Lecture Notes on Lateral Dynamics

Recommended to read:
Wong Chapter 5
Gillespie, Chapter 6
Bosch, 5th ed: pp 350-361 (4th ed: 342-353)

X: Longitudinal
.
.
.

Y:
Fr

Z: vertical
.
.
.

Ff
v

L
R
R=L

Numbers 1.-3. are

lecture numbers

Steady
state
1 Low speed turning.
1 high speed turning.
1 bicycle model no
.states
1. over & under
steering

Transient
handling

Subsystem
characteristics

2. transient
1. Ackermann
cornering
geometry
2. bicycle model
with two states 1. Lateral tire slip
2. lane change
2.

- advanced
- dynamic over
- lateral slope
tire models
- steering geometry &
- bicycle model with
3 states
- models with > 3 states
- side wind
- closed-loop with
drivers in the
- driver models

Interaction
with x direction
3. influences
from load

Other courses
- acc./brake
in a curve
- mu- Combined
longitudinal &
lateral tire slip
1

General questions
Sketch your view of the open- and closed-loop system, i.e. without and with the driver.
Use a control system block diagram or similar

surroundings
(e.g. air, road)

visual

driver

steering
wheel
angle
acc.
pedal

steering system
driveline
brake system

steering
angle
suspension,
linkage
and
wheel
torque tires

forces
and
moments
vehicle
body

brake
pedal
noise, vibrations

noise, vibrations

inertia forces

open-loop system = only the thick, solid lines

closed-loop system = whole diagram
(NOTE: this kind of diagram is never complete and can always be debated)

Open-loop vs closed loop studies of lateral dynamics. Closed-loop studies involve the
driver response to feedback in the system. See text in Gillespie, p195, Bosch 5th ed p
354 (4th ed p 346).
This course will only treat open-loop vehicle dynamics. How can we upgrade to closedloop? For example: driver models, simulators or experiments

Questions on low speed turning

Draw a top view of a 4 wheeled vehicle during a turning manoeuvre. How should
the wheel steering angles be related to each other for perfect rolling at low
speeds?
Ackermann steering geometry
Gillespie, fig 6.1: Geometry of a turning vehicle

Turn
Centre

Bicycle
model:

At low speeds and reasonable traction,

there is no lateral slip. Each wheel
then moves as it is directed. Then:

Rf=Rf=R and = L/R (approx. for small angles)

Rf
L
R
v

Rr

Off-tracking distance, =R*[1-

Deviations from Ackerman geometry affect tire wear and steering system forces
significantly but less influence on directional response.

Consider a rigid truck with 1 steered front axle and 2 non-steered rear axles. How
do we predict the turning centre?

Assume: low speed, small steering angles, low traction.

We still cannot assume that each wheel is moving as it is directed. A lateral slip is
created at all axles. The turning centre is then not only dependent of geometry, but also
forces. The difference in the 3 axle vehicle compared to the two axle vehicle is that we
now have 3 unknown forces but only 2 relevant equilibrium equations. In other words,
the system is not statically determinate
Approx. for small angles:

Equilibrium: Fyf+Fyr1=Fyr2 and Fyf*lf+Fyr2*lr=0

Compatibility: (r1+r2)*lf/lr+r1=f -f
Constitutive relations: Fyf=Cf*f

Fyr1=Cr1*r1

Fyr2=Cr2*r2

Gillespie fig 6.2: Tire cornering force properties

800

Direction
of travel

Lateral
Force, F y

Slip Angle (-)

(lb) 400
C

Fy

1
0
0

8
4
Slip Angle, (deg)

12

C = cornering stiffness [N/rad]

Together,3 eqs and 3 unknowns (the three slip angles) can be obtained for the figure
below. Note that we assume a lateral force vector at each axle by choosing a slip angle:

Cf*f - Cr1*r1 + Cr2*r2 = 0 (Sum of forces in Y direction)

Cf*f*lf - Cr2*r2*lr= 0 (sum of moments about r1)
(r1+r2)*lf/lr + r1 = f - f (compatibility)
Test, e.g. prescribe steering angle. Calculate slip angles:

Vf

Fyf

= 10 degrees
f = 0.24 deg
r1 = 1.19 deg
r2 = 0.95 deg

r1

L=lf+lr

Did we assumed the correct sense of

slip angles?

Vr1

lf

Vr

Same C at all axles

All slip angles
to steering angle, e.g. for:

r2

Fyr

=tan[(lf+lr1)/R

lr
l
lr

Fyr

Steady state cornering at high speed

In a steady state curve at high speed, centripetal forces are needed to keep the
vehicle on the curved track. Where do we find them? How large must these be?
How are they developed in practice?

Gillespie, fig 6.4: Cornering of a bicycle model or Fig 5.5 in Wong

L/R

Fy

b=lf

Vx
R

c=lr

r
Vx, Vy and are constant,
since steady state

Fy

The centripetal force = Fc=m*R*2= m*Vx2/R. It has to be balanced by the wheel/road

lateral contact forces:
Equilibrium: Fyf+Fyr = Fc = m*Vx2/R

and Fyf*b-Fyr*c=0

(Why not Fyf*b-Fyr*c=I*d/dt ??? )

Constitutive equations: Fyf=Cf*f and Fyr=Cr*r

Compatibility: tan(f)=(b*+Vy)/Vx and tan(r)=(c*-Vy)/Vx
eliminating Vy for small angles and using Vx=R*:

f+r=L/R

Together, eliminate slip angles:

Fyf=(lr/L)*m*Vx2/R and Fyr=(lf/L)*m*Vx2/R
Fyf/Cf+Fyr/Cr=L/R

Eliminate lateral forces:

d = L/R +[(lr/L)/Caf - (lf/L)/Car] * m*Vx2/R
which also can be expressed as: = L/R + [Wf/Cf - Wr/Cr] *Vx2/(g*R)
(Wf and Wr are vertical weight load at each axle, respectively.)
Wf/Cf - Wr/Cr is called understeer gradient or coefficient, denoted K or Kus and
simplifies to: d = L/R + K *Vx2/(g*R)
6

A more general definition of understeer gradient:

Kus =

g
ay

[rad/g]

Note that this relation between , R and Vx is only first order theory. (Why?)
Study a 2 axle vehicle in a low speed turn. How do we find the steering angle
needed to negotiate a turn at a given constant radius? How do the following
quantities vary with steering angle and longitudinal speed:

yaw velocity or yaw rate, i.e. time derivative of heading angle

lateral acceleration

For a low speed turn:

Needed steering angle: = L / R (not dependent of speed)
Yaw rate: = Vx / R = Vx * / L (prop. to speed and steering angle)
Lateral acceleration: ay = Vx2 / R = Vx2 * / L (prop. to speed and steering angle)

Since steering angle is the control input, it is natural to define gains, i.e.
division by :
Yaw rate gain = / =Vx/L
Lateral acceleration gain: ay/ = Vx2/L

For a high speed turn:

= L/R + K *Vx2/(g*R)

Yaw rate gain = / =(Vx/R) / =Vx/(L + K *Vx2/g)

Lateral acceleration gain: ay/ = (Vx2/R) / = Vx2/(L + K *Vx2/g)
These can be plotted vs Vx:

Gillespie,
Fig 6.5
changed):
Adaption
of Wong
Fig(slightly
5.6 / Gillepsie
Fig 6.5
Change of steering angle with speed

Steering angle, [rad]

2*L/R

r
e
e
t
ers
d
n
U
Neutral Steer

L/R

Overs
teer

Low speed
0

Critical
Speed
Characteristic
Speed

Speed Vx
What happens at Critical speed? Vehicle turns in an unstable way, even with steering
angle=0.
What happens at Characteristic speed? Nothing special, except that twice the steering
angle is needed, compared to low speed or neutral steering.

a
u tr
e
N

r
ee
t
lS

1/L
1

O
ve

rs
te

er

Yaw velocity gain, / [1/s]

Gillespie, fig 6.6: Yaw velocity gain as function of speed

Wong Fig 5.13

er
s te
r
e
d
Un

Critical Characteristic
Speed
Speed

Speed Vx

2
x

Ov
e rs
te e
r

Vx /(R*) [m/(s *rad)]

tra
u
e

(
er
e
St

.
op
r
p

to

r
tee
s
r
de
Un

Lateral acceleration gain,

Lateral acceleration gain as function of speed (not plotted by Gillespie)

Critical
Speed

Speed Vx

How is the velocity of the centre of gravity directed for low and high speeds?
Gillespie, fig 6.7: Side slip angle in a low-speed turn

Path of
rear wheel

Path of
front wheel

= Sideslip angle
See the differences and similarities between side slip angle for a vehicle and for a single
wheel. Bosch calls side slip angle floating angle.
Gillespie, fig 6.8: Side slip angle in a high-speed turn

R
Path of
front wheel

Path of
rear wheel

= Sideslip angle
Some (e.g., motor sport journalists) use the word under/oversteer for positive/negative
vehicle side slip angle.

Transient cornering
For more details than given on lectures, please see e.g. Wong Section 5.5.
To find the equations for a vehicle in transient cornering, we have to start from 3 scalar
equations of motion or dynamic equilibrium. Sketch these equations.

10

f
f

Fyf
Fxf

m,I
c

Vx

Vy

Fyr
Fxr
v is a vector. Let F also be vectors.
m*dv/dt =F (2D vector equation)
I*d/dt = Mz (1D scalar equation)
We would like to express all equations as scalar
equations. We would also like to express them without
introducing the heading angle, since we then
would need an extra integration when solving (to
keep track of heading angle). In conclusion, we
would like to use vehicle fixed coordinates
.
NOTE: It will NOT be correct if we only
consider each component of v (Vx and Vy)
separately, like this:
m*dVx/dt=Fxr+Fxf*cos()-Fyf*sin()
m*dVy/dt=Fyr+Fxf*sin()+Fyf*cos()
But the torque equation is straight forward:
I*d/dt= -Fyr*c+Fxf*sin()*b+Fyf*cos()*b
11

Motion of a body on a plane surface:

If we consider a rigid body (like a car) travelling on the road, we can analyse the motion of a
reference frame attached to the vehicle.

x
x

Vx V
x

P(x, )

Vy V

V
P(x, )

V
Time t

y
Y
Time t+ t

The body fixed to the x,y axes start with an orientation relative to the Global (earth fixed)
system. The body has velocities Vx and Vy in the x,y system. Relative to the x,y system the
point P has velocities:

vx = Vx y

vy = Vy + x
at time t + t , the velocities for P are:

vx = (Vx + Vx ) y ( + )
vy = (Vy + Vy ) + x ( + )
Since the velocities have rotated by the angle , the transformation of the velocities for P at
time t + t to the original orientation:

12

v x t = v x cos( ) v y sin( )
v y t = v x sin( ) + v y cos( )
where subscript t refers to coordinate system at time t
The difference of velocities for P in the time interval will then be

vx = v x vx
vy = v y vy
Substituting the values above:

vx = [(Vx + Vx) y ( + )]cos( ) [(Vy + Vy ) + x( + )]sin( ) (Vx y )

vy = [(Vx + Vx) y ( + )]sin( ) + [(Vy + Vy ) + x( + )]cos( ) (Vy + x )
If consider that t is very small, then cos( ) =1 and sin( ) = and divide by t

vx Vx

( )

=
y ( ) Vy
Vy
x
x
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
( )
vy Vx

Vy
=
+ Vx
y( ) y
+x
+
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
if we let t=0 and let the global and local coordinate systems align at t=0 we can write
We can also define

() d ()
=
.
t
dt

= and ignore the second order terms () () :

t

dVx
d
Vy y
x 2
dt
dt
dVy
d
ay =
+ Vx + x
y 2
dt
dt

ax =

And at the center of x,y system x=0, y=0:

dVx
Vy
dt
dVy
ay =
+ Vx
dt
ax =

Now, it will be correct if:

m*ax = m*(dVx/dt - Vy*) = Fxr + Fxf*cos() - Fyf*sin()
m*ay = m*(dVy/dt + Vx*)=Fyr + Fxf*sin() + Fyf*cos()
I*d/dt = - Fyr*c + Fxf*sin()*b + Fyf*cos()*b
13

Try to understand the difference between (ax,ay) and (dVx/dt,dVy/dt).

[The quantities (ax,ay) are accelerations, while (dVx/dt,dVy/dt) are changes in velocities.
The driver will have the instantaneous feel of mass forces according to (ax,ay) but he will get
the visual input over time according to (dVx/dt,dVy/dt).]
[Example: If going in a curve with constant longitudinal speed with driver in vehicle centre of
gravity: The driver feel only ax=0 and ay=centrifugal force=radius** in his contact with the
seat. However, he sees no changes in the velocity with which outside objects move, i.e.

dVx/dt=0 and dVy/dt=ay-Vx*

=radius**-radius**=0.]

Constitutive equations: Fyf=Cf*f and Fyr=Cr*r

Compatibility: tan(f)=(b*+Vy)/Vx and tan(r)=(c*-Vy)/Vx
Eliminate lateral forces yields:
m*(dVx/dt - Vy*) = Fxr + Fxf*cos() - Cf*f*sin()
m*(dVy/dt + Vx*) = Cr*r + Fxfx*sin() + Cf*f*cos()
I*d/dt = -Cr*r*c + Fxf*sin()*b + Cf*f*cos()*b

Eliminate slip angles yields (a 3 state non linear dynamic model):

m*(dVx/dt - Vy*) = Fxr + Fxf*cos() - Cf*[atan((b*+Vy)/Vx)]*sin()
m*(dVy/dt + Vx*) = Cr*atan((c*-Vy)/Vx) + Fxf*sin() + Cf*[atan((b*+Vy)/Vx)]*cos()
I*d/dt = -Cr*atan((c*-Vy)/Vx)*c + Fxf*sin()*b + Cf*[atan((b*+Vy)/Vx)]*cos()*b
For small angles and dVx/dt=0 (Vx=constant) and small longitudinal forces at steered
axle (here Fxf =0), we get the 2 state linear dynamic model:
m*dVy/dt + [(Cf+Cr)/Vx]*Vy + [m*Vx+(Cf*b-Cr*c)/Vx]*=Cf*
I*d/dt + [(Cf*b-Cr*c)/Vx]*Vy + [(Cf*b2+Cr*c2)/Vx]*

=Cf*b*

This can be expressed as:

C f
dVy dt
V
m0
2x2 matrix, dependent of

+
y =

0 I
C f b
Vx, cornering stiffness and geometry

d dt

What can we use this for?

- transient response (analytic solutions)
- eigenvalue analysis (stability conditions)

14

If we are using numerical simulation, there is no reason to assume small angles.

Response on ramp in steering angle:
100*steering angle
ay/1

(using steady state

(using transient
time,

heading
angle,

X (global,
earth fixed)
Vx
Vy

Y
earth fixed)
How to find global coordinates?
dX/dt=Vx*cos - Vy*sin
dY/dt=Vy*cos + Vx*sin
d /dt=
Integrate this in parallel during the simulation or
afterwards, since equations are decoupled in this
case.)

More transient tests in Bosch 5th ed , pp 356-358 (4th ed pp 348-349). Note two types:
True transients (step or ramp in steering angle, one sinusoidal, etc.) (analysed in
time domain)
Oscillating stationary conditions (analysed i frequency domain, transfer functions etc.,
cf. methods in the vertical art of the course).
Examples of variants? Trailer (problem #2), articulated, 6x2/2-truck, all-axle-steering, ...
Example

Show that critical speed for a vehicle is sqrt(-L*g/K), using the differential
equation system valid for transient response. Assume some numerical vehicle
parameters. Which is the mode for instability (eigenvector, expressed in lateral
speed and yaw speed)?

15

Solution sketch (using Matlab notation):

[m

Cf/1000

Cr/1000] =

1000

1000

9.8

1.5

100000

80000
(These are the assume vehicle parameters in SI units)
K=m*g/2*(1/Cf-1/Cr) =
-0.0122 (understeer coefficient)
A=[m 0;0 I] =
1000
0
0
1000 (mass matrix)
Vx=sqrt(-L*g/K)= 48.9898 (critical speed according to formula)
B=-[(Cf+Cr)/Vx m*Vx+(Cf*l-Cr*l)/Vx ;
(Cf*l-Cr*l)/Vx
(Cf*l*l+Cr*l*l)/Vx];
C=inv(A)*B; [V,D]=eig(C)
V = (columns are eigenvectors)

Vx

Vx

|Vy|

||

|Vy|

||

0.9973
-0.0739

0.9864
0.1644

D = (diagonal elements are eigenvalues)

0.0000
0
0 -11.9413

Note that the first eigenvalue is zero, which means border between stability and
instability. This is the proof!
The eigenvector is first column of V, i.e. Vy=0.9973 and z=-0.0739 (amplitudes):
Example

Vehicles that have lost their balance might sometimes be stabilized through onesided brake interventions on individual wheels (ESP systems). Which wheels and
how much does one have to brake in the following situation?

Vx=30 m/s, cornering radius=100 m.

Before time=0: Cf=Cr=100000 /rad
At time=0, the vehicle loses its road grip on the front axle, which can be modelled as a
sudden reduction of cornering stiffness to 50000 N/rad.
Assume realistic (and rather simplifying!) vehicle parameters.

16

Solution (very brief and principal):

Assume turning to the right, i.e. right side is inner side. Use the differential equation
system for transient vehicle response, but add a term for braking
m*dVy/dt + [(Cf+Cr)/Vx]*Vy + [m*Vx+(Cf*b-Cr*c)/Vx]*=Cf*
I*d/dt + [(Cf*b-Cr*c)/Vx]*Vy + [(Cf*b2+Cr*c2)/Vx]* =Cf*b* + Mz
where Mz=Fr*B/2, Fr=brake forces at the two right wheels, B=track width
For t<0: Solve the eqs with dVy/dt = d/dt = Mz=0 and Cf=Cr=100000 and
=Vx/radius=30/100 rad/s. This gives values of and Vy.
For t=0: Insert the resulting values for and Vy into the same equation system but with
Cf=50000 and do not constrain Mz to zero. Instead calculate Mz, which gives a certain
brake force on the two right wheels, Fr.

Check whether Fr is possible or not (compare with available friction, *normal force).
If possible, put most of Fr on the rear wheel since front axle probably has the largest
risk to drift outwards in the curve.

Longitudinal & lateral load distribution during cornering (Not covered

in Wong)
When accelerating, the rear axle will have more vertical load. Explore what happens
with the cornering characteristics for each axle. Look at Gillespie, fig 6.3.
...

Cornering stiffness

Part of: Gillespie, fig 6.3

Bosch 5th ed, fig col 1, p351

Bosch 4th ed, fig col 1, p343
Fy

Fz=3000N
Fz=1500N

From Wong, fig 1.26

Fy
Vertical load

1
p

increasing

Fz

So, the cornering stiffness will increase at the rear axle and decrease at front axle, due
to the longitudinal vertical load distribution during acceleration. This means less
tendency for the rear to drift outwards in a curve (and increased tendency for front axle)
when accelerating.

17

The opposite reasoning applies for braking (negative acceleration.)

So, longitudinal distribution of vertical loads influence handling properties.
NOTE: A larger influence is often found from the combined longitudinal and lateral
slip which occurs due to the traction force needed to accelerate.
In a curve, the outer wheels will have more vertical load. Explore what happens with the
lateral force on an axle, for a given slip angle, if vertical load is distributed differently to
left and right wheel. Look at Gillespie, fig 6.11.

Lateral Force (lb)

Gillespie, fig 6.11: Lateral force-vertical load characteristics of tires.

1000
with equal vertical load
760
680
with different
vertical load
=

Slip Angle
5 deg

800
Vertical Load (lb)

So, the lateral force for the axle will decrease from 2*760 to 2*680.

So, lateral distribution of vertical loads influence handling properties.

How to calculate the vertical load on inner and outer side wheels, respectively,
when the vehicle goes in a curve?

First consider the loads on the vehicle body and axle:

18


Fy
Roll Center
hcg
hr
s
A

Fyi

Fyo

Fzi

Fzo

Force in Springs

Fi = Ks ( x + x) , Fo = Ks ( x x) where x is the static displacement of the spring

and Dx is the change in spring length due to body roll

Sum moments about chassis CG

s
s
Ks ( x + x) Ks ( x x) = M
2
2
s
x =
2
s
Ks = K = M where K is the roll stiffness for the axle
2
Moment applied from body to axle=K

Fy
Roll Center
hcg
hr
s
A

Fyi
Fzi

Fyo
Fzo
19

If we take the sum of the moments about point A:

MA=0
t
t
V2
Fzo Fzi + m
hr + K = 0
2
2
R
This simplifies to:

t
V2
=m
hr + K = 0
2
R

V 2 hr
( Fzo Fzi ) = 2m
+ 2 K = 0
R t
t
( Fzo Fzi )

we can define the term Fz as

Fz= (Fzo-Fzi)/2

where Fz is where the change of vertical load for each tire on the axle

20

How can we account for the whole vehicle? If we assume that the chassis is rigid, we
can assume that it rotates around the roll centers for each axle. This is shown in the
figure below:

hr

WV 2
Rg

h1

W = mg
hf

Ro
l

lA

xis

Roll moment about x axis

M = {mV2/R h1 cos() + mg h1 sin()} cos()
for small angles
M = mV2/R h1 + mg h1
Let W=mg
M = W h1 (V2/Rg+ )
If we know M = Mf+ Mr
M = (Kf+Kr )
then:
(Kf+Kr )= W h1 (V2/Rg+ )
(Kf+Kr - W h1 ) = W h1 V2/Rg

Wh1V 2
= Rg

( Kf + K r Wh1 )

This is the roll angle based on the forward speed and curve radius.

21

From previous expression for one axle

2Fz= 2mV2/R hr/t + 2K /t

where hr is the roll axis height. For front axle, Substitute the value the following into
the previous equation.

For front axle: mV2/R=Wf/gV2/R

This results in the relationship:

W f V 2 h f Kf Wh1V 2
1
FZf =
+

Rg
t
t
Rg ( Kf + K r Wh1 )
Similarly for rear axle:

WrV 2 hr Kr Wh1V 2
1
FZr =
+

Rg t
t
Rg ( Kf + K r Wh1 )
These equations allow the exact load on each tire to be calculated. Then the cornering
stiffness can be calculated if a functional relationship is known between the cornering
stiffness C and Fz.
How is vertical load distributed between front/rear, if we know distribution
inner/outer?

It depends on roll stiffness at front and rear. Using an extreme example, without any roll
stiffness at rear, all lateral distribution is taken by the front axle. .

In a more general case:

Mxf=kf*
Mxr=kr* , where kf and kr are roll stiffness and =roll angle.
Eliminating roll angle tells us that Mxf=kf/(kf+kr)*Mx and Mxr=kr/(kf+kr)*Mx, i.e. the roll moment
is distributed proportional to the roll stiffness between front and rear axle. We can express each
Fz in m*g, ay, geometry and kf/kr. This is treated in Gillespie, page 211-213.

How would the diagrams in Gillespie, fig 6.5-6.6 change if we include lateral load
distribution in the theory?
It results in a new function =func(Vx), (eq 6-48 combined with 6-33 and 6-34).
It could be used to plot new diagrams like Gillespie, fig 6.5-6.6:

22

Steering angle, [rad]

Redrawn version of Gillespie, fig 6.5: Change of steering angle with speed

teer
s
r
e
Und Neutral Steer

L/R

Overs
teer

vehicle B

vehicle A

Speed Vx

lines from original fig 6.5

new line, vehicle A (with roll stiff rear axle)
new line, vehicle B (with roll stiff front axle)

Equations to plot these curves are found in Gillespie, pp 214-217. Gillespie uses the

non linear constitutive equation: Fy=C* where C=a*Fz-b*Fz2 .

What more effects can change the steady state cornering characteristics for a
vehicle at high speeds?

See Gillespie, pp 209-226: E.g. Roll steer and tractive (or braking!) forces. Braking in a
curve is a crucial situation. Here one analyses both road grip, but also combined dive
and roll (so called warp motion).
Try to think of some empirical ways to measure the curves in diagrams in
Gillespie, fig 6.5-6.6.

See Gillespie, pp 27-230:

Constant radius
Constant speed
Constant steer angle (not mentioned in Gillespie)

23

How to calculate the vertical load on front and rear axles, respectively, when the
vehicle accelerates?

In general: Fz=mg and Fz,rear=mg/2+(h/L)*m*ax, where L=wheel base and

h=centre of gravity height. ax=longitudinal acceleration. Still valid for braking because
ax is then negative.
Component Characteristics
Plot a curve for constant side slip angle, e.g. 4 degrees, in the plane of longitudinal
force and lateral force. Do the same for a constant slip, e.g. 4%. Use Gillespie, fig 10.22
as input.

See Gillespie Fig 10.23

24

Summary

low speed turning: slip only if non-Ackermann geometry

steady state cornering at high speeds: always slip, due to centrifugal acceleration of the mass, m*v2/R

transient handling at constant speed: always slip, due to all inertia forces, both
translational mass and rotational moment of inertia

transient handling with traction/braking: not really treated, except that the
system of differential equations was derived (before linearization, when Fx and
dVx/dt was still included)

load distribution, left/right, front/rear: We treated influences by steady state

cornering at high speeds. Especially effects from roll moment distribution.

Revision Date August 2005

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