Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Obstruction Meters
Orifice Meters
Inexpensive
Easy to install
Large pressure losses
Venturi Meters
High accuracy
Expensive to construct
Good pressure recovery
Flow Nozzles
Difficult to install properly
High Accuracy
Good Pressure recovery
Governing Equations
Conservation of Mass
(Incompressible Flow)
(VA)1 = (VA)2
Equation of Motion
(Assuming no friction)
P 2 P1 V V
=
+ g ( z 2 z1 )
2
2
2
2
1
Cd A2
1
2
Q=
1 ( A2 A1 )2
where
A1 = pipe/inlet flow area
A 2 = orifice/constriction flow area
P1 and P2 = Pressure at A1and A 2 , respectively.
C d = Coefficient of Discharge = f(Reynolds Number)
Honeycomb or
capillary tube
bundles
Governing Equations
P d 4
Q=
128 L
where
Qactual
Q = flow rate, m /s
d = hydraulic diamete, m
P = pressure drop, Pa
= viscosity, Pa s
L = pipe length, m
3
cal .
= Qcalibrated
act .
Pitot-Static Tubes
Principle of Operation
Assumes:
Bernoulli Equation
P+
V 2
2
+ gz = cons tan t
Steady flow
Incompressible flow
Frictionless flow
Flow along streamline
V=
2( Pstagnation P)
fluid
fluid
Pitot-Static Applications
Calibrated for a
specific fluid
**Correction need for different fluids.
m use = m cal
use
cal
Principle of Operation
Fdrag + Fbuoyancy = W float (Force Balance)
Fdrag = C D
V A frontal
2
Cost=$1500
Accuracy=0.5%
Vortex Meters
Magnetic Flowmeter
Coriolis Effect
Tube Vibration:
Process fluid entering the
sensor causes the tubes to
oscillate up and down and
with a twist.
Sensor Operation
Magnet and coil assemblies,
called pick-offs, are mounted on
the flow tubes. Wire coils are
mounted on the side legs of one
flow tube, and magnets are
mounted on the side legs of the
opposing flow tube.
Each coil moves through the
uniform magnetic field of the
adjacent magnet. The voltage
generated from each pickoff coil
creates a sine wave. Because the
magnets are mounted on one
tube, and the coils on the
opposing tube, the sine waves
generated represent the motion
of one tube relative to the other.
No flow condition
Both pickoffs - the one on the
inlet side and the one on the
outlet side - generate sine
wave current continuously
when the tubes are
oscillating. When there is no
flow, the sine waves are in
phase.
During no flow condition
there is no Coriolis effect.
Sine waves are in phase with
each other.
Wire supports
(St.St. needles)
Velocity U
Sensor (thin wire)
Thermal Anemometers
In addition to velocity, the following can be
measured: temperature, density, concentration in
binary gas mixtures, wall shear stress, vorticity,
pressure, heat flux, etc. Sensors can also be used
to detect boundary layer transition and flow
separation.
Principles of operation
Consider a thin wire mounted to supports and exposed to a
velocity U.
When a current is passed through wire, heat is generated
(I2Rw). In equilibrium, this must be balanced by heat loss
(primarily convective) to the surroundings.
I R = hA(Twire T fluid )
2
If velocity changes,
convective heat transfer
coefficient will change,
wire temperature will
change and eventually
reach a new equilibrium.
Rwire = Rwire(Twire)
Principle:
Current through
sensor is kept
constant
Advantages:
- High frequency
response
Disadvantages:
- Difficult to use
- Output decreases with velocity
- Risk of probe burnout
Advantages:
- Easy to use
- High frequency
response
- Low noise
- Accepted standard
Disadvantages:
- More complex circuit
H
Convection
( convection to fluid
= +conduction to supports
+ radiation to surroundings)
Qc = Nu A (Tw -Ta)
Nu = h d/kf = f (Re, Pr, M, Gr, ),
Re = U/
Conduction
Radiation
f(Tw4 - Tf4)
W =H
h
A
d
kf
Nu
Forced convection regime, i.e. Re >Gr 1/3 (0.02 in air) and Re<140
Nu = A 1 + B 1 Ren = A 2+ B 2 Un
I2Rw 2 = E2 = (Tw -Ta)(A + B Un )
n=1/2
Kings law
2,4
E volts
2,2
1,8
1,6
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
U m /s
40
Probe types I
Miniature Wire Probes
Platinum-plated tungsten,
5 m diameter, 1.2 mm length
Gold-Plated Probes
3 mm total wire length,
1.25 mm active sensor
copper ends, gold-plated
Advantages:
- accurately defined sensing length
-reduced heat dissipation by the prongs
- more uniform temperature distribution
along wire
- less probe interference to the flow field
Probe types II
For optimal frequency response, the probe should have as small a
thermal inertia as possible.
Important considerations:
Wire length should be as short as possible (spatial resolution;
want probe length << eddy size)
Aspect ratio (l/d) should be high (to minimize effects of end losses)
Wire should resist oxidation until high temperatures (want to
operate wire at high T to get good sensitivity, high signal to noise
ratio)
Temperature coefficient of resistance should be high (for high
sensitivity, signal to noise ratio and frequency response)
Wires of less than 5 m diameter cannot be drawn with reliable
diameters
Fiber-Film Probes
Hybrid - film deposited on a thin
wire-like quartz rod (fiber) split fiber-film
probes.
Probe types IV
X-probes for 2D flows
2 sensors perpendicular to each other.
Measures within 45o.
Characteristics of LDA
Applications of LDA
d (known)
t (measured)
Detector
Time
Bragg
Cell
Laser
measuring volume
backscattered light
s=
2 sin( / 2)
= wavelength of laser
= angle between beams
Incident beams
Incident beams
If fringe distance, s, is
known, then the particle will
cross U/s fringes per
second. The particle will
generate a signal of
frequency, f =U/s.
Direction of motion
Signal Characteristics
Goal: Select laser power, seeding, optical parameters, etc. to maximize the SNR.
True
displacement
Displacement
seen from right
Focal plane =
Centre of
light sheet
45
Left
camera
45
Right
camera
True 3D displacement (X,Y,Z) is estimated from a pair of 2D displacements (x,y) as seen from left and right camera respectively
Left camera's
field of view
Right camera's
field of view
0.10
0.05
Overlap area
0.0
-0.05
-0.10
Careful alignment is
required to maximize
the overlap area.
-0.15
-0.20
Interrogation grid is
chosen to match the
spatial resolution.
-0.20
-0.10
0.00
0.10
0.20
Object plane
(Lightsheet
plane)
Object
coordinates
(X,Y,Z)
3D evaluation requires
a numerical model,
describing how objects
in space are mapped
onto the CCD-chip of Left image
coordinates
each camera
Right image
coordinates
(x,y)
(x,y)
Lens plane
left & right
Image plane
left & right
3D reconstruction
Overlap area with
interrogation grid
Resulting 3D vector map
Seeding
PIV-Laser
(Double-cavity Nd:Yag)
Flow Visualization
Qualitative means to see what the flow
field looks like.
Provide information on where to locate
invasive flow sensors.
Direction Indicators
Wind Vanes
Threads attached to
thin rods
Threads attached to
surfaces
Particle Tracers
Smoke (gas flows)
Oil, incense
Dust particles
Bubbles-in water
Liquid dyes-milk is good