A-
800
600
100
200
300
400
A-.
500
Figure 31.
REPRESENTATION OF A SIMPLE
FUNCTION IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES.
300,000
In this chart of the #unction fk, = Am.,.,.,
distances along the X axis represent wavelength in meters, while those along the Y
axis represent frequency in kilocycles. A curve
such as this helps to lind values between
those calculated with su,icient accuracy for
most purposes.
=-
RADIO
2000
1-
THE
f.,.
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
/..lnt!ter.o;;
500
375
300
250
214
187
167
150
Plotting these points in Figure 31 and drawing a smooth curve through them gives us the
curve or graph of the equation. This curve
will help us find values of f for other values
of A (those in between the points calculated)
and so a curve of an often-used equation may
serve better than a table which always has
gaps.
When using the coordinate system described
so far and when measuring linearly along both
axes, there are some definite rules regarding
HANDBOOK
Representation of Functions
775
Figure 32.
Only two points are needed to define functions which result in a straight line as shown
in this diagram representing Ohm's Law.
Figure 33.
A TYPICAL GRID- VOLTAGE
PLATE-CURRENT CHARACTERISTIC CURVE.
0
5
0
10
776
or.~-r.-ro~-r.-ro-o-ro-ro-o-r~/~
1 1/
.I
1/
THE
RADIO
Et=6.3 v.
1/
~ ~t-~~~~-+-+-+-r~~,_,_+-t-t-~~
- 1~1~\~1/+r~~~/~v~~+-~~~~
\.
Figure 34.
A FAMILY OF CURVES.
An equation such as Ohm's Law has three
variables, but can be represented in Cartesian
coordinates by a family of curves such as
shown here. If any two quantities are given,
the third can be found. Any point In the
chart represents a definite .value each of E,
I, and R, which will sat/sly the equation of
Ohm's Law. Values of R not situated oa an R
line can be found by Interpolation.
Figure 35.
"PLATE" CURVES FOR A
TYPICAL VACUUM TUBE.
In such curves we have three variables, plate
voltage, plate current, and grid bias. Each
point on a grid bias line corresponds to the
plate voltage and plate current represented
by its position with respect to the X and Y
axes. Those lor other values of grid bias may
be found by interpolation. The /oadline shown
In the lower left portion of the chart is explained In the text.
Figure 36.
PARTIAL DIAGRAM OF A RESISTANCE COUPLED AMPLIFIER.
The portion of the supply voltage wasted
across the 50,000-ohm resistor Is represented
In figure 35 as the /oad/lne.
HANDBOOK
tube the loadline, that is the line showing
which part of the plate supply voltage is across
the resistor and which part across the tube for
any value of plate current. In our example, let
us suppose the plate resistor is 50,000 ohms.
Then, if the plate current were zero, the voltage drop across the resistor would be zero and
the full plate supply voltage is across the tube.
Our first point of the loadline is E = 250,
I
0. Next, suppose, the plate current were
1 rna., then the voltage drop across the resistor
would be SO volts, which would leave for the
tube 200 volts. The second point of the loadline is then E = 200, I = 1. We can continue
like this but it is unnecessary for we shall find
that it is a straight line and two points are
sufficient to determine it.
This loadline shows at a glance what happens when the grid-bias is changed. Although
there are many possible combinations of plate
voltage, plate current, and grid bias, we are
now restricted to points along this line as long
as the 50,000 ohm plate resistor is in use. This
line therefore shows the voltage drop across
the tube as well as the voltage drop across the
load for every value of grid bias. Therefore, if
we know how much the grid bias varies, we
can calculate the amount of variation in the
plate voltage and plate current, the amplification, the power output, and the distortion.
Logarithmic Scales
Taking logarithms:
log f = log 300,000 - log A
711
Logarithmic Scales
3000
lSOO
2000
1500
""'"'
""""""
1000
900
800
700
bOO
500
-400
300
200
Ir
100
Figure 37.
A LOGARITHMIC CURVE
.Many functions become greatly simplified and
some become straight lines when plotted to
logarithmic scales such as shown in this
diagram. Here the frequency versus wavelength
curve of Figure 3 I has been replotted to conform with logarithmic axes. Note that it is
only necessary to calculate two points in
order to determine the 11 t:urve" since this type
of function results in a straight line.
778
r----r
r.o.
... >-
tO
0.9
"'0z
:::>
::>
"' ...
::>
z
zu >-< O.b
~ :2
0 0
"'u
0.5
w
w
tz<
0.3
0
0
"'u.. "'>-<
0.2
<
0.1
"'0
u..
w
f---
z
z<
g
"'
100
----
<
1---
>-
,_______ 1------
....
10
10
IS
Figure 38.
,_1-----
>-
z
z<
This curve represents the output ol a receiver versus frequency when plotted to linear
coordinates.
"'w
1/
~\~
f--~
_:_-=
~~
f----
f----- f-.-f--~
e.ff-.--
'----- 1 -
f---
'-----
1/
L-
"'
u.
u.
>-
--~--
=:
>-
::>
0
15
;:::
"'
1\f---\
"'z
"'
z z<
w w
"'"'
f-.--
"'
0.4
1000
>-
"'0
u.. u..
w
-1-----
>-
0 ~ 0.7
>- >-
ouz
FE
......
0.8
::>
10
9
8
l
5 -
....
u.
0
0
;::
1----- - -
- - - - f-----
-- --
-- -- - - f------- - e-.--
_,
-- --~-
- - C--.~-
---- - -
<
a<
I
-20
-10
\7
0
+10
+20
Figure 39.
A RECEIVER SELECTIVITY CURVE.
This curve represents the selectivity of a receiver plotted to logarithmic coordinates lor
the output, but linear coordinates lor frequency. The reason that this curve appears
inverted lrom that ol Figure 38 is explained
in the text.
Nomograms or
Alignment Charts
Figure 40.
~~
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:I:
Y\V)V
)\~
IX/J<..
/X//
71'X '/It
1.
!I\0(X
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h
IV
~~ ~~ ~~ "~~~~ ~ ~ ~~~" ~~ i
~~v:71p<,~"-j')K~00~~v.et~~":Ts~~~~~~~~'\~~~~~~~v~~.)~M~
f<~
V'\
ll\~
V\V'x
~ rY)<
~Q
~Q
.,,'~V 1OJJHY
...
OOJJHY
~'
1
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lOOMC
~Q
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1.OJJHY
"i
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0
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10011/1C.
D..
0
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K~ ~
w~
01 HY ..
10 MC
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r-..
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~ ~')(
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l"-.X
'-A'V<
~"
)'( ~
t'--1) / ~
0.1 HY
1 MC
1\
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1 HY
~k
~
~I><
!"-.X
kX"-.X
">( ~
r--)
./ t)W
r-..k
R~
100 KC
1000000A
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X: ~ '\.X
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l> /
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t/~
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V:tz ~ bX.'\2<.,
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C'-~
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....:::r
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f"l> ~ ~
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(D
r-..~
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10 MC.
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0
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rxl'
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Figure 41.
HANDBOOK
Polar Coordinates
781
/
/
/
RADIUS
/
VECTOR/
/
/
/
///\"'
O ORIGIN
0
Figure 42.
THE SIMPLEST FORM OF NOMOGRAM.
plest form, it is somewhat like the lines in Figure 42. If the lines a, b, and c are parallel and
equidistant, we know from ordinary geometry,
% (a + c). Therefore, if we draw a
that b
scale of the same units on all three lines, starting with zero at the bottom, we know that by
laying a straight-edge across the chart at any
place, it will connect values of a, b, and c,
which satisfy the above equation. When any
two quantities are known, the third can be
found.
If, in the same configuration we used logarithmic scales instead of lirrear scales, the relation of the quantities would become
log b
= lj2
(log a
log c) orb
= vac
AXIS
Figure 43.
THE LOCATION OF A POINT BY
POLAR COORDINATES.
In the polar eoordinote system any point is
determined by its distonee from the origin
and the angle formed by a line drawn from
it to the origin and the 0-X axis.
= 3 /j0
s
Figure 44.
THE RADIATION CURVE OF AN
ANTENNA.
Polar eoordlnates are used prlneipal/y In radio
work for plotting the directional characteris
tics of an antenna where the radiation Is
represented by the distance of the eurve from
the origin for every possible direction.
782
it intersects the 100-hy. line, the resonant frequency being determined by projecting the intersection horizontally back on to the chart.
To determine the reactance, the logarithmic
ohms scale must be extended.
When winding coils for use in
radio receivers and transmitters, it is desirable to be able to
determine in advance the full
coil specifications for a given frequency. Likewise, it often is desired to determine how much
capacity is required to resonate a given coil so
that a suitable condenser can be used.
Fortunately, extreme accuracy is not required, except where fixed capacitors are used
across the tank coil with no provision for trimming the tank to resonance. Thus, even though
it may be necessary to estimate the stray circuit capacity present in shunt with the tank
capacity, and to take for granted the likelihood
of a small error when using a chart instead of
the formula upon which the chart was based,
the results will be sufficiently accurate in most
cases, and in any case give a reasonably close
point from which to start "pruning."
The inductance required to resonate with a
certain capacitance is given in the chart in
figure 41. By means of the r.f. chart , the
inductance of the coil can be determined,
or the capacitance determined if the inductance is known. When making calculations, be
sure to allow for stray circuit capacity, such as
tube interelectrode capacity, wiring, sockets,
etc. This will normally run from 5 to 25 micromicrofarads, depending upon the components
and circuit.
To convert the inductance in microhenries
to physical dimensions of the coil, or vice
versa, the nomograph chart in figure 41 is
used. A pin and a straightedge are required.
The inductance of a coil is found as follows:
The straightedge is placed from the correct
point on the turns column to the correct point
on the diameter-to-length ratio column, the
latter simply being the diameter divided by the
length. Place the pin at the point on the plot
axis column where the straightedge crosses it.
From this point lay the straightedge to the correct point on the diameter column. The point
where the straightedge intersects the inductance column will give the inductance of the
coil.
From the chart, we see that a 30 turn coil
having a diameter-to-length ratio of 0.7 and a
diameter of 1 inch has an inductance of approximately 12 microhenries. Likewise any one
of the four factors may be determined if the
other three are known. For instance, to determine the number of turns whPn the desired inR.F.Tank
Circuit
Calculations
or
TURNS
PLOT
AXIS
DIAMETER
RATIO LENGTH
INDUCTANCE IN
MICROHENRIES
DIAMETER
INCHES
8
&
400
s
4
300
3
200
150
2000
tOO
90
80
200
70
80
100
80
.a
50
40
40
3o---
---
30
20----
---
tO" ---8
8
20
15
10
--
1.5
------
--- ---
.a
.5
--.4
'
.3
,75
.2
0
784
Significant Figures
In most radio calculations, numbers represent quantities which were obtained by measurement. Since no measurement gives absolute
accuracy, such quantities are only approximate
and their value is given only to a few significant figures. In calculations, these limitations
must be kept in mind and one should not finish for instance with a result expressed in more
significant figures than the given quantities at
the beginning. This would imply a greater accuracy than actually was obtained and is therefore misleading, if not ridiculous.
An example may make this clear. Many ammeters and voltmeters do not give results to
closer than 1/4 ampere or % volt. Thus if we
have 2% amperes flowing in a d.c. circuit at
6% volts, we can obtain a theoretical answer
by multiplying 2.25 by 6.75 to get 15.1875
watts. But it is misleading to express the answer down to a ten-thousandth of a watt when
the original measurements were only good to
% ampere or volt. The answer should be expressed as 15 watts, not even 15.0 watts. If
we assume J. possible error of lj8 volt or ampere (that is, that our original data are only
correct to the nearest % volt or ampere) the
true power lies between 14.078 (product of
21/8 and 6%) and 16.328 (product of 2% and
6;;'8 ). Therefore, any third significant figure
would be misleading as implying an accuracy
which we do not have.
Conversely, there is also no point to calculating the value of a part down to 5 or 6 significant figures when the actual part to be used
cannot be measured to better than 1 part in
one hundred. For instance, if we are going to
use 1% resistors in some circuit, such as an
ohmmeter, there is no need to calculate the
value of such a resistor to 5 places, such as
1262.5 ohm. Obviously, 1% of this quantity
is over 12 ohms and the value should simply
be written as 1260 ohms.
There is a definite technique in handling
these approximate figures. When giving values
obtained by measurement, no more figures are
603
34.6
O.l20
637.720
answer: 638
Multiplication:
654
0.342
654
0.342
196\2
1308
2616
26\16
1\308
1962223.668
answer: 224
1.28
527) 673
527
53
f"i46
106
sno
~
r-1TI---,t
2C
L2C
L.---- T-----J
HIGH-PAS!
LOW-PASS "SECTION
SCTION
VALUES
LOAD RESISTANCE
.J
1000
HOO
10000
9000
.4
t200
..
....
.$
iO
.
20
'300
1400
.7
tSOO
i.O
ooo
1000
i100
"'~
2.0
7000
6000
"'.J
o(
i900
..
2000
5000 "'
"'uz
...
u
2000
.4000
3000
.,
u
i.$
eooo
o(
3.0
o(
4.0
.....z
00
o.o
60
6.0
70
7.0
00
90
100
a.o
~o.o
i$0
tS.O
200
20.0
300
30.0
9.0
..
u
....."'
.J
:t
3000 ~
.....
0:
40
.4000
...:t
0000
2000 :I:
"iii
...
...
.,::>
11.1 fOOO
1500
.
0:
7000
0000
9000
785
..u
o(
::>
30
z
~
INDEX
A
Acceptor, del. of .................................................. 92
A.C.-D.C. power supply ...................... 561, 588, 694
''Acorn'' tube ...................................................... 232
A-C V- T voltmeter ............................................. .724
Adapter, F-M ...................................................... 325
Adapter, mechanical filter .................................. 535
Admittance, del. of .............................................. 52
''A''-frame antenna mast.. ................................. .448
Air capacitor...................................................... 359
Air dielectric. ....................................................... 32
Air-gap, capacitor.............................................. 264
Alignment- B.f.o- Filter................................ 236
" Receiver- 1-F- R-F .............. 148, 235, 236
All-driven antenna ..............................................504
Alpha, del. of ...................................................... 93
Alternating current - Amplitude - Average ..... .45
" Del. of Effective value .................... 41, 45
Generation ............................................... .42
Impedance- "J" operator ....................... .47
Ohm's law- Phase angle ................... .45, 46
Pulsating R.M.S .................................... .45
Transformer .............................................. 61
Transient .................... , ............................... 59
Voltage divider .......................................... 52
Alternator ........................................................... .42
Amateur band receiver ........................................ 540
Amateur frequency bands licenses .................. ! 2
Amateur radio service, The .................................... ll
Ammeter ........................................................... .721
Ampere, del. of.. ............................................ 22, 23
Ampere-turns ................................................ 36, 62
Amperite filament regulator ................................ 552
Amplification factor ....................................... .73, 74
Amplifier- Audio- Cascode .................. 227, 214
Cathode Cathode driven ............ 127, 626
Cathode follower ...................................... 134
Class A - A2.. .......................... 99, 108, 118
Class AB- AB1 .............................. 108, 137
Class B.................... 99, 108, 123, 129, 251
Class C.................................... l 08, 124, 251
Coupling - inductive .............. 113, 11 8, 1 23
D.C ......................................................... 117
Doherty .................................................. 298
Driver ...................................................... 126
Equivalent circuit.. .................................... ! 09
Feedback ................................................ ] 29
Grid circuit.. .............................................. 121
Grounded cathode-Grounded screen 132,629
Grounded grid ........ 132, 135, 214, 258, 626
Hi-li - High mu (JL) ...................... 138, 112
Horizontal- I-F .............................. 139, 210
Kilowatt, general purpose ........................ 635
linear .................................... 138, 286, 620
laflin-White ............................................ 118
Multi-band linear...................................... 624
Neutralization ........................ 252, 616, 639
Noise factor .............................................. ! 2 2
Operational ............................................ 199
Pentode .................................................. 120
Pi-network .............................................. 617
Plate efficiency .......................................... 1 29
Power .............................................. 11 8, 61 0
Printed circuit ............................................575
786
B
Balanced modulator - SSB ............ 331, 338, 343
Balanced SWR bridge -------------------------------------.736
Balanced transmission line measurements ....... .734
Bands, amateur --------------------------------------------------1 2
Bandspread tuning --------------------------------------------217
Bandwidth, antenna -------------------------------.405, 413
Bandwidth, 1-F, graph ........................................ 534
Calorimeter -------------------------------------------------------.726
Capacitance - Calculation definition .... 32, 30
" lnterelectrode ---------------------------------.76, 1 06
Neutralization ----------------------------------------107
Tank- Stray --------------------------------261, 218
Capacitive coupling --------------------------------------------270
Capacitive reactance ......................................... .46
Capacitor A.C. circuit .................................... 34
" Air- Characteristics ...................... 359, 358
Breakdown .............................................. 264
Charge ------------------------------------------------------31
Color code .............................................. 531
Electrolytic ........................................ 34, 708
Equalizing ------------------------------------------------34
787
Vacuum -
788
D
d'Arsonval meter ............................................. .721
D.C. amplifier .................................................. 11 7
D.C. clamping circuit .......................................... 187
D.C. power supplies .......................................... 684
D.C. restorer - circuit .............................. ! 88, 154
Defector autodyne crystal ...................... 208
Deflection plate ................................................ 139
Degeneration, transistor ...................................... 96
Degree, electrical ............................................... .43
Delay line .......................................................... 204
Delta match - antenna -system .... 501, 430, 442
Demodulator ...................................................... 207
Detection, slope ................................................ 21 0
Detection, synchronous, DSB .............................. 353
Detector Diode ............................................ 224
Envelope ................................................ 1 51
Fremodyne .............................................. 21 0
Gride leak Impedance Plate ........ 224
Product .......................................... 237, 352
Ratio ........................................................ 323
Super-regenerative .................................. 209
Deviation, FM Measurement ................ 314, 320
Dielectric, ceramic- Constant (K) ........ 30, 31, 32
Differential keying ........................................... .400
Differentiation, electronic .................................. 198
Differentiator ( RC) ............................................ 59
Digital circuits - computers .............................. 195
Digital package ................................................ 204
Diode A.v.c ................................................. 225
Blocking ................................................. .40 1
Crystal .................................................... 234
Del. of ................................................... .71
Detector -- 2 24
Gate ........................................................ 204
limiter .................................................... 1 85
Mixer ...................................................... 212
Modulator .............................................. 332
Semi-conductor .......................................... 90
Storage time ............................................ ! 03
Voltmeter ............................................... .724
Dipoles ................................... .403, 435, 465, 498
Direct current circuits .......................................... 21
Directional coupler ........................................... .735
Directive antennas, H-F ................................... .459
Directivity, antenna ................................. .404, 41 0
Discharge of capacitor ........................................ 30
Discane antenna ..................................... .441, 481
Discontinuities, transmission line ..................... .425
Discriminator, F-M .............................................. 322
Dissipation, anode ............................................. .72
Distortion - Amplitude Frequency .............. 1 09
" Audio ...................................................... 135
Carrier .................................................... 31 3
Harmonic ................................................ 119
lntermodulation ...................................... 136
Modulation .............................................. 307
Nonlinear Phase ...................... ! 09, 135
Products, SSB .......................................... 344
Transient ................................................ 135
Transistor .................................................. 98
Divider, frequency ............................................ 190
Divider, voltage .................................................. 26
E
Eddy current ...................................................... 38
Efficiency, antenna ......................................... .409
Electric filters .................................................... 63
Electrical energy ................................................ 29
Electrical potential .............................................. 22
Electromagnetic deflection .................................. 86
Electrolytic capacitor ................................ 34, 708
Electrolytic conductor .................................... 2 2, 67
Electromagnetism .................................................. 35
Electromotive force (e.m.f.) ........................ 22, 37
Electron coupled oscillator ................................ 241
Electron, def. o f - drift- orbit .................. 67, 21
Electronic computers ......................................... 194
Electronic conduction ......................................... 67
Electronic differentiation integration ............ 198
Electronic multiplication ................................... 198
Electrostatics ..................................................... 30
Electrostatic deflection energy ............... 83, 30
Element, def. of metal!ic, non-metallic .... 21, 90
Element, reactive, non-reactive --------------21
F
Foetor of merit ................................................... 54
Fading ............................................................. .4 18
Farad, del. of ...................................................... 31
Feedback amplifier ............................................ ! 29
Feedback, audio ................................................ 141
Feedback circuits ................................................ 192
789
H
Hairpin coupling ................................................ 232
Half-wavE' rectifier ............................................ 689
Handie-Talkie, 144 Me ..................................... 547
Harmonic - B.f.a ............................................. 225
Crystal .................................................... 246
Del. of ...................................................... 58
Distortion ................................................ 119
Music ...................................................... 135
Oscillator ................................................ 247
Radiation ................................ 262, 373, 725
Harmoniker TVI filter ........................................ 379
Hartley oscillator .............................................. 240
Hash rectifier ............................................ 679, 694
Heat cycle, resistor .......................................... 357
Heat sink .................................................. 99, 147
Heat sink, transistor ................................ 576, 707
Heater cathode .................................................. 70
Heising modulation ............................................ 294
Helical antenna ............................................... .4R3
Henry, del. of .................................................. 37
Hertz antenna ................................................. .426
Heterodyne ........................................................ 208
H-F antennas ................................................... .459
High fidelity .............................................. 134-138
Interference ............................................ 386
High-pass TVI filter .......................................... 372
Holes in semi-conductor ...................................... 91
Horizontal directivity ....................................... .4 1 0
Horn antenna, VHF ......................................... .4&6
790
791
J
Jitter ........................................................ 154, 188
Johnson Q-feed system ................................... .446
''J'' operator ..................................................... .47
Joule, del. of ................................................ 30, 37
Junction, transistor .............................................. 93
K
K, dielectric constant .......................................... 32
Key clicks .......................................................... 396
Keying blocked grid .................................. 398
Cathode circuit ...................................... 397
Differential ............................................. .400
Frequency shift ...................................... 326
screen grid .............................................. 399
Sequence ................................................ 677
Transmitter .............................................. 395
Kilocycle ........................................................... .42
Kinescope tube .................................................. 84
Kirchhoff's Laws .................................................. 28
Klystron - reflex .......................................... 81, 82
L
Lamb noise limiter ............................................ 227
Layout, chassis ................................................. .726
Lazy-H antenna ................................................ 468
L/C ratio ............................................................ !;6
Lead inductance .................................................. 81
Leakage, capacitor ............................................ 34
Leakage reactance ............................................ 63
Left-hand rule .................................................... 35
Length, antenna ............................................... .405
L-section filter .................................................... 64
Licenses, amateur .............................................. 12
Limiter, audio .................................................. 228
Limiter, diode .................................................... 151
Limiter, F-M ...................................................... 324
Limiter, full-wave .............................................. 230
Limiter, grid ...................................................... 153
Limiter, noise .................................................... 227
Limiter, series diode .......................................... 185
Limiter, TNS ...................................................... 230
Limiting circuit .................................... 151, 152, 185
Limiting, grid .................................................... ! 87
Line, delay ...................................................... 204
Line filter ........................................................ 227
Line regulation .................................................. 388
Line, Slotted ...................................................... 730
Linear amplifier ................................................ 286
" 4CX- 1 OOOA ............................................ 64 1
Class B .................................................... 129
SSB .................................................. 620, 624
Tuning .................................................... 287
Linear matching transformer ............................. .446
Linearity tracer ................................................ 151
Link circuit ........................................................ 611
Link coupling- antenna .......................... 272, 452
Lissajous figures .............................................. 144
Litz, wire ............................................................ 54
M
Magic eye tube --------------------------------------------88, 226
Magnetic Air gap ------------------------------------------38
Circuit field flux --------------------------35
eddy current --------------------------------38
hysteresis loss -----------------------------38
induction --------------------------------------------------37
left hand rule ------------------------------------------35
Permeability reluctance - saturation .. 36
Magnetism - residual ----------------------------------35, 37
Magnetomotive force ( M. M. F.) ----------------------36
Magnetron ----------------------------------------------------------83
Magnitude, scalar ---------------------------------------------.48
Majority carrier --------------------------------------------------93
Marconi antenna ---------------------.408, 432, 434, 438
Most, A-frame -------------------------------------------------.448
Matching stub, antenna ---------------------------.445, 503
Matching systems antenna -------------------------------.442
Matching transformer -------------------------------------.429
Mathematics, radio ------------------------------------------742
Maximum usable frequency ------------------------13, 417
Maxwell, del. of ----------------------------------------------36
M-derived filter --------------------------------------------------64
Measurements Antenna -----------------------------.730
Bridge ----------------------------------------------728
Circuit constants -----------------------------------.727
Current voltage -----------------------.721, 723
Frequency ----------------------------------------------729
Parallel wire line -----------------------------------.735
Power ---------------------------------------------.721, 725
Transmission line ---------------------------.730, 734
Mechanical filter ----------------------------------------------222
Mechanical filter adapter - S.S.B . .......... 535, 590
Megacycle -----------------------------------------------------------.42
Megohm --------------------------------------------------------------24
Memory circuit -----------------------------------------------204
Mercury vapor rectifier ------------------------------------694
Meteor bursts ---------------------------------------------------.420
Meter, d'Arsonval ----------------------------------------------721
Meter, iron vane ---------------------------------------------.723
Meter, multi-range ------------------------------------------722
Meter, rectifier -------------------------------------------------.724
Meter, thermocouple -------------------------------.724, 726
Mho, del. of -----------------------------------------------------.74
Mica dielectric ----------------------------------------------------32
Microfarad -----------------------------------------30
Microhenry -------------------------------------------37
Micro-ohm ---------------------------------------------23
Middle C ------------------------------------------------------------134
Miller effect --------------------------------------107, 112, 220
Miller feedback oscillator ................ 199, 247
Milliammeter ----------------------------------.721
Millihenry, del. of ----------------------------------------------37
Mixer circuits ----------------------------------------------212
Diode -------------------------------------------------80
Noise ------------------------------------------------------212
Products, SSB spurious .............. 341, 343
SSB -----------------------------------------------340
Stage ------------------------------------------------------211
Transistor ------------------------------------------------100
Triode ----------------------------------------------------213
Tube -------------------------------------------------------79
N
Narrow-band F-M ----------------------------------------------315
NBS bridge-T oscillator --------------------------------------1 92
Negative feedback loop ------------------------------------140
Negative peak clipping ------------------------------------648
Negative screen current ----------------------------------641
792
Pi-network chart -
Pierce ------------------------------------------------------247
RC ------------------------------------------------------------157
0
Octave, del. of --------------------------------------------------135
Oersted, del. of --------------------------------------------------36
Ohm Ohm's law ------------------------------------23, 24
Ohmmeter, low range ---------------------------------------.723
Ohm's Law ( a.c.) ----------------------------------------------"5
Ohm's law (complex quantities) ------------------------"9
Ohm's Law for magnetic circuit ----------------------------36
Ohm's Law (resonant circuit) ---------------------------54
0 h ms- per-volt ............ ---------------------------------- ..... .72 2
Omega, del. of ----------------------------------------------------"4
One-shot multivibrator --------------------------------------1 89
On-off circuits --------------------------------------------------195
Open wire line --------------------------------------------------"21
Operating desk, construction of -----------------------.724
Operational amplifier ----------------------------------------199
Orbital electron --------------------------------------------------21
Oscillation, parasitic ----------------------279, 365, 616
Oscillator Beat --------------------------------------------224
Blocking ----------------------102, 155, 156, 189
Bridge-T --------------------------------------------------192
Circuits ........ --------------- ............................. 250
Clapp - Colpitts ------------------------------------241
Code practice --------------------------------------------19
Crystal ----------------------------------------------------244
Dynatron ------------------------------------------------242
e. c. o. ----------------------------------------------------241
793
Pitch,
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Q
Q amplifier tank ................................................ 128
Q antenna ....................................................... .409
Q coils .............................................................. 360
Q del. of ............................................................ 54
Q loaded unloaded ...................................... 57
Q multiplier ...................................................... 236
Q tank circuit .................................................... 261
Q transformer ................................................... .429
Q tuned circuit .................................................. 216
Quad antenna ................................................. .471
Quadrant, sine ................................................... .43
Quantity, complex ............................................... .49
Quench oscillator ............................................. 209
R
Radian, del. of ................................................... .43
Radiation, angle of ......................... .411, 460, 478
794
s
Safety bleeder ----------------------------------------------------395
Safety precautions --------------------------------------------393
Saturation current ------------------------------------------------72
Saturation, magnetic ------------------------------------------36
Sawtooth wave ------------------------------------------59, 140
Scalar notation ---------------------------------------------------.48
Scale, musical ----------------------------------------------------135
Scatter signals -------------------------------------------------.419
Screen, CRT --------------------------------------------------------87
Screen current, negative ----------------------------------641
Screen grid keying --------------------------------------------399
Screen grid tube -------------------------------------------------.77
Screen lead inductance --------------------------------------257
795
T
Tank capacitance ............................................. 261
Tank circuit- efficiency ........................ 55, 57, 58
Tank circuit impedance loading ........ 262, 264
Tank circuit Q .................................................... 128
Technician class amateur license .......................... 12
Teletype, radio .................................................. 326
Television interference ...................................... 371
Temperature coefficient ...................................... 32
Ten-A, SSB exciter ............................................ 347
Ten-meter transceiver ........................................ 559
Termon-Woodyard amplifier .............................. 298
Termination, transmission line ........................... .425
Termination, VHF rhombic ................................. .487
Test equipment ................................................. .721
Tetrode amplifier, push-pull .............................. 644
Tetrode modulator ............................................ 647
796
u
Ultra-linear amplifier ............................. 142, 146
Unidirectional antenna ...................................... 504
Uni-potential cathode ....................................... .70
Unity coupling .................................................. 271
Unloaded Q ........................................................57
v
Vacuum capacitor .............................................. 360
Vacuum tube: ...................................................... 67
Amplification ..................................... .73, 74
Beam power ............................................. .7 8
Cathode ray .............................................. 84
Classes- classification .................... 107, 87
Conductance .............................................. 73
Constant-current curve ............................ 1 27
Diode ........................................................?!
Equivalent noise resistance ...................... 123
Foreign .................................................... 89
Gas .......................................................... 87
Input loading .......................................... 122
Klystron .................................................... 81
Load line .................................................. 74
Magic eye ................................................ 88
Magnetron ................................................ 83
Mixer ........................................................ 79
Operation .................................................. 75
Parameters .............................................. 106
Pentode .................................................... 77
Plate resistance ................................. .73, 74
Polarity reversal ....................................... .76
Remote cutoff ........................................... .78
797
''
w
Wagner ground ............................................... .729
Water cooled tube (4W-300B) ........................ 620
Watt, del, of ...................................................... 29
Wave - Carrier ................................................ 207
Ground ................................................... .4 14
Harmonic- nonsinusoidal ........................ 58
Pattern, oscilloscope ................................ 148
Peaked sawtooth ................................ 59
Sky space ......................................... .4 14
Square transient .................................. 58
Surface ................................................... .4 14
Waveform ..................................................59, 143
Waveform, speech ............................ 285, 301, 648
Wavelength, del. of ......................................... .405
Wavelength table, VHF ..................................... .479
X
X-array antenna ............................................. .469
y
Yogi, adjustment ............................................... 509
Y, (admittance, del. of) .................................... 52
Yogi antenna feed systems ............... .494, 498
Yogi antenna, VHF ........................................... .488
Yogi, construction .............................................. 506
Yoke match ..................................................... .498
z
Zeppelin antenna ........................................... .427
Zero-bias modulator ......................................... 662
$5.00
hardbound
tions with clear, concise answers for preparation for oil U.S.A.
commercial
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operator's
license
examinations.
I ( I I V . ADVANCED RADIOTELEPHONE
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StlrtiS IIIII
1111IISIII II!I'IL
SI'IP~ts
1.1111
11llllSIII llltlL
IN TWO VOLUMES
This set of conversion data has become standard for most
commonly used items of surplus electronic equipment. All
conversions shown are practical and yield a useful item of
equipment; all have been proven by testing an several units.
VOLUME II
VOLUME I
BC-348 Receiver
BC-312 Receiver
BC-412 Oscilloscope as a
test scope or as a television receiver.
Xtal
BC-946B
Receiver
PE-103A Dynamotor
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E&E-SMl
Chart
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