LABORATORY MANUAL

FHSC1034
WAVES AND MODERN PHYSICS

FOUNDATION IN SCIENCE (STREAM P)

TRIMESTER 2 & 3

UNIVERSITI TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN

CENTRE FOR FOUNDATION STUDIES
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UNIVERSITI TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN

CENTRE FOR FOUNDATION STUDIES
LABORATORY SAFETY RULES
The following rules must be obeyed by all students in the science laboratory of the faculty. Willful or
repeated inadvertent noncompliance may result in dismissal or suspension from the laboratories.

I. No entry without permission:

i)

Outsiders are not allowed to enter the laboratory without permission.

ii)

Visitor must request for a lab coat from the laboratory officer before enter to the laboratory.

iii)

No student is allowed to enter the laboratory unless permission has been given by
laboratory officer or lecturer.

II. At work in the laboratory:

i)

No experiment may be attempted without the knowledge and permission of lecturer or lab
officer.

ii)

Laboratory coat must be worn at all times in the laboratory.

iii)

Students must wear covered shoes in the laboratory. Students wearing open toes shoes such
as slippers or sandals are not allowed to work in the laboratory.

iv)

Safety glasses must be worn when necessary.

v)

Mobile phones are to be switched off at all times in the laboratory.

vi)

Do not smoke, drink, eat, bite nails or pencils, or apply cosmetics in the laboratory.

vii)

Do not pipette chemicals with mouth.

viii)

Do not taste any chemicals, including diluted solutions. If any acid or alkali accidentally
enters your eyes or mouth, wash immediately with plenty of water. Inform your lecturer or
laboratory staff, and seek medical attention if necessary.

ix)

Any accident must report to the lecturer or lab officer immediately.

x)

Paper should never be used to light up the Bunsen burners.

xi)

Used match sticks, filter papers, and other solid waste must never be thrown into the sinks.
They must be thrown into the dustbins provided. Lighted match sticks and smoldering
materials must be extinguished with tap water before thrown into the dustbins.

xii)

Students must take responsibility for apparatus and equipment under their charge in the
laboratory.

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xiii)

Any glassware breakages, apparatus lost and equipment damages or malfunctioning must
be reported to the laboratory officer.

III. Before leaving the laboratory:

i)

Ensure all the equipments and working benches used are thoroughly cleaned and dried.

ii)

Wash hands and arms with soap and water before leaving the laboratory.

iii)

All stools must be kept under the benches.

iv)

No student is allowed to take away any chemicals, equipment or other property of the
laboratory without permission.

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Introduction
1. Making measurements
Physics is a field of science, which is quantitative in nature. In any quantitative study,
measurements are made and these measurements should always be regarded as estimations.
The precision of the final result of an experiment cannot be better than the precision of the
measurement made during the experiment, so the aim of the experiment is to make estimations
as good as possible. Therefore, measurement should be repeated at least once to increase its
precision and accuracy.
There are many factors that contribute to the accuracy of a measurement. The accuracy
in a particular experiment may be due to the observer, or to the instrument used, or to a
combination of both.
Errors have a special meaning in science. Errors have a different meaning from
mistakes where errors cannot be avoided in measurements. Students doing experiments MUST
record the uncertainties and errors in their measurement. Students MUST take errors and
uncertainties into account when calculating and presenting their results in laboratory reports.

2. Scrutinize and inscribe the readings

(i) Vernier caliper

Parts of a vernier caliper:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

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Outside jaws: used to measure external lengths

Inside jaws: used to measure internal lengths
Depth probe: used to measure depths
Main scale (cm)
Main scale (inch)
Vernier (cm)
Vernier (inch)
Retainer: used to block movable part to allow the easy transferring a
measurement

Both the main scale and the vernier scale readings are taken into account while making
measurement. The main scale is the first reading on the main scale immediately to the left of
the zero of the vernier scale while the vernier scale reading is mark on the vernier scale which
exactly coincides or aligns with a mark on the main scale.
Example:

2.4 cm
2.47 cm

0.07 cm

(ii) Micrometer screw gauge

In order to measure an object, the object is placed between the anvil and spindle (jaws).
The thimble is rotated using the ratchet until the object is lightly gripped. DO NOT
OVER TIGHTEN! Note that the ratchet (NOT THE THIMBLE) should be used to
secure the object firmly between the jaws, otherwise the instrument could be damaged or
give an inconsistent reading. It is recommended 3 clicks of the ratchet are obtained before
taking the reading.

Procedure on how to read the scale on micrometer screw gauge is shown in the figure below.

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3. Data and error analysis

Performing the experiment and collecting data is only the beginning of the process of
completing an experiment in science. Understanding the results of any given experiment is
always the central goal of the experiment. Presenting those results in a clear concise manner
completes the experiment. This overview of the complete process is as valid in an instructional
laboratory course as in a research environment. You will not have learned any physics if you
did not understand the experiment.
Data analysis should not be delayed until all of the data is recorded. Try to do a quick
analysis and plot as the data is being collected. This will help to avoid the problem of spending
a long time collecting bad data because of a mistake in experimental procedure or an
equipment failure.
Data analysis means understanding what your results mean. When you analyze the data,
try to think through the physical processes which have occurred. Write your train of thought
down. Ultimately, the goal is for you to understand physics and the world a bit better. Your
understanding of your results probably occurs in stages, with each stage being a refinement.
Sometimes your results will not support and may even contradict the physical
explanations suggested. Accept the results but with a few suggestions to the reasons for this
apparent failure of the physical laws. Do NOT simply blame the equipments. Try to explain
what went wrong or what competing effects have come into play.
The quality of the data, determines to a great extent, what conclusions can be reached
from them. If you are looking for a small effect, say a total change of 1 mm, and the
uncertainties in your data is 2 mm then you really cannot make any solid conclusion. A
measurement of experimental results is of little value if nothing is known about the probable
size of its error.

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The quality of a measurement depends on the precision and accuracy of the

measurement. A good measurement must be close to the true value and be reproducible.
(i) Quantifying the uncertainty
All measurements have uncertainties or errors. The uncertainty given in any
measurement indicates the type of instrument used for the measurement as well as the possible
range of value measured. Basically, for analogue measuring instruments, except for vernier
caliper and micrometer screw gauge, the uncertainty is half of the smallest division of the scale.
For digital instruments, the uncertainty is given by the smallest different in the reading.
(ii) Error propagation rules

The Absolute Error of a quantity Z is given by (Z), always 0.

The Relative Error of a quantity Z is given by

To determine the error in a quantity Z that is the sum of other quantities, add the
absolute errors of those quantities (Rules 2 below). To determine the error in a quantity
Z that is the product of other quantities, add the relative errors of those quantities
(Rules 3, 4, 5 below).

1.

Relation
Z = cA

2.
3.

Z = A B C
Z = A B C

4.

5.

Z Ax B y C z

AB
C

Z
Z

, always 0.

Error
Z c A (Use only is A is a single term, i.e. Z = 3x)

Z A B C ...
A B C

... Z
B
C
A

... Z
B
C
A

B
C
A

Z x
y
z
... Z
A
B
C

a, b, c, ..., z represent constants.

A, B, C, ..., Z represent measured or calculated quantities
(A), (B), (C), , (Z) represent the errors in A, B, C, ..., Z respectively.
(iii) Percentage error and percentage difference
In several of the laboratory exercises, the true value of the quantity being measured will
be considered to be known. In those cases, the accuracy of the experiment will be determined
by comparing the experimental result with the known value. Normally this will be done by
calculating the percentage error of your measurement compared to the given known value. If

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E stands for the experimental value, and K stands for the known value, then the percentage
error is given by

Percentageerror

EK
K

100 %

In other cases we will measure a given quantity by two different methods. There will
then be two different experimental values, E1 and E2, but the true value may not be known. For
this case, we will calculate the percentage difference between the two experimental values.
Note that this tells nothing about the accuracy of the experiment, but will be a measure of the
precision. The percentage difference between the two measurements is defined as

Percentagedifference

E2 E1
E1 E2 2

100 %

4. Graphical representation and analysis of uncertainties in slopes and intercepts

In the physical sciences, it is helpful to represent data in the form of a graph when
interpreting the overall trend of the data. Data analysis graphs are useful to determine the
relationships exist between various quantities, how the data is distributed, and so forth, which
may be hard to figure out merely by speculating the tabulated values only.
There are a few essential aspects when plotting a graph:
Choice of scale
Choose a scale for each of the axes with the main divisions on the graph paper that are
easily subdivided and such that the entire range of values may be in included. If the values to
be plotted are exceptionally large or small, use some multiplying factor that permits using a
maximum of two or three digits to indicate the value of the main division.
Label the title, and naming the abscissa scale (X-axis) and the ordinate scale (Yaxis)
After you have decided which variable is to be plotted on which axis, neatly letter the
name of the quantity being plotted together with the proper unit. Abbreviate units in standard
form, e.g. meters (m). Students should always ensure that the correct units are used in the
experimental work.
(i) Plotting and drawing the graph the best-fit line
In drawing the graph, it is not always possible to make all the points lie on a smooth
curve. In such cases, a smooth curve should be drawn through the series of points to follow the
general trend and thus represent an average.

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Before plotting a linear graph, its important to determine the centroid point of the
data set. Centroid is the point, which shows the mean of X-values and Y-values. The function
of centroid is to reduce the effect of data scattering.

X X 2 ... X N Y1 Y2 ... YN
Centroid, x , y 1
,

N
N

Add centroid point to linear graph and circle the centroid so as to differentiate it from
other points. Then, draw the best straight line which must pass through the centroid.

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Table of Content:
Practical

Topic
To investigate the law of reflection and refraction.

To investigate how the resonant frequency f of a vibrating wire is affected by the

tension T of the wire.

To determine the velocity of sound using a resonance tube.

To demonstrate that light waves are transverse waves.

To study the magnification of real image by a convex lens.

To determine the focal length of converging and diverging lenses.

To study the diffraction pattern formed by a diffraction grating and to determine the
wavelength of a monochromatic light source.

To study the photoelectric effect and estimate the Plancks constant via PhET
Photoelectric Effect simulation.

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Practical 1
________________________________________________________________________
To investigate the laws of reflection and refraction.
Objectives:

To study the law of reflection.

To study the law of refraction.

Apparatus and Materials:

1.
White paper
2.
Ray box
3.
Mirror
4.
Ruler
5.
Protractor
6.
Perspex block
Part 1
Setup:
N

Mirror

ii

Normal
Ray box
Figure 2-1
Place a mirror near the center of a sheet of white paper as shown in Figure 2-1.

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Theory:
The laws of reflection:
Normal to surface

Angle of
incidence

Light ray

Angle of
reflection

Figure 2-2
When a narrow beam of light strikes a flat surface, the incident and reflected rays lie in the
same plane with the normal to the surface, and i r .
Procedure:
1.
Draw a line along the side of the mirror.
2.
Adjust the ray box to give a narrow, parallel beam of light incident upon the mirror.
3.
Mark the positions of the incident (A and B) and reflected (C and D) rays.
4.
Remove the mirror, draw a straight line to join A and B.
5.
Draw another straight line to join C and D. Both lines meet at N, the point of incidence.
6.
Using a protractor, draw the normal at N. Measure the angle of incident, i and the angle
of reflection, r.
7.
Repeat the above procedures to obtain five (5) other values of i and r.
8.
Plot a graph of i versus r.
Part 2
Setup:
Perspex block

i
r
Ray box

Figure 3-1

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Place the perspex block on the paper as shown in Figure 3-1.

Theory:
The laws of refraction:
Incident ray

Normal

Reflected ray

Medium 1n1
Medium 2 n2
r
Refracted ray

Figure 3-2: Light ray bends toward the normal when entering from medium 1 into
medium 2 where n2 n1 .
When light passes from one transparent medium into second transparent medium, the direction
of light will be changed in the second medium. This change of direction of light is called
refraction.

Incident ray

Normal

Reflected ray

Medium 1 n1

Medium 2 n2

r
Refracted ray

Figure 3-3: Light ray bends away from the normal when entering from medium 1 into
medium 2 where n1 n2 .

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c speed of light in a vacuum

Index of refraction, n

v speed of light in a medium

Willebrord Snell (1580-1626), a physicist, discovered the relation between the angles, i, r and
the speeds of light in two medium:
sin i v1
(Snell's law)

sin r v2

or

n1 sin i n2 sin r

Procedure:
1. Draw the perspex block's outline on the paper.
2. Adjust the ray box to give a narrow beam of light incident on the perspex block at N.
3. Mark the position of the incident beam with points P and Q and the emergent beam with
points R and S.
4. Remove the perspex block, draw a line PQNMRS which represents the path of the ray of
light as shown in Figure 3-1.
5. Draw the normal at N.
6. Measure the angle of incidence, i and the angle of refraction, r.
7. Repeat the above procedures to obtain five (5) other values of i and r.
8. Plot a graph of sin i versus sin r.
Further question:
1.
Are the laws of refraction obeyed?
2.
Compute the index of refraction of the Perspex.
(Given index of refraction of air, nair = 1.00)

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Practical 2
________________________________________________________________________
To investigate how the resonant frequency f of a vibrating wire is affected by the tension
T of the wire.
Objectives:

To study stationary waves in a string.

To find the mass per unit length of a string using standing waves in the string.
Apparatus and Materials:
1.
Function generator
2.
Thread
3.
Pulley
4.
Wooden wedge
5.
Slotted mass
6.
Meter rule
7.
Vibration generator
Setup:

Figure 9-1

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Theory:
Velocity of a wave:

v f

If
F

= tension in the string

= mass per unit length of the string
= velocity of the wave

Then,

If
L = distance between two nodes along a standing waves
Then,

2L
f

1
2L

Let:
F = weight of the load; F = w = m g
m = mass of the load
Then,

1 w
2L

w 4f L
Procedure:
1.
Place 10 g of slotted mass to the thread, switch on the function generator. Place the
wooden wedge below the thread and next to the pulley.
2.
Adjust the position of the wooden wedge so that a steady stationary wave is observed.
Measure the distance between two successive nodes, L. Record the total mass m of the
load. Calculate the total weight w of the load.
3.
Repeat the measurement by adding extra slotted masses. Obtain eight (8) sets of
readings of m, L and w.
4.
Tabulate: m, w, L, and L.
5.
Plot a graph of w against L.
6.
Calculate the gradient of the graph.
7.
Deduce the mass per unit length, of the thread used if the frequency of the function
generator is 30 Hz.

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Practical 3
________________________________________________________________________
To determine the velocity of sound using a resonance tube
Objective:
To determine the velocity of sound in air.
Apparatus and Materials:
1.
1000 ml measuring cylinder
2.
Audio generator
3.
Small speaker
4.
Meter rule
5.
Retort stand and clamp
6.
Water
Setup:
1.
Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 2-1.
2.
Pour some water into the tall cylinder, such that the air column, l is about 30 cm.

= 1 cm

Figure 2-1
Theory:
Place the speaker directly above the cylinder, about 1 cm above the rim of the cylinder. Switch
on the audio generator. Adjust the frequency of the generator from 0 Hz, until a loud sound is
heard. This is the occurrence of resonance. The frequency of the audio generator at which
resonance occurs is the resonance frequency, f. When this occur, the length of the air column, l
plus the end correction, c, is equal to

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.
4

16

Figure 2-2

l c

l c

v
f

v
4f

v
c
4f

Procedure:
1.
Measure the length l of the air column.
2.
Adjust the frequency of the audio generator from 0 Hz until a loud sound is heard. This
is resonance. Record the resonance frequency f from the audio generator.
3.
Vary the length of the air column l by adding more water to the cylinder. Repeat step
[2] to obtain the resonance frequency f, and obtain eight (8) sets of readings of l and f.
1
4.
Tabulate: l, f, and .
f
1
5.
Plot a graph of l against .
f
6.
From your graph, determine the velocity of sound in air and the end correction, c.

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Practical 4
________________________________________________________________________
To demonstrate that light waves are transverse waves.
Objective:

To investigate polarization of light

Apparatus and Materials:
1.
Flat mirror
2.
Cylindrical lens
3.
Light source flashlight in a shoebox with a slit cut out
4.
Slit plate
5.
Slit mask
6.
Protractor
7.
Ruler
8.
Inclined plane
9.
Two sheets of polarizer or two pairs of polarizing glasses
Theory:
To illustrate the phenomenon of polarization let us first consider a wave traveling in a rope. Let
us assume that the oscillations in the rope can be induced only in a vertical or only in a
horizontal plane (see Figure 4-1a and 4-1b). If you now place a vertical slit in the path of such
waves only vertically polarized waves would pass through (see Figure 4-1c and 4-1d).
Similarly, if you place a horizontal slit in the path of these wave only horizontally polarized
waves would pass through. If both slits are used, both types of waves will be stopped. Notice
that only a transverse and not longitudinal waves can be polarized, thus our ability to polarize
light proves that, unlike sound waves, light is a transverse wave.
Light being a transverse wave means that the electromagnetic disturbances that compose light
occur in a direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Specifically, polarization for
light, refers to the orientation of the electric field in the electromagnetic wave. The magnetic
field in an electromagnetic wave is always perpendicular to the electric field. Figure 4-1e and
4-1f show vertical and horizontal polarization, respectively.
Most light sources such as sunlight or an incandescent bulb produce light that is unpolarized.
That is because a beam of light produced by such source consists of a multitude of waves
emitted by molecules vibrating in all possible directions. Polarization of light can be achieved
by placing a special material called a polarizer in the beams path. A polarizer filters out all but
one preferred orientation of oscillation by acting as a series of parallel very narrow slits.
Polarization can also be achieved by reflection. For example when sunlight strikes a surface of
a lake at an angle other then perpendicular. the reflected beam becomes polarized to some
extent in the direction parallel to the surface. That is why people use polaroid glasses in order
to avoid glare.

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Figure 4-1
Procedure:
Your optics equipment includes two polarizers, which transmit only light that is polarized
along a specific axis. Light that is polarized along any other direction is absorbed by the
polaroid material. Therefore, if unpolarized light enters the polarizer, the light that passes
through is polarized along the polarization axis.
1.
Turn the light source on and view it without polarizers.
2.
Place polarizer 1 in the path of light to filter the light. Rotate the polarizer the 2nd
polarizer while viewing the light source through it. Note and discuss the changes in light's
intensity. Fill up data in the table provided below.

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Angle (o)

Using two polarizer

Percentage of

Observations

If
Io

15
30
45
60
75
90

3.
Place polarizer 1st in the path of light to filter the light. Rotate polarizer 2nd steady and
looking through both 3rd polarizers based on the angle as given below. Fill up data in the table
provided below.
Angle for
polarizer (o)

Using three
polarizer

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15
30
45
60
75
90

2nd Angle for 3rd Percentage

polarizer
If
respect with
Io
the
1st
polarizer(o)
30
45
60
75
90
105

of Observations

20

Practical 5
________________________________________________________________________
To study the magnification of a real image by a convex lens
Objective:

To determine the focal length of a convex lens.

Apparatus and Materials:
1. Light box
2. Convex lens
3. Plasticine
4. Meter rule
5. Screen
6. Short transparent ruler
Setup:
1.
Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 4-1.

Figure 4-1
Theory:
From lens equation:

1 1 1

u v f
Where:
u = object distance
v = image distance

v
v
1
u
f
Linear magnification, m

v
u

m 1

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v
f

v
1
f

21

Procedure:
1.
Set up the apparatus as in Figure 4-1.
2.
Switch on the light source.
3.
Choose a length of 1cm on the scale of the transparent ruler as object, therefore
object size, ho = 1cm.
4.
Set a value for the object distance, u. Adjust the image distance until a sharp image is
obtained on the screen.
5.
Measure the image distance, v.
6.
Measure the length, hi, or size of the 1cm image.
h
image size
7.
Find the linear magnification, m for each image where m i
.
ho object size
8.
Vary the object distance, repeat steps [4] to [7], and obtain six (6) sets of readings of u,
v, hi, and m.
9.
Tabulate: u, v, hi, and m.
10.
Plot a graph of m against v.
11.
Determine the gradient of the graph.
12.
Calculate the focal length f of the lens.

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Practical 6
________________________________________________________________________
To determine the focal length of converging lens and diverging lens
Objectives:

To measure the focal length of a diverging lens and converging lens

Apparatus and Materials:

1.
Light box
2.
Converging lens
3.
Diverging lens
4.
Plasticine
5.
Meter rule
6.
Screen
7.
Short transparent ruler
Theory:
Light refracts when passing between media with different indices of refraction (n) and this
property can be utilized to bend light in useful ways. A converging lens, seen in Figure 1-1,
can be used to focus parallel light rays and form a real image as the light travels from air
(n=1.00) to glass (n=1.50) and back to air. When light rays, traveling parallel to the principal
axis of the lens, are refracted they cross at a point called the focus.

Figure 1-1: Focal length of a converging

lens

Figure 1-2: Focal length of a

diverging lens

An important property of a lens is its focal length2, f. The focal length of a thin lens, derived
from simple geometry, is the distance from the optical centre of the lens to the focal point,
and is given by the equation (thin lens equation - TLE):
1
1 1

do di
f

where do is the object distance and di is the image distance from the lens.
Laboratory experiments using converging lenses (focal length is positive) allow students to
readily correlate their experimental data with values found using the thin lens equation.
However, the principal focus of a diverging lens, (Figure 1-2), is virtual (f is negative) and for
all positions of an object, the image formed is virtual, upright, and smaller. The image is always
located between the principal focus and the optical centre of the lens on the same side of lens as
the object, and as the image is virtual, it cannot be projected onto a screen.
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Object

Principal Focus

Image

(virtual)

Figure 1-3: Viewing virtual image of diverging lens

When experimenting with diverging lenses (Figure 1-3) the image can be seen but its
position is hard to determine. (It may be possible to see the image of the object on the
object-facing side of the diverging lens if that side is slightly reflective. The image is the
same as that formed by a concave mirror with the same focal length.)
Procedure:
Part 1:
1.
To determine the focal length of a converging lens, we need to form a real image for
the converging lens on a screen. Figure 1-4 shows how the real image is formed.

Image
Object

Screen

Converging
Lens

d
o

di

Figure 1-4: Creating the real image with a converging lens

The distance of the image (di) from the converging lens can be found through focusing
the image onto a screen. The focal length of the converging lens can be determined by
using the TLE knowing the object distance (do) and image distance (di). The value of
focal length of converging lens will be used in part 2 for determining the focal length of
diverging lens.
2.

Repeat the step 1 with slightly different value of do and di to get the second data for
focal length, f. Then, take the average value of f.

Part 2:
1.
To determine the focal length of a diverging lens we need to form a virtual object for
the diverging lens. This can be done by making real image of the object with a

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converging lens as in part 1. Figure 1-5 shows how the real image (virtual object) is
formed.

Image
Object

Screen

Converging
Lens

d
di

Figure 1-5: Creating the virtual object with a converging lens

The distance of the image (di) from the converging lens can be found through focusing
the image onto a screen. The focal length of the converging lens can be verified using
the TLE knowing the object distance (do) and image distance (di).
2.

Add the diverging lens between the converging lens and its image, some distance (d)
from the converging lens - Figure 1-6. The new real image is formed further from the
converging lens. Adjust the position of the screen and diverging lens to form a clear
image. The position of the real image formed (dR) is recorded.

Diverging
Lens

d
o

dV
dR

Figure 1- 6: Add the diverging lens

3.

4.
5.

Determine the position of the diverging lens virtual object. This is the distance of
virtual object (dv) from the diverging lens and is calculated by dV = (d di); Note that
dV is negative*.
Use the TLE, with dV and dR, to determine the focal length (fd) of the diverging lens.
Move the main object, and/or converging lens position and repeat steps 1-4. Get the
second data for focal length of diverging lens, f. Then, take the average value of f.

Sign conventions for images and objects: The object distance is positive if the object is on the
incoming side of the lens (object is real), and negative if the object is on the outgoing side
(object is virtual). Image distance is positive if the image is on the outgoing side of the lens
(image is real), and negative if the image is on the incoming side (image is virtual).
Another way to think of sign conventions is to consider the left side of the lens as object space
and the right side image space. An image or (virtual) object in the wrong space will have a
negative distance. Hence, dV is negative.

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Practical 7
________________________________________________________________________
To study the diffraction pattern formed by a diffraction grating and to determine the
wavelength of a monochromatic light source
Objective:

To determine the wavelength of a laser beam.

Apparatus and Materials:
1.
Diffraction grating
2.
Laser pen
3.
Screen
4.
Meter rule
5.
Retort stand and clamp
Setup:
1.
Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 5-1.
2.
The incident ray from the laser pointer should be normal to the diffraction grating.
3.
The distance D between the grating and the screen should be well adjusted to give the
bright spots maximum possible separation.

Figure 5-1

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Theory:
When a narrow parallel beam of light from a monochromatic light source is directed to a
diffraction grating, a diffraction pattern consisting of a linear series of bright spots is observed
on the screen.

Figure 5-2
If

d
N

= angle between the mth order maximum (bright spot) from the center
(Angular position of the mth order maximum)
= mth order
= wavelength of the light source
= separation of the slits of the grating
= number of lines or slits per meter

Then,

d sin m

1
N

Procedure:
1.
When you switch on the laser pen, you will see several bright spots on the screen.
2.
Determine the distances l1, l2, l3, l4 and l5 of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th order maximum
from the center of the diffraction pattern.
3.
Measure the distance D from the grating to the screen.
l
4.
For each order, calculate the angular position of that order, using tan .
D
5.
Tabulate: order number m, l, and sin .
6.
Plot a graph of sin against m.
7.
Determine the gradient of the graph.
8.
Calculate the wavelength, of the light source.

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Practical 8
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To study the photoelectric effect and estimate the Plancks constant via PhET
Photoelectric Effect simulation.
Objectives:

To be able to explain how the photoelectric effect experiment works and why a photon
model of light is necessary to explain the results.

To study the effect of intensity of light on photoelectric experiment.

To estimate the Plancks constant, h through the simulation.

To be determine how to calculate the wavelength of light, the work function of the metal,
or the stopping potential, if given the other two.
Apparatus and Material:
1. PhET Photoelectric Effect simulation
(to be downloaded from http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/photoelectric)
Procedure:
Beginning with the plate made of sodium. Keep all the parameters constant except for the
colour (wavelength) of the light and display all the graphs available.
1. Have the light source turned on at very low intensity and battery set to ZERO volts. Vary
the wavelength of the light source (from Infra Red to Ultra Violet) until electrons just begin
to be ejected from the sodium surface. State the wavelength and note the speed of the
electrons. What is the corresponding frequency of the electromagnetic wave? Why is it
called threshold frequency?
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2. Repeat the instruction 1 above but allow the light to shine on the metal for a longer time
before the wavelength is varied. Is your finding different as found in 1? Justify your finding.
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3. Repeat the instruction 1 above again but vary the intensity of light this time. Is your finding
different as found in 1 and 2?
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4. As you shorten the wavelength of the light source, what change did you notice about
electron speed? Explain the possible cause of the change.
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5. Tabulate the wavelength required to just start a current flow for the 6 available surfaces.
(Note: Be sure battery voltage is set to zero.)
Surface
Wavelength (nm)
Surface
Wavelength (nm)
Sodium
Platinum
Zinc
Calcium
Copper
?????
6. Arrange the surfaces in the order of the least to the most optically sensitive.
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7. What is the probable composition of the unknown surface?
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8. Adjust the battery to +8.00 V and shine a 400 nm bright light (intensity = 100%) on a
sodium surface. Elaborate the changes on the electrons as you reduce the voltage of the
battery from +8.00 V to -8.00 V.
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9. What are the variations in observation as the wavelength decreases?
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10. State the stopping potential of the surfaces of sodium and calcium with the same settings as
in instruction 8.
Surface
Sodium
Calcium

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11. Compute the maximum kinetic energy of electrons of 400 nm bright light for the sodium
and calcium surfaces based on the data obtained in instructions 8 and 10.
Surface

Calculation

Maximum K.E.

Sodium
Calcium

12. Set the graph to display and vary the frequency of light. Based on the graph of electron
energy versus light frequency obtained for sodium target, estimate the value of the Plancks
constant. Find the percentage of discrepancy between the value obtained and the actual
value as well.

13. What can you conclude from this experiment?

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