Chapter 4 Passive Vibration Control 4.1. Vibration Damping What Is Damping?

CHAPTER4PASSIVEVIBRATIONCONTROL
4.1.VIBRATIONDAMPING
Whatisdamping?
Dissipatingsomeoftheenergywhichisaddedtoadynamicsystembyexcitingforces
duringeachcycleoftheresponse.
Dissipationisachievedthroughresistivedampingforces(maybeinternalsuchas
molecularlevelinteractionsorexternalsuchasfriction).
Normallydampingforcesarelotsmallerthanelasticforcesbutaroundresonanceelastic
forcesandbalancedoutbyinertialresistancewhichleavesonlythedampingforceto
resistthemotionoftheDOFalreadymoving.
Thus,dampingforcesareofcriticalimportancewhentheexcitationfrequencyisnearor
atresonancefrequency.
Nodampingleadstoboundlessmotion,whilesomedampingwillleadtolargeoscillations
butwithbounds(seeFigure4.1).
Figure4.1.Dependenceofthecharacterofatransientdecayonlossfactor[Nashif
et.al.1985]
4.1
ME708LECTURENOTES,byDr.GkhanO.ZGEN,Fall20132014
Theeffectofdampingondynamicrepsonseofsystemsmakesitaneffectiveparameter
tocontrolvibrationsonlyforthefollowingcases:
o Forfreevibrationresponse(transientresponse)wherethesystemoscillatesat
resonantfrequencies(therateatwhichtheseoscillationsdieoutisrelatedto
systemdamping).
o Limitsteadystateresonantresponse.
o Attenuatetravelingwaves.
o SeeTables4.1and4.2examplesforusingvibrationdampingforvibrationcontrol.
Notethatdampingdoeslittleornothingtoreducetheamplitudeoftheforced
responsesotherthanresonanceregions.
Typicalandverycommonvibrationrelatedproblemistheexistanceofresonancesand
excitationforcesnearthesesystemfrequencies,makingdampingbasedpassive
vibrationcontroltechniquesveryviable.
Table4.1.Industriesandparticularmechanicalcomponents,andmainmotivationsfor
whichvibrationdampingtreatmentsareused[CorsaroandSperling1990]
4.2
Table4.2.Generalareasofapplicationofdampingincontrollingtheeffectsofvibration
[CorsaroandSperling1990]
Structuralfatigueandfailure
Damagetoequipment
Equipmentmalfunction
Vibration(andNoise)controlforpersonnelsafetyandfunction
Effectsoninstruments,processes,andprecisionequipment
Whenthenaturaldampinginasystemisinadequateforitsintendedfunction,thenan
applieddampingtreatmentmayberequiredtoachievethefollowingobjectives:
Controlofvibrationamplitudeatresonance
Controlexcessiveresonancevibrationswhichmaycausehighstresses,leadingto
prematurefailure.
Example:Forrandomexcitation,dampingineachmodeatleastexceedsaminimum
specifiedvaluetokeeprandomstresseswithinacceptablelimits.Sonicfatigueof
aircraftfuselage,wing,andcontrolsurfacepanelswhentheyduetoexcitationbyjet
noiseorboundarylayerturbulenceinducedexcitation.
Noisecontrol
Controlofnoiseradiationfromvibratingsurfaces,orthecontrolofnoise
transmissionthroughavibratingsurface(seeTable4.3).
Decreasingtheamplitudesofthevibratingsurface.
Example:Oilpandampingincreasecandrasticallydecreasestructurebornenoise
contributionduestructuralvibrations(seeFigure4.2).
Table4.3.Dampinglevelsvsacousticresponse[CorsaroandSperling1990]
4.3
Figure 4.2. Oil sump made of high damping laminated steel and effect of damping on free
response of the oil sump.
4.2.MECHANISMSOFDAMPINGINMATERIALSANDMECHANICALSTRUCTURES
4.2.1.InternalMechanismsofDamping(Materialdamping)
Mechanismsthatdissipatevibrationalenergyintheformofheatwithinthevolumeofa
materialelementasitisdeformed.
Complexphysicaleffectsthatconvertkineticandstrainenergyinavibratingmechanical
systemconsistingofavolumeofmacrocontinuous(solid)matterintoheat.
Associatedwithinternalatomicormolecularreconstructionsofthemicrostructureor
withthermaleffects.
o microstructuredefects,suchasgrainboundariesandimpurities.
o thermoelasticeffectscausedbylocaltemperaturegradientsresultingfrom
nonuniformstresses,asinvibratingbeams.
o eddycurrenteffectsinferromagnetic.
o plasticsliporflow.
o magnetomechanicaleffects.
o dislocationmovements.
o inhomogeneousstraininfibrousmaterials.
o therelaxationandrecoveryofthemolecularchainsafterdeformation
(polymersorviscoelasticmaterials).
Undercyclicstressorstrainthesemechanismsleadtotheformationofastressstrain
hysteresisloopofthetypeshowninFigure4.3.
Moststructuralmetalsandalloyshaverelativelylittledampingundermost
conditions(Steelandalimimumwillhaveexteremelysmalldamping).
Somealloysystems,however,havecrystalstructuresspecificallyselectedfortheir
relativelyhighdampingcapability.
o Nonlinearandincreasesascyclicstressamplitudesincrease(seeFigure4.4).
4.4

Figure4.3.Typicalstressstrain(orloaddeflection)hysteresisloopforamaterialunder
cyclicstress[HarrisandPierson2002].
Figure4.4.Dampingbehaviorofacoppermanganesealloyasafunctionofstrain
amplitudeandtemperature[Nashifet.al.1985]
Thecyclicintegralofforcewithrespecttothedisplacement,whichistheareaofthe
hysteresisloop,isequaltotheworkdoneagainstthedampingforce.
Thisintegral(looparea)istheenergydissipatedpercycleofmotion.
Thisisthedampingcapacitywhich,whendividedbythematerialvolume,givestheper
unitvolumedampingcapacityasbefore(seeFigure4.5fordampingcapacityvaluesfor
vairousmaterials).
4.5
Figure4.5.Dampingcapacityofvariousmaterials[Nashifet.al.1985]
Thedampingforceshouldberesistingthemotionsoitshouldsomehowbeafunctionof
thevelocityofthemotionofwhichitisresisting.
Typicaldampingratiosformaterialdampingformetalsandalloys:0.00050.005
Typicaldampingratiosformaterialdampingforviscelasticmaterials:0.050.75
Polymericorelastomericmaterialsarecapable(undercertainconditions)ofdissipating
far larger amounts of energy per cycle than metals and alloys. We will discuss this
further.
4.2.2.ExternalMechanismsofDamping
Structuresandmachinescanbedampedbymechanismswhichareessentiallyexternalto
thesystemorstructureitself.
Suchmechanisms,whichcanbeveryusefulforvibrationcontrolinengineeringpractice
(frictiondampers,airfilmdampers),include:
Structuraldamping(frictionandimpactatjoints)
Adjacenttouchingpartsofthemachineorstructureslidecyclicallyrelativetoone
another,onamacroscopicoramicroscopicscale,dissipatingenergy(seeFigure4.6).
4.6

Figure4.6.Differentmechanismsofstructuraldampingforaclampedbeam[Nashif
et.al.1985]
Mechanical energy dissipation caused by friction due to the relative motion between
components.
Impactingatthejointsinamechanicalsystemorstructurecanalsobeconsideredunder
thistypeofdamping.
Difficult to develop a generalized analytical model that would satisfactorily describe
structuraldamping.
RubbingisusuallyrepresentedbyaCoulombfrictionmodel.
Impacting,however,shouldbedeterminedfromthecoefficientofrestitutionofthetwo
membersthatareincontact.
Most common method of estimating structural damping is by measurementof overall
dampinginthemechanicalsystem.
o For metals and alloys internal (material) damping is negligible compared to
structuraldamping.
o In tall buildings, bridges, vehicle guideways, and many other civil engineering
structures and in machinery, such as robots and vehicles, dominant damping is
thestructuraldampingmechanism.
o Amajorformofstructuraldampingistheslipdampingthatresultsfromenergy
dissipation by interface shear at a structural joint. The degree of slip damping
thatisdirectlycausedbyCoulomb(dry)frictiondependsonsuchfactorsasjoint
forces (for example, bolt tensions), surface properties and the nature of the
materials of the mating surfaces. This is associated with wear, corrosion, and
4.7
general deterioration ofthe structural joint. In this sense, slip damping is time
dependent. It is a common practice to place damping layers at joints to reduce
undesirable deterioration of the joints. Sliding causes shear distortions in the
dampinglayers,causingenergydissipationbymaterialdampingandalsothrough
Coulombfriction.Inthisway,ahighlevelofequivalentstructuraldampingcanbe
maintained without causing excessive joint deterioration. These damping layers
shouldhaveahighstiffness(aswellasahighspecificdampingcapacity)inorder
to take the structural loads at the joint. For structural damping at a joint, the
dampingforcevariesasslipoccursatthejoint.
Impact
Impactbetweenimperfectlyelasticpartsofthesystem(mayalsobeconsideredaspart
ofstructuraldamping).
Fluidpumping
Vibrationofastructureforcesthefluidmediumwithinwhichthestructureisimmersed
topasscyclicallythroughnarrowpathsorleaksbetweendifferentzonesofthesystemor
betweenthesystemandtheexterior,therebydissipatingenergy.
AirBaseddamping
Acoustic radiation damping, whereby the vibrational response couples with the
surroundingfluidmedium,leadingtosoundradiationfromthestructure.
Enclosingthinfilmsofairaroundthevibratingstructureallowingleaksfromtheenclosed
air volume. Pressure gradients are created due to the allowance of leaks which will
createnetforcesresistingthemotionofthestructure.
Figure4.6.Variousconfigurationswhereairfilmdampingisobserved[Nashifet.al.
1985]
4.8
Figure4.7.Amechanicaljointconfigurationwhereairfilmdampingisobserved
[Jones 2001]
4.3.MEASURESOFDAMPING
Howtocharacterizedamping?
Viscousdamper:
Hypotheticaldevicethatcreatesmathematicallyconvinientdampingforces.
Ifusedproperlyveryeffectivewayofrepresentingdamping.
Notsatisfactorywayofrepresentinghigherlevelsofdampingforces.
Todecideonhowmuchdampingtointroducetothesystem,weneedtofirstknowhow
muchdampingisalreadypresentinthesystem?
4.3.1.Waysofidentifyingdampinginmechanicalsystems:
Asfaraspassivevibrationcontrolapplicationsareconcernedmostpracticalmeasureof
dampingisthemodaldampingratioormodallossfactor.
DampingRatio:Alreadydiscussed(SDOFandMDOF).Howtomeasuredampingratiofrom
measuredFRFs?Experimentalmodalanalysistechniques?Wewilluploadawriteuponthis
topiconMETUONLINElater.Simplestwayistousethehalfpowerpointmethod.
4.9
LossFactor:
4.10
0.02
X ( )
F ( )
()
Viscousdamper
0 .2
Actuallossfactor
1.0
(a)
(b)
/n
Figure4.8.a)Effectoflossfactoronsystemresponseb)Selectionoflossfactor(adapted
fromthe1970paperbyCrandall)
4.3.2.OthermeasuresofDamping
Table4.4.CommonTypesofDampingMeasuresandtheirinterrelationships
4.11
4.4.VISCOELASTICVIBRATIONDAMPING
Amechanismcommonlyknownasviscoelasticdampingisstronglydisplayedinmany
polymeric,elastomeric,andamorphousglassymaterials.
PolymericandElastomericmaterials
Polymers
Polymers are large molecules consisting of repeated chemical units (`mers') joined
together,usuallyinaline,likebeadsonastring.
Each `mer' is typically made up of more than 5 and less than 500 atoms; the word
`polymer'isappliedwhenyouhavemorethanabout50`mers'stucktogether.
Mostoftheplasticsaremadeofpolymers.
Molecular chains in a polymer network intertwine and are connected to gether at
variouslocations(crosslinked).
Specificpropertiescanbetailoredbymanupulatingthesizeandtheatomiccomposition
ofthechains,changingthenumberofcrosslinks,addingfillerssuchascarbonblackto
increasestiffness,tearandwearresistanceandhysteresis.
Polymerscanbemadestiff(plastics)orsoft(filmadhesives).
Elastomer:
Arubberlikesyntheticpolymer,assiliconerubber.
Elastomersareonlyslightlycrosslinked.
Naturalrubber
Polymermadeupofmoleculesofgreatlengthcomposedofhydrogenandcarbon.
Naturally,molecularchainsareflexible,independentofeachover.
Initsrawstate,naturalrubberisatoughmaterialwhichdeformsinpartbyviscousflow
andinpartelastically.
Itbecomessoftandstickywhenwarms.Itspracticalusesintherawstatearelimited.
VulcanisationProcess:
Thepracticalpotentialofrubberisachievedbytheprocessknownasvulcanisation.
Vulcanisationwithsulphurlinkstherubbermoleculestogetheratintervalsalongtheir
lengthbymeansofshortchainsofsulphuratoms(othervulcanisingsystemsasperoxides
canbeused).
Vulcanisationgivesstrength,elasticityandmechanicalbehaviourlesssensitiveto
temperature.
Rubbersalsocontainsafiller,generallycarbonblack,whichimprovestearandabrasion
propertiesaswellasincreasingthemodulus,hysteresisandcreep.
Dampingmechanisminpolymers
Thedampingactioniscausedbytherelaxationandrecoveryofthemolecularchains
afterdeformation.
Viscoelasticityisapropertywhichiscausedbythemolecularrearrangementunder
stress.
Thespeedofsuchprocessesdependonthespeedofmolecularmotionofwhich
temperatureisameasure.
4.12
Molecularlevelexplanationforviscoelasticbehavior
Inapolymer,eachflexiblethreadlikemoleculeiscontinuallychangingtheshapeofits
contourasitwrigglesandwritheswithitsthermalenergy(Figure4.9).
Figure4.9.Typicalpolymericstructurenetwork[Nashifet.al.1985]
Strongdependencebetweenfrequencyandtemperatureeffectsinpolymerbehavior
duetotherelationshipbetweentemperatureandmolecularvibrations(Wewillseeit
later).
Awidevarietyofcommercialpolymericdampingmaterialcompositionsexist(seeTables
4.5and4.6).
o SeeD.I.Jonessbookformoredetailedmaterialandcompanyinformation.
Polymericdampingmaterialsareavailablecommerciallyinthefollowingcategories:
o Mastictreatmentmaterials
o Curedpolymers
o Pressuresensitiveadhesives
o Dampingtapes
o Laminates
Dampingmaterialdatarelatedtothedampingperformanceisprovidedinmanyformats.
Wewilldiscussthislater.
Table4.5.TypicalDampingMaterialTypes[HarrisandPierson2002]
4.13
Table4.6.ListofDampingMaterialsandsystemsManufacturers[HarrisandPierson2002]
Rubbers(GeneralInformation)[HarrisandPiersol,2002]
Elastomersarepolymersthatcanbestretchedsubstantiallybeyondtheiroriginallength
andwillretractrapidlyandforciblytoessentiallytheiroriginaldimensionsuponrelease
oftheforce.
Theoptimumpropertiesand/oreconomicsofmanyrubbersareobtainedthrough
formulatingwith
reinforcingagents,
fillers
extendingoils
vulcanizingagents
antioxidants
pigments
Endusemarketsforformulatedrubbersincludeautomotivetireproducts,adhesives,
cements,caulks,sealants,latexfoamproducts,hose,belting,footwear(,andmolded,
extruded,andcalenderedproducts(athleticgoods,flooring,gaskets,household
products,Orings,blownsponge,thread,andrubbersundries).
AlistofgeneralpurposeelastomersandpropertiesissummarizedinTable4.7.
Table4.7.Propertiesofgeneralpurposeelastomers[HarrisandPiersol]
4.14
4.4.1.TheoryOfLinearViscoelasticity
Mathematicalmodelingoflinearviscoelasticbehavior.
o Smallstrainsmallstressdeformation.
Ifbothstrainandrateofstrainareinfinitesimal,andthetimedependentstressstrain
relationscanbedescribedbylineardifferentialequationswithconstantcoefficients,we
havelinearviscoelasticbehavior.
Then,inagivenexperimenttheratioofstresstostrainisafunctionoftime(or
frequency)alone,andnotofstressmagnitude.
Therelationsbetweenstress,strain,andtheirtimedependencesareingeneral
describedbya"constitutiveequation"or"rheologicalequationofstate."
Nonlinearviscoelaticbehavior(notwithinthescopeofthiscourse):
o Hyperelasticity(largestrainelasticity)
o Stresssofteningeffects
o Largestrainviscoelasticity
4.4.1.1.LinearTimeDomainBehaviorofViscoelasticMaterials[Lakes1998]
Uniaxial,smalldeformation,linearstressstrainconstitutiverelationforanelasticsolidisas
follows:
(1)
E ,
whereEisYoungsmodulus, isstressand isstrain.Thesamerelationcanbewrittenina

differentform,inwhichacompliancetermisutilized:
(2)
J ,
whereJistheelasticcomplianceanddefinedastheinverseoftheelasticmodulusE,
1
J
(3)
E
On the other hand, for a viscous fluid, shear stress occurring during flow is dependent on
strainrateandgivenas:
d
,
(4)
dt
whereistheviscosity.
Viscoelastic materials are the ones that have time dependent relationship between
stressandstrainunliketheelasticones.
Thiscanbealsodefinedasabehaviorbetweenpureelasticandpureviscouscases.
Some of the observed special behaviors for viscoelastic materials (Lakes 1998) are as
follows:
4.15
1.
2.
3.
4.
Forconstantstress,strainincreaseswithtime(creepbehavior).
Forconstantstrain,stressdecreaseswithtime(relaxationprocess)
Dynamicstiffnessdependsontherateofapplicationoftheload
For cyclic loading, hysteresis is observed between stress and strain, which is an
indicationoftheenergydissipation.
5. Acousticwavestransmittedareattenuated.
All materials show viscoelastic behavior, but the deviation from elastic characteristics
dependsonthetypeofthematerial.
Metals show strong elastic behavior at moderate temperatures, while polymers show
significantviscoelasticityatsametemperaturelevels.
First of the two transient properties of viscoelastic materials is creep. It is a slow, gradual
deformationofamaterialunderconstantstress.Foruniaxialstresscase,stresshistorythat
willcausepurecreepbehaviorcandefinedas:
(t ) 0u(t ) ,
(5)
where u(t) is the unit step function. The strain (t) will increase with time following the
relationship
(t )
,
(6)
J (t )
0
where J(t) is called the creep compliance. Elastic material is a special case of general
viscoelasticmodelwithacreepcomplianceof
J (t ) J 0u(t ) .
(7)
Viscous materials (like liquids) is another special case for creep behavior, where the creep
complianceis
(8)
J (t ) tu (t ) ,
whereistheviscosityoftheliquid.
Secondtransientpropertyoftheviscoelasticmaterialsisthestressrelaxation,whichisthe
gradualdecreaseofstresswhenthematerialisheldatconstantstrain.Ifthestrainisapplied
asthegivenfunction
(t ) 0u(t ) ,
(9)
thestresswilldecreasefollowingtherelationship
4.16
E (t )
(t )
,
0
(10)
whereE(t)istherelaxationmodulus.
To simplify the understanding the concepts, only uniaxial stressstrain case is considered.
Relaxationandcreepmightalsobeoccurringinshearandvolumetricdeformationaswellas
extension.Differentrelaxationandcreepfunctionscanbedefinedfordifferentdeformation
modes.
In order to aid physically realize creep and relaxation process, stress and strain curves are
presented in Figure 4.10 (creep) and Figure 4.11 (relaxation). SEE THE POWER POINT
SLIDES.
Viscoelastic
Viscous
Elastic
t
Creep
Recovery
Figure4.10.Stressandstraincurvesvs.time(Creepcase)[adaptedfromLakes1998]
Viscoelastic
Elastic
Viscous
t
Relaxation
Recovery
Figure4.11.Stressandstraincurvesvs.time(Relaxationcase)[adaptedfromLakes1998]
4.17
Viscoelasticmaterialscanbecategorizedinto twogroupsbasedontheirphase.They
mightbeinsolidorliquidstate.
Althoughthetransientbehaviorofviscoelasticsolidsandliquidsaresimilar,thereare
somegenericdifferences.
For example the relaxation modulus for viscoelastic converges to zero as time goes to
infinity,i.e. Eliquids (t ) 0 (Figure4.12).
For viscoelastic solids on the other hand, relaxation modulus converges to a positive
finitevalueasthetimegoestoinfinity,i.e. Esolids(t ) Ee (Figure4.13).
In case of creep, viscoelastic liquids achieve a steady flow or linearly increasing
deformationwithtimeasshowninthecreepcomplianceplotgiveninFigure4.14.
Forthesolids,thecomplianceapproachestoanequilibriumvaluewhichrepresentszero
strainrate(Figure4.15).
E(t)
Figure4.12TypicalRelaxationModulusdistributionforviscoelasticliquids
E(t)
Ee
t
Figure4.13TypicalRelaxationModulusdistributionforviscoelasticsolids
J(t)
Figure4.14.TypicalCreepCompliancedistributionforviscoelasticliquids
4.18
J(t)
Je
Figure4.15.TypicalCreepCompliancedistributionforviscoelasticsolids
4.4.1.2.ViscoelasticResponseduetoanArbitraryInput
AverypowerfulconceptinpolymerphysicsistheBoltzmannsSuperpositionPrinciple.
Simply Boltzmanns Superposition Principle states that each loading state of a
viscoelasticmaterialmakesindependentcontributiontototalloadinghistory,andtotal
finaldeformationisthesumofeachcontribution.
Forlinearviscoelasticbehavior,Boltzmannssuperpositionprinciplecanbeapplied.
For consecutive step stress inputs as shown in Figure 4.16, the strain can be written as a
combinationofthestraincausedbyeachindividualstepinput,i.e(seeFigure4.17);
(t ) J (t ) 0 J (t )1 J (t ) 2
(t)
(11)
3
2
1
0
t0
t1
t2
Figure4.16.Superposedstepstressinputs
4.19
(t)
Figure4.17.Strainresponsetomultiplestepstressinputs
As t 0 ,thestrainbecomes:
t
d ( )
d
(12)
d
where (t ) isanarbitraryfunctionoftime.Similaryforanarbitraryfunctionofstrain,the
stresscanbeobtainedas:
t
d ( )
(t ) E (t )
d
(13)
d
(t ) J (t )
4.4.1.3.ViscoelasticConstitutiveRelationandRepresentationofMaterialDampingby
FrequencyDependentComplexModulus
The standard linear viscoleastic constitutive relation for a uniaxial state of stress is
[Christensen1971,Bagley1979]:
(t) bk
k 1
d k
J
d j
E 0 (t) E j
j 1
dt k
dt j
(14)
(15)
or
pk
k 0
J
d j
.(Gaul1991)
qj
j 0
dt k
dt j
d k
4.20
For harmonic response analysis, stress and strain can be defined as (t ) 0 e it ,
(t ) 0 e it . Substituting these into the differential form of constitutive equation gives

[Nashifetal1985]:
0 E 0 E j (i ) j
j 1
k
1 bk (i )
k 1
j 1
0 E 0 1 a j (i ) j
k
1 bk (i )
k 1
(16)
Thisrelationbetweenstressandstrainamplitudescanbewritteninamorecompactform
as:
0 (E iE) 0
(17)
where E and E arestoragemodulusandlossmodulusrespectively.Botharefunctionsof

frequencyforthegeneralviscoelasticbehavior.
Formetals,storagemodulus E isconstantoverthefrequencydomainandlossmodulus
E isaweakfunctionoffrequency.
Forelastomericmaterialsbothmoduliarefunctionsoffrequency.
Besides the frequency dependence, most viscoelastic materials have also strong
temperaturedependence.
Therelationbetweenharmonicresponseamplitudesofstressandstraincanbewrittenin
~
termsofacomplexfrequencydependentmodulus E * ( j ) ,whichisdefinedas:
(18)
0 E * ( j ) 0 ( E ( ) j E ( )) 0
Frequency domain distributions of storage and loss moduli of a specific material can be
experimentally obtained and viscoelastic model terms can be used to represent the real
materialbehavior.
Complexmodulicanbewritteninanotherform:
~
E * (i ) E ( )1 i ( )
(19)
wherealossfactorterm()isdefinedas
E ( )
( )
(20)
E ( )
4.21
Whatdoeslossfactorrepresent?
In an effective passive vibration control technique based on the use of high damping
viscoelastic materials, the viscoelastic components or elements must participate
significantlyintheenergyofvibration.
Typical values of moduli for viscoelastic materials are given in Table
Table4.8.TypicalModuliofViscoelasticMaterials[HarrisandPierson2002]
4.22
4.4.1.4.ComplexModulusintermsofRelaxationModulus
Using Equation (12), the complex modulus can be obtained in terms of the relaxation
modulusasfollows:
~
E * (i ) (i ) E (t )e it dt
(21)
(22)
or
~
E * (i ) iE (t )
~
where E * (i ) isthecomplexmodulusand istheFouriertransformsymbol.
4.4.1.5.GeneralizedMaxwellModelRepresentationofLinearViscoelasticBehavior
The simplest version of the Maxwell model for viscoelastic materials is composed of an
elasticandviscouscomponentsconnectedinseriesasshowninFigure4.18.
Figure4.18.SingleelementMaxwellmodel[adaptedfromLakes1998]
ThespringrepresentstheelasticcomponentandEistheelasticmodulus(unitisPa).
Thedashpotistheviscouscomponentwithbeingtheviscosity(unitisN.s/m2).
Thetotalstraincanbewrittenasthesummationofthestrainintheelasticandviscous
components:
Thestrainrateis:
1 2
d d1 d 2
dt
dt
dt
(29)
(30)
4.23
Thestressissameinbothcomponents:
E 2
and
(31)
d1

(32)
dt
FromEquations(31)and(32):
d 2 d 1
(33)
dt
dt E
and
d1

(34)
dt
SubstitutingEquations(33)and(34)intoEquation(30),theconstitutiveequationforasingle
Maxwellmodelelementisobtained:
d d 1
(35)
dt dt E
For a step input (t ) 0u(t ) , the stress response for the single Maxwell element can be
derivedas:
(t ) 0e
Et
E 0e
Et
(36)
(37)
(38)
(39)
Therelaxationmodulus E (t ) canbewrittenas:
E (t )
Et
(t )
Ee
0
Anewparameter,relaxationtime,isdefinedinterms E and :
Nowtherelaxationmoduluscanbewrittenintermsoftherelaxationtime:
E (t ) Ee
4.24
Complex shear modulus for the single element Maxwell model can be obtained from the
Laplacetransformoftherelaxationmodulus:
~
E ( s) s E (t )
(40)
Es
~
E ( s)
(41)
1 s
ThecomplexmoduluscanbeobtainedbyreplacingLaplacevariable s with i :
iE
~
~
E * (i ) E (s i )
(42)
1 i
SomecommonsimpleviscoelasticmodelsincludingthesingleelementMaxwellmodel
are given in Table 4.9 with corresponding constitutive equation and the complex modulus
expressions.TheunitsoftheparametersEandarePaandN.s/m2respectively.
Table4.9.Somecommon,simpleviscoelasticmodels
Complex
Modulus
Constitutiveequation
~*
Model
E (i )
[Lakes1998]
[Jones2001]
Maxwell model
1 d d

E dt
dt
Kelvin-Voigt model
E
d
dt
jE
E j
E j
Standar linear model

E2
d E1E2
d
( E1 E2 )
1
1
dt
dt
E1
E1
j 1E1
E2 j 1
E1 j 1
4.25
AgeneralizedMaxwellmodelcanbeconstructedbyconnectingNsingleMaxwellelements
as shown in Figure 4.19. The relaxation modulus for the generalized Maxwell model can
writtenas:
E (t ) Ei e
t

i
(43)
i 1
E1
E2
En
EN
Figure4.19.GeneralizedMaxwellmodelwithNelements[adaptedfromLakes1998]
Similarly,thecomplexmodulusforthegeneralizedMaxwellmodelcanbeobtainedas:
N
iEn n
~
E * (i )
(44)
n 1 1 i n
~
~
Realandimaginaryparts E ( ) and E ( ) canwrittenseparatelyas:
N
2 En n 2
~
(45)
E ( )
2 2
n 1 1 i
n
and
N
En n
~
E ( )
(45)
2 2
n 1 1 i
n
4.26
The generalized Maxwell can be modified by adding a pure elastic element with an
elasticparameter Ee inparallelasshowninFigure4.20.
This modified model is essentially for representing viscoelastic solids which has a non
zerorelaxationmodulusastimeapproachesinfinity,i.e. E(t ) Ee .
NotethatfortheoriginalMaxwellmodel, E (t ) 0 ,whichistypicalliquidbehavior.
Ee
E1
En
NN-1
N-1
Figure4.20.ModifiedGeneralizedMaxwellmodelwithNelements(alsocalledthe
generalizedstandardmodel)[adaptedfromLakes1998]
The relaxation modulus for the modified Maxwell model (also called the generalized
standardmodel)becomes:
N 1
E (t ) Ee E n e
t

n
(46)
(47)
(48)
(49)
n 1
Thecomplexmodulusforthemodifiedmodelcanalsobewrittenas:
N 1
iEn n
~
E * (i ) Ee
n 1 1 i n
Realandimaginarypartsofthecomplexmodulusbecomes:
N 1
2 E n n 2
~
E ( ) E e
2
2
n 1 1
n
and
N 1
E n n
~
E ( )
2
2
n 1 1
n
4.27
4.4.2.TypicalViscoelasticMaterialBehaviorAsAFunctionOfTemperature
Modulusandlossfactordistributionasafunctionoftemperatureatconstantfrequency
(seeFigure4.21).
Linearbehavior:modulusisindependentofthestrainamplitudes.
Nonlinearity occurs above certain treshold strain levels (depending on the type of
polymerstructureandcomposition).
The strain levels in vibration control applications are often below linear behavior
treshold.
Atlowtemperatures,highmodulusandlowlossfactorsaretypical(Glassyregion).
Afteraparticulattemperature,materialstartstosoftendrasticallywithsharpincreasein
lossfactor(Transitionregion).
Astemperatureisincreasedmorebeyondthetransitionregionmodulusdecreasesand
reachesstablelowvalue(Rubberyregion).
Further increase in temperature beyond rubbery region causes the material to
disintegrate(Flowregion)(formostrubberlikematerials(polymerswithcrosslinksthis
regiondonotexist)).
Modulusvaluescouldbeashighas100GPaintheglassyregionandaslowas10000Pa
intherubberyregion.
Widthoftransitionregion20oCto200oC300oC.
Encompassesatemperaturerangeofafewhundreddegrees.
Lossfactorusuallybelow102and103forglassyregion.
Lossfactorashighas12inthetransitionregion.
Lossfactorbetween0.1to0.3intherubberyregionformanymaterials.
Thesepropertiesdependonthecomposition.
Figure4.21.Variationofthestoragemodulusandlossfactorwithtemperature[Nashif
et.al.1985]
4.28
CriticalParametersthatmaybeusedwhenevaluatingtheperformanceofaviscoelastic
material(seeFigure4.22):
o Ts:
softeningtemperatureortransitiontemperature
o T0:
peaklossfactortemperature
o Peaklossfactor
o T:
Width of the transition region (required to be large for vibration
controlapplications).
Plastics
o SofteningtemperatureTsisquitehigh.
o Wideglassyregion.
Elastomers
o SofteningtemperatureTsislowbelowroomtemperature.
o Alargetransitionregionisdesiredforvibrationcontrolusage.
Figure4.22.Variationoftherealpartofthemodulusandlossfactorwithtemperature
constantfrequency[Jones2001]
4.29
4.4.3.TheEffectsOfFrequencyOnViscoelasticMaterialProperties
Inverseeffectoftemperature:Increasingfrequency(atconstanttemperature)hassimilar
effectonthecomplexmodulusasdecreasingtemperature.
Severaldecadesoffrequencychangesimilartoachangeofafewdegreesof
temperature(basisfortemperaturefrequencysuperpositionprinciplewillbediscussed
later.Thisprinciplewillenablecharacterizationofviscoelasticmaterialsinalarge
frequencyrangeusingasingletesttechnique).
Largerangeoffrequency(10to20decades)(compareittofewhundreddegrees)
o (LOW)108Hzto108Hz(HIGH)
Figure4.23.Variationoftherealpartofthemodulusandlossfactorwithfrequency
constanttemperature[Jones2001]
4.30
Typicalcarpetplotsofstoragemodulusandlossfactorofviscoelasticmaterialsare
giveninFigure4.24.
InTable4.10,youcanfindtypicalvaluesforviscoelasticsolidelastic(storage)tensile
modulusandlossfactors(seeTable4.11forshearmodulusproperties).
Figure4.24.Frequencyandtemperaturedependenceoflossfactorandstoragemodulusof
viscoelasticmaterials[EncyclopediaofVibration]
4.31
Table4.10.Typicalviscoelasticsolidelastic(storage)tensilemodulusandlossfactors
[Jones2001andNahifet.al.1985]
Table4.11.Typicalviscoelasticsolidelastic(storage)shearmodulusandlossfactors[Jones
2001andNahifet.al.1985]
4.32

Chapter 4 Passive Vibration Control 4.1. Vibration Damping What Is Damping?

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Chapter 4 Passive Vibration Control 4.1. Vibration Damping What Is Damping?

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

CHAPTER4PASSIVEVIBRATIONCONTROL

whereEisYoungsmodulus, isstressand isstrain.Thesamerelationcanbewrittenina

For harmonic response analysis, stress and strain can be defined as (t ) 0 e it ,

(t ) 0 e it . Substituting these into the differential form of constitutive equation gives

where E and E arestoragemodulusandlossmodulusrespectively.Botharefunctionsof

Typical values of moduli for viscoelastic materials are given in Table

Standar linear model

Potrebbero piacerti anche