PHILOSOPHY OF

SCIENCE
Digital Concept Development, UCN
Sofiendalsvej 60, Aalborg, Denmark

Submission date: 7th of November 2016

Semester: 1st
Name of class: dkoi0916
Subject: Philosophy of science
Project participant: Delia Lorena Cosman
Number of pages: 5.1 pages (12.251 keystrokes)

TABLE OF CONTENTS
01. Introduction pg. 2
1.1. How do we define knowledge? pg. 2
1.2. What is the basis of knowledge production? pg. 2
1.3. What is scientific argumentation? pg. 2
1.4. What is a logic inference? pg. 4
1.5. How do we define the object of Philosophy of science? pg. 5

02. Framing a project pg. 6

A. Case Study Approach pg. 6
A.1. How do we explain our approach in Philosophy of science in regards of case
study? pg. 6
B. Design Research pg. 7
B.1. How does design qualify as a scientific approach? pg. 7
B.2. How does the scientific experiment apply to digital concept development? pg.7
C. Research Approach pg. 8
C.1. How do we decide on methods for collecting data? pg. 8
C.2. How do we ensure that we get valid data? pg. 8
C.3. How do we process the collected data? pg. 9

03. Writing a project pg. 10

3.1. How do we set on a structure in the project writing? pg. 10
3.2. How do we synthesize our research results into reports of few pages? pg. 10

04. Literature list pg. 11

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01. Introduction

1.1. How do we define knowledge?

Knowledge is a subject which has been analyzed by philosophers for centuries. The study
of knowledge is now known as Epistemology (the term comes from Greek and it can be
translated as reasoning about knowledge).
Knowledge can be defined as the clear, lucid information gained through the process
of reason applied to reality (Philosophybasics, 2008).

1.2. What is the basis of knowledge production?

Philosophers state that a person has knowledge about a subject only if she/he meets all
the following conditions:

The person BELIEVES a certain subject to be true if one has beliefs about a
subject, then one has knowledge about it;

The subject must be TRUE a belief must be true to form knowledge; must be
reinforced by evidence;

One has JUSTIFICATIONS that reinforce the veracity of the subject (Truncellito,
David)

1.3. What is scientific argumentation?

Science is a system which organizes knowledge about the physical world in the form of
experiments, predictions. Science provides concrete results, and can be split into three
types, in function of the approached subject:

Formal Science based on formal logic;

Natural Science physical sciences such as biology;

Social and human Science illustrates the individual relationships in a society.

The scientific argumentation can be defined as a way of verifying a claim/belief based

on evidence which is well justified. In this situation, a claim is an explanation, a
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conclusion, or a simple answer to a research question which fits the empirical evidence,
the gathered data, which at its turn must be well justified (an evidence is justified when
it is linked to a specific concept or principle). A scientific argument can be evaluated by
using the following criteria:

The Empirical criteria is respected when the claim suits the evidence, which
must be in a sufficient amount and must be relevant.

The Theoretical criteria in which the claim is enough and useful in some
ways, being at the same time consistent with accepted theories.

The Analytical criteria, which is a method that analyses that the data is
appropriate. (Sampson, V., Schleigh, S., 2013)

(Figure source: Sampson, V., Schleigh, S., 2013)

In other words, the scientific argumentation can be seen as a hypothesis about the real
world which can be verified viable methods which help in obtaining credible evidence.
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1.4. What is a logic inference?

The Cambridge Online Dictionary defines the term inference as: a guess that you make or
an opinion that you form based on the information that you have. In the philosophy of
science, the inference is seen as the reasoning steps one takes in order to evaluate from
premises to conclusions. According to Charles Sanders Pierce, the father of pragmatism,
(Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2014), an inference can be divided into three
categories: deduction, induction, and abduction.
Deduction The deductive reasoning is the process of getting from one or more rules
(premises), which are generally assumed to be true, to a logically constructed and specific
conclusion. When applying this logic, one can assume that the rules/ premises apply in all
specific cases, and the result/ conclusion is general expected and accepted (Teachtarget).
It goes from the more general elements to more specific ones.

Induction The inductive reasoning goes the other way around, going from specific
observations to more general ones. In this case, the reasoning begins with specific
measurements and analysis, which develops further into patterns, from which one can
create a hypothesis and from there on general rules can be developed.

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Abduction According to Charles S. Pierce The abductive suggestion comes to us like a

flash. It is an act of insight, although extremely fallible insight. It is true that the different
elements of the hypothesis were in our minds before; but it is the idea of putting together
what we had never before dreamed of putting together which flashes the new suggestion
before our contemplation (Pieces, S.,C., 1893). In other words, abductive reasoning can be
seen as a spontaneous idea which cannot be explained on the spot, but whose lack of
consistency and knowledge can be improved and completed later on. We talk here about
a result which might lead to a general rule from a possible context.

1.5. How do we define the object of Philosophy of Science?

As mentioned before, science can be defined as a systemic and logical way of obtaining
and organizing knowledge about the physical world. It sums the all the information
discovered about the physical surroundings. Science is characterized by measurable
results, obtained with the help of detailed analysis and testing.
According to Merriam-Webster, philosophy can be defined as the study of a particular
set of ideas about knowledge, truth, the meaning of life, etc.
Considering these two definitions, one can deduce that Philosophy of Science is, in fact, a
branch of philosophy which includes in its study the logical implications of science

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through its methodologies and theories; the philosophy of science analyzes the principles
of the natural world through observations.

02. Framing a project

A. Case Study Approach
A.1. How do we explain our approach in Philosophy of science in regards of
case study?
The case study is a research strategy which has the potential to deal with both simple and
complex social phenomena. According to Robert K. Yin, the case study is an empirical
inquiry which studies, investigates a phenomenon within its real-life context, by using
multiple sources of evidence (Yin, 1984).
In order to conduct a well-organized case study, there are six steps which must be
followed:
1. Finding the research questions
2. Choosing the data gathering and analysis techniques
3. Prepare to collect the information
4. Collect the data
5. Evaluate and analyze the obtained information
6. Prepare the report (Soy, Susan K., 2006)
Summarizing the previously mentioned steps and taking the example of Project 2A which
assigned the digital concept development students to work with Aalborg Sustainability
Festival, one can observe that the group number 11 has identified from the very beginning
the problem and the working questions. How and why and what questions were asked:

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The group members decided early in their working

process what should be the major paradigm they
were going to approach throughout the project.
Having to choose between Natural, Humanistic, and
Social sciences, the most appropriate one seemed to
be the latter one. This being the case, the positivism
paradigm fitted the most the groups reasoning and
imposed

the

deductive

logic

as

the

main

argumentative logic. In this sense, it was established

that survey was the most effective way of gathering
the desired information and will help in obtaining answers to all questions and
generalized information about the clients target audience.

B. Design Research
B.1. How does design qualify as a scientific approach?
Buchanan says that Design is the human power of conceiving, planning, and making
products that serve human beings in the accomplishment of their individual and collective
purposes (Buchanan, R., 1999). Keeping this in mind, and remembering the definition of
science mentioned before, one can say that design is not only a way of organizing the
knowledge, but also a method of creating it and proving it. Like other scientific processes,
when it comes to design, the knowledge, and the information is obtained gradually.

B.2. How does the scientific experiment apply to digital concept

development?
In digital concept development experiments are used to test existing theories or products
and helps in deciding which version is the most appropriate one for a certain subject or
situation, if it is appropriate at all, or if a new hypothesis is needed. At the same time, the
experiments can be used to create new knowledge, to modify the already existing
knowledge, and to choose which one of the knowledge is the most suitable. In digital
concept development, there are five types of experiments:
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1. Iterative Design Experiment this method consists in testing and modifying a

product whenever needed to create the best version possible of the same product.
2. Accumulative Design Experiment testing different aspects of products, then
putting them together to make a better one.
3. Comparative Design Experiment this method experiments how a certain concept
is incorporated in multiple situations.
4. Probing Experiments if a study field is too big, only certain representative
situations will be tested.
5. Expansive experiments this method widens ones perspective, as it is meant to
reveal an area yet-uncovered.

C. Research Approach
C.1. How do we decide on methods for collecting data?
In order to decide which is the best way of collecting data in a certain situation, one must
choose a paradigm which will guide its research. Every paradigms purpose is to indicate
what types of methods are the most suitable to obtain the desired answers. Taking the
case of Aalborg Sustainability Festival with whom the students had the opportunity to
collaborate during the Project 2A, one can observe that the group 11 started their
research as part of the Positivism paradigm. Later on, because the students desired to
gather more data and find out why people were being sustainable, they drifted to
Constructivism. If until then the survey represented the main source of obtaining
information about the target audience, from now on, they needed to approach a new
method. The interview seemed to be the solution they were looking for.

C.2. How do we ensure that we get valid data?

In order to make sure that valid data is obtained, one must make sure that adequate
research methods were chosen, and that these particular methods respect the paradigm
imposed in the beginning of the research process. One must not forget to take into account
the context and the factors which might cause errors or mislead the results. Still, it is not
important what method one uses or if he uses the right one, but it is also essential how
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the method is applied. One example could be the difference in attitude of a user who
participates in an online survey and one who takes part to a face-to-face one. The one
answering the questions from behind a device, in a familiar environment, might feel more
comfortable to take his time and offer honest and elaborate answers, while a person
participating in a face-to-face survey might be more superficial and intimidated by the
organizers.

C.3. How do we process the collected data?

In order to process the data as correctly as possible, the processing data step needs to be
part of a bigger plan, that frames all the research so that the group can have a holistic view
of the project. Every step in the plan can influence the process. One example of such model
is the one from Mathiassen. Choosing the methods and the framing will have an impact on
how the data is processed.

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03. Writing a project

3.1. How do we set on a structure in the project writing?
Establishing a structure in the project writing can be easily done by respecting the
Mathiassen model earlier mentioned. First of all, the area of interest (A) which marks the
research question; from there a framing of the project needs to be done, alongside the
choosing of methods. The next steps are data collection (DC) and data analysis (DA), which
is done accordingly to the initial framing. The last step is the contribution (C) either to the
area of interest (A), to the framing (F), or the methods of the process (M).

3.2. How do we synthesize our research results into reports of few pages?
Deciding which information should go or not in the few pages of the project report might
be difficult. Still, the process of selecting the necessary information might be facilitated if
the model presented in the previous paragraph is applied. The use of other different
models such as Canvas, Personas, or Customer Journey map might come in handy as they
synthesize hours of research and analysis. Also, applying a work method such as HOME,
Waterfall, or Milestones might help one structuralize and select the most appropriate
content for the report.

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04. Literature list

Buchanan, Richard, Design Research and the New Learning, 1999, [Onlne], Available at:
http://www.ida.liu.se/~steho87/desres/buchanan.pdf, [Accessed 6/11/2016]
Cambridge Dictionary, [Online], Available at:
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/inference, [Accessed:06/11/2016]
Charles S. Peirce, 1893 - 1913, "Pragmatism as the Logic of Abduction," in The Essential
Peirce: Selected Philosophical Writings, Peirce Edition Project, Bloomington: Indiana
University Press
Mathiassen L., Chiasson M. & Germonprez M., 2012,Style Composition in Action Research
Publication: A Critical Analysis of Leading Information Systems Journals, MIS Quarterly;
Merriam-Webster, [Online], Available at: http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/philosophy, [Accessed at: 06/11/2016]
Philosophybasics, 2008, Epistemology [Online], Available at:
http://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_epistemology.html, [Accessed: 06/11/2016]
Sampson, Victor, Schleigh, Sharon, 2013, Scientific argumentation in Biology: 30
classroom activities, National Science Teachers Association, Arlington, USA, pages ix-x,
[Online], Available at: http://static.nsta.org/files/PB304Xweb.pdf,
[Accessed:06/11/2016]
Soy, Susan K., 2006, The case study as a research method, [Online], Available at:
https://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~ssoy/usesusers/l391d1b.htm, [Accessed:
06/11/2016]
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2014, Charles Sanders Pierce, [Online], Available at:
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/peirce/, [Accessed: 06/11/2016]
Teachtarget, Deductive reasoning, [Online], Available at:
http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/deductive-reasoning, [Accessed:06/11/2016]
Truncellito, David, Epistemology [Online], Available at:
http://www.iep.utm.edu/epistemo/#SH4a, [Accessed: 06/11/2016]
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Yin, R. K., 1984, Case study research: Design and methods, pg. 23, Newbury Park, CA:
Sage

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