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Diseases of Mariculture Finfish Species: A

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Diseases of Mariculture Finfish Species: A Review

K. Saravanan*, S. Ezhil Nilavan, S. Arun Sudhagar, V.
Naveenchandru
Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai 400061, India
(Received 30.3.12, Accepted 2.6.12)
Key words: mariculture, infectious disease, noninfectious disease
Abstract
Mariculture has been steadily growing over the last few decades. To satisfy
the increasing demand of local and export markets for fish and to control
overexploitation of marine fish species, many countries are expanding
mariculture activities. Disease is one of the most limiting factors in
mariculture. Intensification of mariculture favors pathogens, which increase
disease outbreaks. Diseases are broadly classified into infectious and
noninfectious diseases. Infectious diseases are further divided into four
groups based on the nature of the pathogen: viral, bacterial, parasitic, or
fungal. Noninfectious diseases are divided into neoplastic diseases, genetic
and environmentally induced diseases, and nutritional deficiency diseases.
This paper provides detailed information regarding prevalent diseases of
maricultured finfish species.

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +91-976-9597478, e-mail: sarocife@gmail.com

Saravanan et al.

Introduction
Aquaculture is the worlds fastest growing food production sector. A global review of
marine capture fisheries reveals that 80% of the world's fish stocks for which stock
assessment information is available are fully exploited and the worlds maximum wild
capture fisheries potential is almost exploited. Thus, a more closely controlled and
precautionary approach to fisheries management is essential. In this context, mariculture
is an excellent alternative for sustainable marine fish production. Mariculture is defined
as the cultivation, management, and harvesting of marine organisms in their natural
habitat or in specially constructed rearing units such as ponds, cages, pens, enclosures,
or tanks (FAO, 2009). With stagnating global capture fishery production and an
increasing population, aquaculture has the greatest potential to produce fish to meet the
growing demand for safe and quality aquatic food; by 2012, over 50% of global food fish
consumption will originate from aquaculture (FAO, 2009).
The total world fish production in 2008 was estimated at 142.3 million tons (FAO,
2011). Global production of food fish from aquaculture, including finfish, crustaceans,
mollusks, and other aquatic animals for human consumption, reached 52.5 million tons in
2008, compared with 32.4 million tons in 2000. Freshwater aquaculture contributed
59.9% of world aquaculture production by quantity and 56.0% by value while
mariculture in the sea and in ponds accounted for 32.3% by quantity and 30.7% by
value. Marine aquaculture produces many high-value finfish, crustaceans, gastropods,
and bivalves including oysters, mussels, clams, cockles, and scallops. In 2008,
freshwater fishes dominated production with 28.8 million tons (54.7%) valued at
US$40.5 billion (41.2%), followed by mollusks (13.1 million tons), crustaceans (5 million
tons), diadromous fishes (3.3 million tons), marine fishes (1.8 million tons), and other
aquatic animals (0.62 million tons). Among marine fishes, flatfish production increased
from 26,300 tons in 2000 to 148,800 tons in 2008, the leading producers being China
and Spain. The major species were turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), bastard halibut
(Paralichthys olivaceus), and tongue sole (Cynoglossus semilaevis).
Under natural environmental conditions, coastal waters are free of obstructions.
However, the placement of floating net-cages along waterways has created artificial
islands, resulting in the congregation of diverse biological communities of vertebrate and
invertebrate organisms. One could expect to find a similar congregation of bacteria,
viruses, fungi, parasites, and other pathogens within this newly-created ecosystem, in
addition to the naturally occurring wild aquatic organisms. Increasing intensification and
lack of proper health management measures have lead to many disease problems of
bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic origin. Further, the improper use of chemicals and
antibiotics raises concerns regarding human and environmental safety (Seng et al.,
2006).
The types and severity of diseases are greatly influenced by the fish species,
conditions in which the animals are cultured, and husbandry management. Fish cultured
in floating cages are particularly susceptible to diseases when environmental parameters
such as temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, and suspended particles suddenly or
widely fluctuate, and following rough, although often unavoidable, handling. Once
conditions suitable for pathological changes develop, progression to disease in warm
water environments is rapid (Sobhana, 2009).
Diseases are generally classified into infectious and non-infectious diseases.
Infectious diseases of fish can be caused by viruses, bacteria, parasites, or fungi.
Noninfectious diseases or abnormalities can result from environmental stress,
contaminants, or nutritional deficiencies (Lio-Po et al., 2009).
Infectious Diseases
Viral diseases. Several viral diseases have been reported in finfish (Table 1). Virological
research received new impetus following high mortalities in hatchery-bred juvenile fish
soon after transfer to sea cages. With increasing awareness of virus-related diseases and
new species of fish being selected for culture, more reports of known and new viral
diseases are expected (Sobhana et al., 2009).

Mariculture finfish diseases

Bacterial diseases. Bacterial diseases have attracted considerable attention and

voluminous information is available (Table 2). A great number of aquatic bacteria are
opportunistic and under normal environmental conditions do not cause disease. They
become pathogenic only when the host/environment balance is changed by raised
stocking density, inadequate nutrition, deteriorated water quality, rough handling (e.g.,
net changing, grading), or other stress factors (Sobhana et al., 2009). Bacteria can be
gram-negative, or gram-positive. Gram-negative bacteria include Vibrio spp. that are
common bacterial flora associated with marine fish.
Parasitic diseases. Parasites are invertebrate organisms. Some are free-living and can
become opportunistic parasites, others require hosts for survival and reproduction and
are referred to as obligate parasites (Table 3). Both opportunistic and obligate parasites
are found in fish hosts but most parasitic diseases in fish are caused by obligate
parasites. A large variety of parasites have been reported in cultured marine fish. Some
cause serious disease outbreaks in farmed fish, resulting in significant financial losses to
fish farmers. Parasites either cause major disease outbreaks in cultured fish or contribute
to chronic sub-clinical effects. Parasitic organisms affecting cultured fish are grouped into
three main groups: protozoa, plathyhelminthes, and crustaceans (Seng et al., 2006).
Fungal diseases. Several species of fungi are responsible for a range of serious
economically important diseases of fish (Table 4). However, far less is known about
fungal diseases of fish compared to bacterial or viral diseases. Fungal infections are
easily recognized by mold-like growths.
Noninfectious Diseases
In addition to infectious agents, environmental stress, contaminants, and nutritional
deficiencies can cause serious diseases in fish culture, while inadequate diets and
uncontrolled water quality can lead to secondary infection. Some types of physical injury
are specific to caged fish, e.g., fin or skin damage caused by net abrasion in fish that are
over-stocked, and susceptibility to pathogenic organisms in fish that are handled without
due care (Sobhana et al., 2009). Caged marine fish are vulnerable to red boil disease
(Vibrio anguillarum) following routine handling at polluted sites (Chua and Teng, 1980).
Neoplastic diseases. Tumors (or neoplasia) are masses of abnormal tissue growing in
or on the body that more or less resemble the tissue from which they arise. Tumors
serve no physiological function and can be benign or malignant. Types of neoplasm in
fish generally parallel those in mammals. While etiology has rarely been adequately
determined, some tumors are induced by carcinogens, some seem associated with viral
pathogens, and some have a clear hereditary component. Tumors or neoplasm of fish
may be grouped into four categories, based on the type of cells from which they arise:
(a) epithelial tumor, (b) mesenchymal tumor, (c) pigment cell tumor, and (d) neural
tumor (Sindermann, 1989). Most if not all kinds of neoplasms known in higher
vertebrates have been identified in fish, although most research on fish neoplasms has
concentrated on a few tumors, especially epithelial tumors. Tumors of fish, like those of
higher vertebrates, occur in all major organs and cell types (Mawdesley-Thomas, 1975).
Neoplasms in fish are species or family-specific (Schlumberger, 1957).
Genetic and environmentally induced diseases. In addition to abnormalities caused by
pathogens, marine fish may present physiological or structural defects, or conditions that
have genetic or environmental causes. Skeletal abnormalities include distortion of the
jawbone, shortened opercula, lordosis, incomplete dorsal or ventral fins, and shortened
vertebrae. Abnormalities include hunched backs, curved caudal peduncles, opercular
reduction, and disoriented fin rays. Common abnormalities in larvae include crossbite of
the jaw, pugheadedness caused by reduction of the frontal skull and upper jaw bones,
sucker mouth caused by reduction of the upper and lower jaw bones, and opercular
reduction or malformation.
The high rate of larvae abnormalities is one of the most important problems in fish
culture. Many factors (genetic, environmental, nutritional) may be involved. Excessive
egg density, mechanical shock, radiation, thermal shock, and salinity change are among
the environmental influences known to induce malformations.

Saravanan et al.

Observations of abnormalities in coastal/estuarine fish have increased substantially as

a consequence of closer attention to the effects of pollution on fish stocks. Depending on
the concentrations, contaminants may result in mortality or a spectrum of sublethal
effects including morphological and physiological abnormalities that can affect any life
stage. Changes in flesh consistency, loss of weight, external lesions, exophthalmia,
papillomas, and skeletal anomalies ranging from subtle modifications in gill arch
structures or fin rays to extreme vertebral deformation have been noted in fish from
grossly polluted waters (Sindermann, 1989).
Nutritional deficiency diseases. Deficiency diseases include those caused by
insufficient thiamin or vitamin E and hepatomas associated with aflatoxin from stored
fungi. Malnourishment or undernourishment of cultured fish can result in slow growth,
susceptibility to disease, or death. Gall bladders may be affected by an amorphous, noncrystalline white to yellow substance while the columnar epithelial cells of the lumen of
the gall bladder exhibit varying degrees of vacuolation. This condition is thought to be
related to an improper diet and is, apparently, non-infectious. Fatty liver degeneration is
also associated with dietary deficiency, probably of protein. Gross signs include poor
growth, emaciation, listlessness, and cessation of feeding. Affected fish have a light tan
liver and severely anemic blood. Nutritional deficiency diseases can be controlled by
providing complete diets (Sindermann, 1977).
Conclusion
Aquaculture needs to expand horizontally and vertically to meet the growing demand for
fish, especially marine fish. Most mariculture systems are located in open offshore
waters, which makes control of pathogenic infections much more difficult than in
freshwater culture systems (Ogawa, 1996). Under these conditions, the prevalence and
spread of infectious diseases will inevitably increase as a result of higher infection
pressure, deterioration of the environment, and crowded conditions, especially in
intensive culture systems. Accordingly, effective control of infectious diseases has
become more and more important in the cultivation of aquatic animals. Good health
management is the best way to control disease. This includes the use of healthy fry,
proper quarantine measures, optimized feeding, good husbandry techniques, disease
monitoring (surveillance and reporting), and sanitation as well as vaccination and
biosecurity measures when diseases occur (Sobhana, 2009). Overall, the emphasis must
be on prophylaxis rather than therapy.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Mr. P. Antony Jesu Prabhu for his valuable comments on this
manuscript.
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Plumb J.A., Schachte J.H., Gaines J.L., Peltier W. and B. Carroll, 1974.
Streptococcus sp. from marine fishes along the Alabama and northwest Florida coast of
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Ravelo C., Magarinos B., Romalde J.L. and A.E. Toranzo, 2001. Conventional versus
miniaturized systems for the phenotypic characterization of Lactococcus garvieae strains.
Bull. Eur. Assoc. Fish Pathol., 21(4):136-144.
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In: R.J. Roberts (ed.). Fish Pathology. Bailliere-Tindall Publ., London.
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Cancer Res., 17(9):823-832.
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hoferi in sea herring, Clupea harengus: a perspective from the Western North Atlantic.
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10

Saravanan et al.

Table 1. Viral diseases.

No.

Disease and
causative agent

Trout (rainbow,
Infectious
brook, brown),
Pancreatic Necrosis
salmon (Atlantic,
(IPN)
Pacific), yellow tail,
halibut, pikes,
Birnavirus
perches
Salmon, trout,
Viral Hemorrhagic
herring, halibut,
Septicemia (VHS)
haddock, Japanese
flounder, pike,
Novirhabdovirus
seabass
Infectious
Salmon (sockeye,
Hematopoietic
Chinook, pink, chum,
Necrosis (IHNV)
Atlantic), trout,
herring, perch, pike,
Rhabdovirus
turbot
Flounder, flat fish,
Lymphocystis
herrings, smelts,
disease (LCDV)
batfish, killifish,
scorpion fish, sea
Iridovirus
bass, sunfish,
perches, snappers
Viral Nervous
Seabass, grouper,
Necrosis (VNN)
halibut, parrot fish,
stripped jack,
Nodavirus
flounder, tiger puffer
White sturgeon, red
sea bream,
Iridoviral disease
barramundi,
(IVD)
Japanese flounder,
horse mackerel,
Iridovirus
chicken grunt,
estuarine rock cod
Epizootic
Hematopoietic
Necrosis (EHN)
Ranavirus

Affected species

Spring Viremia of
Carp (SVC)
Rhabdovirus

Target organ

Fish lie on bottom, swim with

corkscrew motion; whitish fecal casts,
Pancreas, liver
swollen belly, darkening of body, gills
typically pale, exophthalmia (pop eye)

Gross pathology

Reference

Destruction of entire acinar pancreas, petechial

hemorrhages of pyloric caecae, severe damage in
McKnight & Roberts, 1976
pancreas and intestine, necrotic changes in kidney and OIE, 2000
liver

Vascular
system,
kidney

Slight darkening of body color,

exophthalmia (pop eye), bleeding
around eyes, skin ulceration, pale gills
with pinpoint hemorrhages

Swollen abdomen, marked by ascites; pinpoint

hemorrhages in the fatty tissue, intestine, liver, swim
bladder and muscle; pale liver with evidence of
hemorrhages on surface; extensive focal necrosis in
kidney, liver, and spleen

Wolf, 1988
Mortensen, 1999
Kurath & Winton, 2008

Kidney,
spleen, liver

Lethargy, sporadic hyperactivity,

darkening of the skin, anorexia,
exophthalmia, possible long white
discharge from anus, bleeding at base
of fins

Stomach empty of food but swollen with a gelatinous

substance; pale internal organs; degenerative necrosis
in hematopoietic tissues, kidney, spleen , liver,
pancreas, and gastro-intestinal tract

Wolf, 1988
Yasutake, 1978
Park et al., 1993
Penaranda et al., 2009

Cauliflower-like lesions on body surface

Lymphocytes, viz. mouth, fin, and tail; swimming
epidermal cells affected; gray coloration; aggression
and cannibalization of lesions

Virus is typically dermatotrophic and superficial, much

Perkins et al., 1972
like that of warts; is macroscopic in the lesions and
Shelton & Wilson, 1973
occurs mostly at the periphery of the vascular system;
Bowden et al., 1995
extreme hypertrophy of fibroblast cells

Nervous
system

Cork-screwing, whirling, darting and

belly-up motion, swim bladder
hyperinflation, cessation of feeding,
pale gray body pigmentation

Vacuolated lesions in the central nervous system and

inclusion bodies

Wolf, 1988
Munday et al., 2002
Nakai et al., 2009

Gills, spleen,
other internal
organs

Lethargy, cessation of feeding, pale

discoloration of body

Severe anemia, pinpoint hemorrhage of the gills,

enlarged spleen, crystalline rodlike bodies in
cytoplasm, hyperplasia of gills followed by necrosis of
pillar cells

Wolf, 1988
Yasutake, 1978

Liver, kidney,
Rainbow trout, perch
spleen, other
(redfin, macquarie,
parenchymal
silver), sheat fish
tissues

Rainbow trout, pike

Clinical signs

Liver, kidney,
spleen, gills,
brain

Distended abdomen, darkened skin

color, petechial (pinpoint) hemorrhages
at base of fins, hemorrhaging of the
gills
Exophthalmia; pale gills; hemorrhages
on the skin, bases of fins, and vent;
abdominal distension or dropsy and a
protruding vent (anus), often with
trailing mucoid fecal casts

Acute focal, multifocal, or locally extensive coagulative

or liquefactive necrosis of liver, hematopoietic kidney,
and spleen; a small number of basophilic intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies may be seen, particularly in
areas immediately surrounding necrotic areas in the
liver and kidney
Excess ascitic fluid in the abdominal cavity,
degeneration of the gill lamellae and inflammation of
the intestine; oedema and hemorrhage of visceral
organs is commonly observed; focal hemorrhages may
be seen in the muscle and fat tissue, as well as in the
swim bladder

Whittington et al., 1999,

2010
OIE, 2000

Ahne, 1985
Fijan, 1999
Goodwin et al., 2004
Goodwin, 2009

Mariculture finfish diseases

Oncorhynchus
masou Virus
Disease (OMVD)

Salmon, rainbow
trout

Lethargy, anorexia, darkening of the

body, skin ulcers, petechiae; many fish
Skin, gill, liver,
die; tumors occur mainly on the jaws
kidney, spleen
but also on the fins, operculum,
cornea, and body surface

Atlantic salmon,
rainbow trout, cod,
pollock

Endothelial
cells in heart,
liver, spleen,
and kidney

Herpesvirus

10

Infectious Salmon
Anemia (ISA)
Orthomyxovirus

Pale gills (except in the case of blood

stasis in the gills), exophthalmia,
distended abdomen, blood in the
anterior eye chamber, and sometimes
skin hemorrhages especially of the
abdomen, scale pocket oedema

11

Edema and hemorrhages. skin ulcers, white spots on

the liver. neoplasia around mouthparts or on body
surface; tumors may also be found in the kidney; skin
ulcers, intestinal hemorrhages, and white spots on the
liver can occur in rainbow trout.
Yellowish or blood-tinged fluid in peritoneal and
pericardial cavities; oedema of the swim bladder;
small hemorrhages of the visceral and parietal
peritoneum; dark redness of intestinal wall mucosa in
blind sacs, mid-gut, and hind-gut; lacking blood in the
gut lumen of fresh specimens; focal or diffusely dark
red liver

Yoshimizu et al., 1993

OIE, 2000

Thorud & Djupvik, 1988

Kawaoka et al., 2005

Table 2. Bacterial diseases.

No.

Disease and
causative agent

Affected species

Target organ

Clinical signs

Gross pathology

Reference

Gram-negative
Vibriosis
1

Salmon, trout, eel

Vibrio anguillarum, (Japanese ,
V. alginolyticus, V. European), ayu,
ordalli, V.vulnificus, turbot, seabass,
V. harveyi, V.
seabream, cod
damsella
Flexibacteriosis
Flexibacteriosis
Tenacibaculum
maritimum
(formerly
Flexibacter
maritimus)
Bacterial Kidney
Disease (BKD)
Renibacterium
salmoninarum
Furunculosis

Aeromonas
salmonicida
Piscirickettsiosis
Piscirickettsia

Turbot, salmonids,
sole, seabass,
seabream, flounder,
Dover sole, Atlantic
salmon
Atlantic salmon,
bartail flathead, trout
(brook, brown,
rainbow trout),
Chinook salmon,
flathead minnow,
Pacific herring
Atlantic salmon,
trout, Japanese eel,
cod, halibut, pike,
sea bream, turbot,
striped bass
Salmon (Chinook,
chum, sockeye, pink,
Atlantic, sakura),

Skin

Anorexia, abdominal distension,

darkening of body, exophthalmia,
sudden death in young fish, generalized
septicaemia with hemorrhage on the
base of fins, exophthalmia, corneal
opacity

Muroga et al., 1979

Colorni et al., 1981
Spleenomegaly; liquefaction of spleen and kidney;
Lamas et al., 1990
petechiation of peritoneum; cardiac myopathy in acute
Fouz et al., 1992
form and deep granulamatous muscle lesions on
Austin & Austin, 1993
various body parts in chronic form
Hjeltnes & Roberts, 1993
Toranzo et al., 2005

Skin, gills

Ulcers, reddening, erosion of skin,

yellow mucoid material on skin, eroded
and hemorrhagic mouth, ulcerative skin
lesions, frayed fins, tail rot

Primary epithelial disease, erosive skin, and gill lesion

that may become systemic; whitish plaques that may
have red periphery on the head, back, or fins;
sloughing of epithelium

Wakabayashi et al., 1986

Baxa et al., 1987
Toranzo et al., 2005

Exophthalmia (pop eye), distended

Spleen,
stomachs, skin lesions, darkening of
kidney,
skin, hemorrhages at base of the fins
visceral organs or at the vent, small ulcerations due to
the rupture of small cutaneous vesicles

Creamy white granulomas in kidney and sometimes in

Traxler & Bell, 1988
liver and spleen, fluid in stomach cavity, hemorrhages
Evelyn, 1993
on abdominal wall and in the viscera, enlarged spleen,
Wiens & Kaattary, 1999
holes in muscle blocks

Lethargy, cessation of feeding, deep

ulcerative lesions, exopthalmos,
swollen abdomen, respiratory distress
and random jumping from water
immediately before an outbreak
Whitish to reddish skin, ulcers,
Skin, liver,
lethargy, circling, cessation of feeding,
spleen, kidney
emaciation, respiratory distress,

Skin ulcers and furuncles, hemorrhages in muscle and

internal organs, enlarged spleen and focal necrosis of
the liver; stomach filled with mucus, blood, and
sloughed epithelial cells; congested intestine, fusion of
gill lamellae
Pale gills, systemic vasculitis with granulamatous
inflammation, gray swollen spleen and kidneys,
mottled to spotted liver with large pale necrotic

Skin, muscle,
liver, spleen,
kidney

Herman, 1968
Roberts, 1989a
Munro & Hastings, 1993
Toranzo et al., 2005
Turnbull, 1993
Birrell et al., 2003

12
salmonis,
Rickettsia-like
organisms
6

Pasteurellosis
Pasteurella piscida
Fin rot

Pseudomonas
fluorescens, P.
putida, P.
putrefaciens
Edwardsiellosis
Edwardsiella tarda
Enteric red mouth
Yersinia ruckeri

Saravanan et al.

rainbow trout

swimming at the sides of net pens,

anorexia

lesions, pinpoint hemorrhages of the stomach organs

and flank muscle

White perch, sea

bream (black, red),
ayu, red grouper,
yellow tail, seabass,
sole

Spleen, liver,
pancreas

Lethargy; occasional darkened spots on

Small hemorrhages around gill covers or the base of
the body surface; diseased fish rapidly
fins; necrosis of spleen, liver, and pancreas; multiple
lose their vigor, sink to the bottom, and
raised white nodules on spleen and kidney
die

Snieszko et al., 1964

Hawke et al., 1987
Kitao, 1993a
Magarinos et al., 2003

Hybrid striped bass,

rainbow trout,
European eel, sea
bream, ayu, turbot

Fins

Fin erosion, anorexia, inactivity, skin

discoloration, emaciation

Typical bacterial septicemia, ulceration, hemorrhages

at the site of infection

Bauer et al., 1973

Nakai et al., 1985
Lopez-Romalde et al., 2003

Multi organ
infection

Hypoxia; swollen abdomen; lesions on

body surface, flanks, and caudal
peduncle; petechial hemorrhages, skin
depigmentation

Epithelial hyperplasia that can give fish a tarred

Meyer & Bullock, 1973
appearance, necrosis in the lateral line of body surface
Kubota et al., 1981
and gills, anemia; white bacteria-filled nodules in gills,
Herman and Bullock, 1986
kidney, liver, spleen, and intestine

Skin, internal
organs

Abdominal distension, unilateral or

bilateral exophthalmos, hyphema

Leucocytosis, reticulocytosis, low hematocrit;

hemorrhage of gills, kidney, liver, spleen, heart, and
muscle; anemia

Frerichs et al., 1985

Stevenson et al., 1993

central
nervous
system,
internal
organs

Exophthalmia, hemorrhages on the

body, darkening of the body, erratic
swimming, abdominal distention

Sersanguinous fluid in peritoneal cavity and intestine;

meningoencephalitis; hemorrhage in the intestine,
liver, spleen, and kidney; necroses of the heart, gill,
skin, and eye

Plumb et al., 1974

Baya et al., 1990
Kitao, 1993b
Ravelo et al., 2001
Colorni et al., 2002
Sobhana, 2009

Skin

Exophthalmia, skin ulcers

Disease reported only once

Kusuda & Sugiyama, 1981

Skin, muscle,
internal
organs

Anorexia, inactivity, skin discoloration,

emaciation

Short coccobacilliary to long slender branching rods in

chronic inflammatory lesions may ulcerate or extend to
skeletal muscle and visceral organs causing abdominal
distension

Wood & Ordal, 1958

Conroy, 1964
Van Duijn, 1981
Sobhana, 2009

Skin, kidney,
liver, spleen

Spleen and kidney are enlarged with granulomatous

Superficial ulcers and exophthalmia,
lesions that appear macroscopically as whitish
scale loss accompanied by hemorrhagic
nodules; in advanced cases these lesions spread to
lesions penetrating the musculature
liver, heart, mesentery, etc.

Hederick et al., 1987

Colorni, 1992
Diamant et al., 2000

Skin, internal
organs

Dark color, slightly swollen; fish float

listlessly on the surface then sink
lifeless to the bottom

Cann & Taylor, 1982

Eklund et al., 1982
Roberts, 1989b

Striped bass,
Japanese eel,
Japanese flounder,
red sea bream,
crayfish, striped
mullet
Salmon, trout,
seabass, sturgeon,
turbot, whitefish,
Arctic char

Gram-positive
Streptococcosis
10 Streptococcus
iniae, S. shiloi, S.
difficile

Red sea bream,

yellow tail
Largemouth bass,
Pacific salmon,
12
Nocardia asteroides rainbow trout, jack
N. campuchi
mackerel, yellow tail
European sea bass,
Mycobacteriosis
striped bass, red
13
drum, cod, halibut,
Mycobacterium
Atlantic mackerel,
marinum
rabbit fish
Botulism
Rainbow trout, coho
14
Clostridium
salmon
botulinum
11

Staphylococcus
epidermis
Nocardiosis

Striped mullet,
croaker, yellow tail,
ayu, sea bream (red,
wrasse), siganids, red
drum

Pallor of the gills, slight abdominal oedema, an empty

digestive tract

Mariculture finfish diseases

13

Table 3. Parasitic diseases.

No. Causative agent
Ciliates
1

Cryptocaryon
irritans
Ciliates
Tricodina spp
Ciliates
Brooklynella spp.
Dinoflagellates

Amyloodinium
ocellatum
Myxosporeans
Sphaerospora spp.
Microsporidians

Affected species
Epinephelus spp.,
Lutjanus spp., Lates
calcarifer,
Trachinotus blochii
Salmonids, cod, eels,
Gobiidae,
Sygnathidae
Marine teleosts

Target organ
Gills, body
surface
Skin, gills,
fins, urinary
tract
Gills

Striped bass, redfish,

Gills, body
gray mullet, snapper,
surface
European seabass

Clinical signs
Whitish spot on body surface, darkened
body, lethargy, exophthalmia,
increased mucus production, rubbing
body surface against net
Lethargy, non-feeding, pale gills with
increased mucus production, rubbing
body surface against net
Lethargy, non-feeding, rubbing body
surface against net
Fish gather at water surface or aeration
outlet, rapid gill operculum movement,
pale gills, darkened body, increased
mucus production in gills
Loss of equilibrium, floating upside
down, some with swollen abdomen and
hemorrhages on mouth and body
surface

Gross pathology

Reference

Petechial hemorrhages in the skin, excess mucus

production, skin ulcers with secondary Pseudomonas
spp. infections

Nigrelli & Ruggieri, 1966

Hyperplasia and necrosis of epidermis, extensive

desquamation of epithelium

Arthur & Margolis, 1984

Destruction of gill surface tissue, hemorrhages in the

gills, desquamation, cell proliferation and other tissue
reactions

Lom & Nigrelli, 1970

Trophonts in pseudobranch, branchial cavity, and

nasal passages; gill hyperplasia, inflammation,
Paperna, 1980
hemorrhage and necrosis, osmoregulatory impairment
Hypertrophy of cartilage and inflammation of
surrounding tissues, granulomas in organ of balance,
Lom & Dykova, 1992
lesions in vertebral column and depression in cranium,
mandibular and vertebral deformity
Intestinal lesions, white cyst-like xenoma formation in
subepithelial connective tissues causing thickening of McVicar, 1975
intestinal wall, atrophy of epithelium and luminal
Cali & Takvorian, 2003
occlusion

European seabass,
striped bass,
redfish, grouper

Kidney, liver,
spleen,
intestine

Ayu, Pleuronectes,
plaice, flounders,
Pseudopleuronectes

Multi organ
infection

Swollen abdomen, black nodules on

internal organs

Body surface

Darkened body, erratic swimming

behavior, rubbing against net, pale
gills, lethargy and loss of appetite,
opaque eyes

Patches of dryness on scales or loss of scales on

forehead (above the eyes), hemorrhage and necrosis
on body surface

Egusa, 1983

Gills

Darkened body, rubbing against net,

pale gills, lethargy, loss of appetite

Hemorrhages in gills, hyperproduction of mucus,

inflammation and hyperplasia of gill epithelium with
inclusion of leucocytes, fusion of gill lamellae

Paperna & Laurencin, 1979

Gills

Darkened body, pale gills, lethargy,

loss of appetite, excess mucus
production

Attachment of the worm induces extensive reaction on

gill tissue with hyperplasia of epithelial cells and
Ogawa & Egusa, 1976
mucus cells, clubbing of filaments and fusion of
lamellae

Gills

Lethargy, anorexia; pale gills, muscle,

and kidney; loss of appetite, anemia

Extensive hyperplasia and tissue destruction at the site Egusa, 1983

of attachment, severe anemia in host tissue, low blood Kim & Cho, 2000
counts, high urea and creatinine
Ogawa, 2002

Glugea spp.
Pleistophora spp.
Capsalid
monogeneans (skin
flukes)
Japanese yellow tail,
Japanese flounder
Benedenia spp.
Neobenedenia spp.
Diplectanic
monogeneans (gill
flukes)
Sea bass
Diplectenum spp.
Dactylogyrid monogeneans (gill
Brown trout,
flukes)
yellow tail, Japanese
flounder, red sea
Haliotrema spp.
bream
Dactylogyrus spp.
Microcotylids
monogenean (gill
Trout (rainbow,
flukes)
brown), yellow tail,
Japanese flounder,
Heterobothrium
red sea bream
spp., Heteraxine

14

Saravanan et al.

spp., Microcotyle
spp.
Copepods

Atlantic salmon,
black sea bream,
Caligus spp. (sea
Malabar rock cod,
Skin
lice), Pseudocaligus
giant perch, yellow
spp., Lernanthropus
tail, milk fish
latis
Isopods
Mugilidae, Sparidae,
Skin, gills,
Carangidae, Molidae,
Rhexanella sp.
buccal cavity
Holochepalidae
Nerocila sp.
Hirudinea (leech)

Zeylanicobdella
arugamensis

Ephinephelus coioides Fins, skin

Lethargy at the water surface, erosion

of scales, loss of appetite, pale gills,
excess mucus production

Subepidermal hemorrhaging and erosion of skin

expose cranial bones at high level of infection;
oedema, hyperplasia, sloughing of epidermal cells and Costello, 1993
inflammation caused by attachment, tenency to
secondary bacterial and fungal infection

Loss of appetite, rub body against

object on side of net, sluggish
swimming, rapid gill operculum
movement

Necrosis of skin and gill filaments, loss of gill

filaments, atrophy of gill filaments, skin lesions

Bruce, 1987
Trilles, 1991

Frayed fins, loss of appetite, sluggish

swimming.

Inflammation, displacement and erosion of dermis,

hyperplasia of epithelium, massive infiltration of
inflammatory cells at site of attachment

Cruz-Lacierda
2000

& Burreson,

Table 4. Fungal diseases.

No.

Disease and
causative agent
Saprolegniasis

Saprolegnia
parasitica
Ichthyophoniasis

Ichthyophonus
hoferi

Aphanomyces
invadens
Branchiomycosis

Branchiomyces
demigrans

Affected species
Salmon, Japanese
eel, pike, sea bass,
lamprey, sturgeon,
mullet, tilapia
Herring, sprat,
flounder, flat fish,
mackerel, Atlantic
cod, plaice, brown
trout

Target organ

Clinical signs

Epidermal
tissues, fins

Cotton-like appearance that radiates

out in a circular, crescent-shaped, or
whorled pattern; lethargy, loss of
equilibrium, visible white or gray
patches of filamentous mycelium,
discoloration of body

Skin, heart,
liver, kidney,
brain

Roughened skin (sand paper effect),

lean and slender appearance of the
body, emaciation, swelling of organs,
distinctive off odor

Gross pathology
Tissue destruction and loss of epithelial integrity,
cellular necrosis, dermal or epidermal damage, hyphae
penetration to basement membrane, hemodilution,
leads to death

Roberts, 1989b
Meyer, 1991
Bruno & Wood, 1994
Hatai & Hoshiai, 1994

Spores and fungal hyphae in the spleen, lumina of

kidney tubules, and muscles below; hemorrhages,
sores, and papillomas; creamy white nodules in the
heart, chronic systemic granulomatous inflammation,
cirrhosis and atrophy of affected organs, massive
tissue invasion and necrosis, leads to death
Extensive myonecrosis, granulomatous myositis,
vacuolation, granulomatous inflammation, necrotic
tissue debris and inflammatory cells in skeletal muscle,
tissue necrosis and debris associated with masses of
free-hyphae focal-advanced deeply-penetrating ulcers
that expose underlying musculature

Miyazaki & Kubota, 1977

Alderman, 1982
Sindermann & Chenoweth,
1993
Hodneland et al., 1997

Atlantic menhaden,
black bull head, blue
gills, American shad, Skin, internal
striped mullet,
organs
largemouth bass,
silver perch

Ulcers, commonly oval in shape with

irregular margins and a creamy to red
coloration at the center; slimy patches
in the skin, cloudy eyes, discoloration
of body

Large-mouth bass,
striped bass,
northern pike

Gills may be mottled in appearance,

Hyperplasia and areas of massive necrosis resulting
discoloration of gill tissue, fusion of gill
from thrombosis of vessels by fungal hyphae with
lamellae, penetration of fungal hyphae
talengiectasis and vascular necrosis
into the blood vessels of gills

Gill

Reference

Fraser et al., 1992

Blazer et al., 2002
Hawke et al., 2003

Wolke, 1975
Alderman, 1982