History of Advanced Composites-not wood

Fiber Glass was one of the earliest available composite material to be used on boats. Most
aircraft structures are mostly in compression. Compression is very hard to figure out. The blades
in the helicopter can be approximated as beams with large deflection and rotation. In order to
keep its dynamic performance within a certain range you need a certain dynamic response.
Blades which have a huge centrifugal load as you try to make them bigger in length or in chord,
it becomes impossible to do it with a metal structure as it becomes too heavy and hence gives an
undesired frequency response.

Composite material could give your pure laminar flow because if you could make the entire
structures without any rivets and if you can maintain your desired dynamic shapes, with the use
of proper molds you can get laminar flow. You can generate shapes such as canard shapes that
will give you extra performance in certain windows of performance envelope.

As the composites have two distinct components, the matrix and the fiber, the prediction as well
as the sequence of the failure is very hard to predict.

Crack propagates in the direction of least resistance. A crack once started as a matric crack when
reaches an interface changes its direction and begins to move along the interface and results in
delamination.
The failures work at a different scale working from the micron level fiber scratches to the matrix
cracking at the millimeter level . So there are different failures or different combination of
failures at different scales and it is important as to decide what level of modelling one has
decided to model these. The molecular level represents the most advanced form of modelling and
hence requires the greatest amount of computer and knowledge resource. Normally the failures
are predicted at the ply level, although there are many factors at play, and those ply predictions
are used in the full scale level.

Composite material being orthotropic materials have two planes of symmetry. A ply consists of
fibers and matrix. An ideal approach would be to characterize the fibers and matrix properties
and predict their collective properties. The stiffness is predicted quite well but the strength
properties fail miserably. The mechanisms of failure are not easily understood.

Cohesive elements are used in the simulation when we are looking to simulate a specific
behavior typically where two materials are being pulled apart. A common event where this would
occur, specific to composite behavior is delamination. Another area would be the adhesive joint ,
fracture at a bonded interface.

Composites are made of at least two distinct intended materials which together improve product
performance and/or lower manufacturing cost. Many materials routinely designated by other
terms are also considered composites such as a clad. However the industrials composites have to
be known as the material composed of a matrix, a base material and a reinforcement material.
The matrix functions as the binder for the reinforcement and controls the physical shape and
dimension of the part. The primary purpose of the matrix is to transfer the stress applied to the
composite to the fiber. The matrix also protects the reinforcement from adverse environmental
effects. The reinforcements purpose is to improve the mechanical properties of the composite
and is typically the main load bearing element. Reinforcement is usually in the form of fibers or
particles.

There are numerous methods of producing parts from fiber reinforced polymer thermoset
polymer with the primary types being

Manual layup

Maunal layup is a widely used method of manufacturing a wide range of composite parts and
componenets. The process begins with the cutting of reinforcement material to size. This may be
performed through knives, scissors, disk cutters, power shears, saws and lasers. A mold having a
desired part shape is then coated with a release agent to permit subsequent part release.
Composite manufacturing molds are commonly made of steel, aluminum, nickel, copper or
polymer matrix composites. Once coated with a release agent a layer of resin called a gel coat
may be applied to the mold and allowed to cure. As the gel coat cures the reinforcement material
is prepared for application by impregnation with wet resin or matrix material. The impregnated
reinforcement material is the placed on the coated mold surface and hand rolled for uniform
distribution and removal of entrapped air. More reinforcement material and resin are applied in a
similar manner until the part thickness builds up. Layup can also be performed using the prepeg
material. Pre-peg material eliminates the separate handling of the reinforcement and the resin.
Pre-peg also reduces resin consumption and can improve part quality by providing a more
consistent over reinforcement and resin content. However it must be kept in refrigerated storage
to prevent curing

Automated layup
Spray up
Pultrusion
Filament winding
Resin transfer molding

Carbon fibers are ten times stronger as steel. And also very light almost a quarter of a density of
steel.

Massive loss of stiffness can occur due to the sliding of the layers over another. Composite
materials are very susceptible to the separation of layers. One of the method used to overcome
the low fracture toughness is the z-pins theough thickness reinforcement method. They are cured
carbon fiber reinforced polymers in the form of rods inserted before composites are cured. They
are designed so that these pins pulls out as crack is advancing and in the process they are
absorbing energy.