Lab Guide - Oven

ENERGY ANALYSIS OF CHARCOAL-FIRED BAKERY OVEN
Experiment No. 8
I.
OBJECTIVES
1. To find the total rate of heat transfer in the charcoal fired bakery oven
2. To determine the energy balance in an operating oven
3. To obtain a thermal contour map of the outside oven walls
II.
MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

1 kg of Charcoal
1 piece Pyrometer
1 piece Meter Stick
1 piece Chalk
1 piece Lighter
1 piece Blower
Extension Wire
Charcoal Fired Bakery Oven
Charcoal Pit
100mL of Kerosene
III.
THEORY
An oven is a thermally insulated chamber used for the heating, baking or drying of a
1
Adraincem, Fabian, Tortugo

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
USC-TC, Talamban Cebu, Philippines
substance and most commonly used for cooking. Also, it is an enclosed compartment in which
food is cooked or heat. It is a large piece of equipment in a kitchen that you heat, usually with
electricity or gas, to cook food in. An oven often has a broiler in it. Kilns and furnaces are
special-purpose ovens, used in pottery and metalworking, respectively (Roper, 1937).
Heat conduction or thermal conduction is the transfer of internal energy by microscopic
diffusion and collisions of particles or quasi-particles within a body due to a temperature
gradient. The microscopically diffusing and colliding objects include molecules, electrons,
atoms, and phonons. They transfer disorganized microscopic kinetic and potential energy, which
are jointly known as internal energy. Conduction can only take place within an object or material,
or between two objects that are in direct or indirect contact with each other. Conduction takes
place in all forms of ponderable matter, such as solids, liquids, gases and plasmas. The Fourier
Law of Conduction will be obtained as
Qcond=
kA (T oT i )
x
Eq. 1
where Q is the heat flow rate by conduction, k is the thermal conductivity of the material, A is
the cross sectional area normal to direction of heat flow and,
To
and
Ti
are the
temperatures of the outer wall layer and inner wall later respectively (Kreith et al. 2011).
Convective heat transfer is one of the major modes of heat transfer, and convection is
also a major mode of mass transfer in fluids. Convective heat and mass transfer take place both
by diffusion the random Brownian motion of individual particles in the fluid and by
advection, in which matter or heat is transported by the larger-scale motion of currents in the
fluid. Newtons Law of Cooling will be obtained as
2

Eq. 2
Q=hA (TsT )
where
Ts
is the surface temperature,
is the fluid temperature, h is the heat transfer
coefficient (Kreith et al. 2011).

Thermal radiation occurs through a vacuum or any transparent medium (solid or fluid). It
is the transfer of energy by means of photons in electromagnetic waves governed by the same
laws. Stefan- Boltzmann Law will be obtained by the equation
T
4
( s T )
Q=A
Eq. 3
where
Ts
temperature,
is the absolute temperature of surface,
is the absolute surrounding air
is the emissivity (Kreith et al.
is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and
2011).
A thermal contour map is a map illustrated with contour lines, for example a topographic
map, which thus shows valleys and hills, and the steepness of slopes. The contour interval of a
contour map is the difference in elevation between successive contour lines. But for the thermal
contour map, each color represents a certain temperature range. By looking at the control map,
the experimenter will be able to assess where in the outer surface of the oven are relatively hot
and relatively cold points (Courant et al. 1996).
3

Contour lines are curved, straight or a mixture of both lines on a map describing the
intersection of a real or hypothetical surface with one or more horizontal planes. The
configuration of these contours allows map readers to infer relative gradient of a parameter and
estimate that parameter at specific places. Contour lines may be either traced on a visible threedimensional model of the surface, as when a photogrammetrist viewing a stereo-model plots
elevation contours, or interpolated from estimated surface elevations, as when a computer
program threads contours through a network of observation points of area centroids. But in this
case the contour lines are made from Microsoft Excel 2015.The importance of the contour lines
is to map out the variations of heat and to illustrate the distribution of heat transfer in the oven
(Courant et al. 1996).
When fuels such as wood, charcoal and petroleum are burned, only part of the total
energy of the fuel is effectively utilized. This useful energy component is called the thermal
energy yield, expressed as a percentage of the total energy available in a kilogram of raw
material. For example, if in using an inefficient three-stone stove, only 8 percent of its potential
energy is effectively used in cooking, the thermal energy yield of that particular use of the wood
is 8 percent. Using a more efficient stove would increase the thermal energy yield of the same
quantity of wood since it would direct more energy to cooking (Strasfogel, S. 1984). Although
carbonization causes a loss of energy, the charcoal produced gives a higher yield in use than
wood. Thus, the thermal energy yield of wood is, on average, 8 percent and can even go as low
as 5 percent with the popular three-stone African stove. Charcoal has a thermal energy yield of
about 28 percent (Strasfogel, S. 1984).
In general, charcoal wastes less energy than wood if the useful energy derived from a
quantity of wood used directly is lower than the useful energy derived from that same quantity of
wood converted into charcoal. In fact, 1 kg of wood gives 3500 (Kcal/kg) 0.08 (thermal energy
4

yield) = 280 Kcal; 1 kg of wood processed into charcoal (carbonization yield 20 percent) gives =
1 0.20 0.28 (thermal energy yield) 75.00 (Kcal/kg) = 420 Kcal. Thus there is a net wastage
of 140 Kcal of energy if, instead of processing the wood into charcoal (even with a low
carbonized yield of 20 percent), it is used directly in a stove yielding 8 percent or less. Of course,
this is only one example (Strasfogel 1984)
Table 1. Calorific Values in kCal
Fuel
Charcoal
Kerosene
Courtesy: Engineering Toolbox
Calorific Value (kJ/Kg)

29,600
46,200
Calorific value
Useful energy
Useful energy
Wood (kCal)
Wood (8%)
Charcoal (28%)
3500
4500
4770
280
360
381
420
420
420
Diff.
140
60
39
Table 2. Calorific Values in kJ/kg

Courtesy: Strasfogel 1984
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed:
doing an energy balance means imposing that the algebraic sum of the following variables is
constantly zero in the considered system: (1) the entering fluxes of heat; (2)the exiting fluxes of
heat; (3) the electrical and/or mechanical energy generated or consumed by the system; (4)
sources of energy within the system (e.g. dynamite can be considered a source of energy if we
analyze the dynamic of an explosion); (5) sinks of energy within the system (usually the ambient
is considered as a sink of energy); (6) the energy accumulated by the system during time (engel
2007).
5

When last term is zero, system is called "in steady-state conditions", or "steady" and its
behavior does not depend from time; otherwise, it is called "unsteady" or "transient". A
macroscopic heat balance is a balance on an entire system, rather than an infinitesimal part of it.
The ability to perform a balance on heat comes from the principle of conservation of energy,
which tells us that energy is never created or destroyed (engel 2007).. Since this is true, we can
balance energy in the following manner:
Energy accumulated = Energy in - Energy out
Eq. 4
To be completely general, we would have to include all forms of energy and energy
changes in this balance: potential energy, kinetic energy, and internal energy, as well as all forms
of heat and work. However, if there are heat effects present, and no shaft work is done, heat
effects will usually be considerably larger than the effects of volumetric expansion, potential
energy and kinetic energy changes, or electrical effects (Adkins 1968/1983). In this case, the
equation simplifies to:
Energy accumulated = Heat in - Heat out
Eq. 5
The heating value or energy value or calorific value of a substance, usually a fuel or food,
is the amount of heat released during the combustion of a specified amount of it. The energy
value is a characteristic for each substance. It is measured in units of energy per unit of the
substance, usually mass, such as:
kJ
kg ,
mol ,
kg ,
lb . Heating value is commonly
determined by use of a bomb calorimeter (Maxwell, 1871). To determine the heat

6

where
Qinput
mcharcoal
Qinput =mcharcoal C charcoal
Eq. 6
Qfood =mfood C food
Eq. 7
is the heat released by the charcoal,
is the mass of the charcoal,
value of the charcoal and
C food
mfood
Qfood
is the heat absorbed by the food,
is the mass of the food,
C charcoal
is the calorific
is the calorific value of the food.
The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system is
constant; energy can be transformed from one form to another, but cannot be created or
destroyed. The first law is often formulated by stating that the change in the internal energy of a
closed is equal to the amount of heat supplied to the system, minus the amount of work done by
the system on its surroundings. Equivalently, perpetual motion machines of the first kind are
impossible (engel 2007). The Energy balance can be calculated using the equation
Heat Input = Conduction Losses + Convection Losses +Radiation Losses
+ Heat Absorbed by Food + Other Losses

Eq. 8
DIAGRAM:

Diagram.is courtesy of Aragones, Andrei Ramier and group (2014)
Figure 2 Heat Balance of Charcoal Fired Bakery Oven.is courtesy of Aragones, Andrei Ramier and
group (2014)
9

IV.
PROCEDURE
The procedure has detailed pictures to guide the experimenters in performing the
experiment easily and successfully.
Safety Precautions
*First thing to remember when conducting an experiment is SAFETY FIRST. Experimenters
should consider safety at all times. Here are the lists of Safety Precautions with this experiment:
1. Fire Hazards. Upon starting the fire in the charcoal pit, do not pour the kerosene all at
once; instead pour it gradually. Do not pour when there is fire already going on just to
speed up the burning process.
2. Electrocution. Make sure that your hands are dry before operating the blower, when
plugging the extension wire in and the inlet of the blower. Do not expose the extension
wire to moisture by not letting it lie on the wet floor.
3. Eye Contamination and Damage. When starting the fire in the charcoal pit, embers
might fly away and thered be tendencies where they get into your eyes which might
irritate them. It would be best to wear goggles. Also, remove the blower before the
charcoal has reached its ember state because it will blow the ember particles towards you.
4. Exhaust Smoke Suffocation Wear mask to cover your nose and mouth thus preventing
inhalation of exhaust smoke from oven.
5. Burn Hazards. Any part of the body could be burned due to hot surfaces of the oven
especially on the front part. Wear gloves when placing the food to be cooked in the oven
and when taking them out.
10

6. Entanglement Hazard. Some parts of clothes or accessories might get caught in closing
the oven. The oven has openings or holes so your clothes or accessories might get caught
and get torn.
7. Lacerations and Bruises. Sharp edges of the stainless steel oven may cut your skin.
Also, the corners are pointed enough to harm you.
8. Slippery Floor Hazard. You might have included cooking oil in the recipe and it might
have been spilled on the floor which may cause accidents.
9. Spillage of Charcoal Pit Contents. The charcoal pit might be unbalanced and it might
fell and spill the burning charcoal contents.
10. Other Hazards. Dangers from other running machines in the surroundings such as the
Turbines should also be considered.
Preliminary Preparation
1. Using a meter stick and chalk, trace each side of the

oven to make equally divided square division drawn
on the outside surface walls of the oven (labeling of
each area is recommended). Refer to the Figure
below.
11

2. Measure the desired mass of charcoal to be

combusted using a weighing scale
3. Then, put the charcoal into the charcoal pit and

assemble it such that it will combust faster.
4. Burn the charcoal in the charcoal pit. To speed up the

start-up burning process pour kerosene before
lighting the charcoal with a match.
12

5. Adjust the speed or the flow rate of the blower to

high by switching the knob toHI.
6. Insert the blower nozzle into the charcoal pit inlet to

provide air into the slowly burning charcoal.
7. Lastly place the charcoal pit under the charcoal fired

oven. When the charcoal ember has almost
developed, remove the blower from the charcoal pit.
And then wait for 1 hour until the oven reaches
steady state conditions. Maintain a temperature of
150oC inside the oven.
Main Experiment Procedure: Gathering of Data
13

1. After an hour when the oven reached steady state

condition, measure the temperature on every
square division drawn on the front, right, left,
back and top walls of the oven using a pyrometer
and record each temperature. The experimenters
should be able to come up with five tables for the
five walls of the oven considered.
2. In operating the pyrometer, just target the square
division in focus with the pyrometer and press the
trigger to measure the temperature.
3. After tabulating the temperatures, the prepared

food will be placed for cooking in the oven. Wear
gloves when placing the food in the oven.
14

4. Measure again the temperature on every square

division 30 minutes after the placement of food or
just before the taking out of the food from the
oven. Record and tabulate the data. The
experimenters should have 10 tables tabulated.
Calculations
1st Objective
1. To calculate the total heat transfer rate, we need to calculate first its components namely,
conduction losses, convection losses, radiation losses and other losses.
2. The conduction losses are the heat absorbed by the walls, and in determining these heat
loss components, draw first a thermal circuit.
3. Calculate conduction losses using Eq. 1, calculate convection losses using Eq. 2, and
calculate radiation losses using Eq. 3.
2nd Objective
4. Heat input is the energy released when charcoal was combusted. It can be calculated
using Eq. 6.
5. In calculating the heat absorbed by food Eq. 7 will be used:
6. Calculate the energy balance using Eq. 8.
15

Notes:
The calorific value of the food will depend on the food that the experimenters will chose
to cook.
Refer to Table 2 for the calorific value of charcoal.
Neglect the calorific value of the kerosene because of the negligible amount of kerosene
that was poured.
In calculating the total rate of heat transfer in the oven which is mainly absorbed by its walls,
these values from Principles of Heat Transfer by Kreith and Engineering Toolbox are reliable:
Inner surface wall is coated with enamel (black) with an emissivity ( ) of
= 0.876
(Kreith, Appendix 2, page 726, Table 9 Normal emissivities of paints and surface coatings). Inner
and outer surface walls are made up of alloy sheets of stainless steel: k = 14.4 W/m K (Kreith,
Appendix 2, page 727, Table 10 Alloys). Insulation is made up of fiber glass, k = 0.035 W/m K
(Kreith, Appendix 2, page 728, Table 11 Insulation and building materials). Convection heat
transfer coefficient between the outside wall and surroundings at 23 oC is hc = 10 W/m2K
(Engineering Toolbox). Convection heat transfer coefficient between the inside wall and
surroundings at 300oC is hc = 60 W/m2K (Engineering Toolbox). Steady state condition exist
after an hour of putting burned charcoal. Neglect effects at the corners and edges of the wall.
3rd Objective
16

7. The recorded and tabulated temperatures on the square divisions will be used in drawing
a thermal contour map of the oven. There will be ten contour maps created for the ten
tables tabulated which corresponds to the temperatures of the five oven walls measured
before and after the cooking of food. Use any software that offers contour maps creation.
You could always use Microsoft Office Excel spreadsheet.
1st Tabulate the measured

temperature on each
square division in the
spreadsheet.
2nd Highlight the

temperature values
17

3rd Go to Create Chart
4th Go to Surface and

choose Contour. Then,
press OK.
18

5th Voila! Your thermal

contour map is done!
Procedure Finale
Clean the oven and the oven experiment area. Dispose the ashes properly. Clean and return all
the materials and apparatus that were borrowed.
V.
Suggested Tabulated Data:
Table 1. Front Wall of Oven

FRON
T
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
19

10
11
Sample Contour Map
20

Axis Title
VI.
References:
Adkins, C. J. (1968/1983). Equilibrium Thermodynamics, (first edition 1968), third
edition 1983, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-25445-0.
Aston, J. G., Fritz, J. J. (1959). Thermodynamics and Statistical Thermodynamics, John
Wiley & Sons, New York.
Baierlein, R. (1999). Thermal Physics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-52165838-6.
engel Y. A.; Boles M. (2007). Thermodynamics: an engineering approach. McGraw-Hill
Higher Education. ISBN 0-07-125771-3. Chapter 2.
Courant, Richard, Herbert Robbins, and Ian Stewart. What Is Mathematics?: An
Elementary Approach to Ideas and Methods. New York: Oxford University Press,
1996
Kondepudi, D. (2008), Introduction to Modern Thermodynamics, Chichester UK: Wiley,
ISBN 978-0-470-01598-8
Kreith, Frank, Manglik, Raj, Bohn, Mark (2011) Principles of Heat Transfer 7th Edition
Maxwell, J.C. (1871), Theory of Heat (first ed.), London: Longmans, Green and Co.
Roper, Frances. "Chilean Baking-Oven." Antiquity Publications. Great Britain:
1937. 355356.
STRASFOGEL, S. 1984 Diffusion massive des foyers amliors au travers des units
locales de production et de distribution, le cas des foyers amliors en cramique.
21

Bois de feu, Informations de l'Association bois de feu, No. 11.
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ENERGY ANALYSIS OF CHARCOAL-FIRED BAKERY OVEN

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

Adraincem, Fabian, Tortugo

Adraincem, Fabian, Tortugo

is the surface temperature,

is the fluid temperature, h is the heat transfer

coefficient (Kreith et al. 2011).

is the absolute temperature of surface,

is the absolute surrounding air

is the emissivity (Kreith et al.

is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and

Adraincem, Fabian, Tortugo

Adraincem, Fabian, Tortugo

Calorific Value (kJ/Kg)

Table 2. Calorific Values in kJ/kg

Adraincem, Fabian, Tortugo

substance, usually mass, such as:

lb . Heating value is commonly

determined by use of a bomb calorimeter (Maxwell, 1871). To determine the heat

Adraincem, Fabian, Tortugo

Qinput =mcharcoal C charcoal

Qfood =mfood C food

is the heat released by the charcoal,

is the mass of the charcoal,

value of the charcoal and

is the heat absorbed by the food,

is the mass of the food,

is the calorific value of the food.

Adraincem, Fabian, Tortugo

Adraincem, Fabian, Tortugo

Diagram.is courtesy of Aragones, Andrei Ramier and group (2014)

Adraincem, Fabian, Tortugo

Adraincem, Fabian, Tortugo

1. Using a meter stick and chalk, trace each side of the

Adraincem, Fabian, Tortugo

2. Measure the desired mass of charcoal to be

3. Then, put the charcoal into the charcoal pit and

4. Burn the charcoal in the charcoal pit. To speed up the

Adraincem, Fabian, Tortugo

5. Adjust the speed or the flow rate of the blower to

6. Insert the blower nozzle into the charcoal pit inlet to

7. Lastly place the charcoal pit under the charcoal fired

Main Experiment Procedure: Gathering of Data

Adraincem, Fabian, Tortugo

1. After an hour when the oven reached steady state

3. After tabulating the temperatures, the prepared

Adraincem, Fabian, Tortugo

4. Measure again the temperature on every square

Adraincem, Fabian, Tortugo

Refer to Table 2 for the calorific value of charcoal.

Adraincem, Fabian, Tortugo

1st Tabulate the measured

2nd Highlight the

Adraincem, Fabian, Tortugo

3rd Go to Create Chart

4th Go to Surface and

Adraincem, Fabian, Tortugo

5th Voila! Your thermal

Suggested Tabulated Data:

Table 1. Front Wall of Oven

Adraincem, Fabian, Tortugo

Sample Contour Map

Adraincem, Fabian, Tortugo

Adraincem, Fabian, Tortugo