Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
dominant view of time is a linear progression. During the Shang, fate could
be manipulated by great deities, commonly translated as gods. Ancestor
worship was present and universally recognized. There was also human and
animal sacrifice.
When the Shang were overthrown by Zhou, a new political, religious and
philosophical concept was introduced called the Mandate of Heaven.
This mandate was said to be taken when rulers became unworthy of their
position and provided a shrewd justification for Zhou rule. During this period,
archaeological evidence points to an increase in literacy and a partial shift
away from the faith placed in Shangdi (the supreme Being in traditional
Chinese religion), with ancestor worship becoming commonplace and a more
worldly orientation coming to the fore.
Pre-Qin Philosophers
In the later years of the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 BC), the
Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BC) collapsed and only sustained itself in name.
Emperors of various states fought against each other. The ritual and music of
the Zhou Dynasty totally fell apart. There were no morals to regulate
peoples minds. The philosophers of this chaotic time naturally focused their
debates on the central theme of how to recover their social system. Most
philosophers were deeply concerned about peoples lives, destinies and
social circumstances. Philosophers cared about different aspects of the
problem, as they began from various starting points, and they provided
diverse or even contradictory answers. Thus, the philosophical thinking of
the Pre-Qin era was mainly presented in the form of political philosophy.
Hence, the great historian Sima Qian declared the relationship of Confucious
parents an informal one. Despite the familys nobility, Confucious and his
relatives had a penurious existence. Confucius lost his father at the age of
three, and his mother passed away at the age of seventeen. He had to face
the world alone after his mother passed away. He studied hard while working
diligently to make a living, holding jobs including storehouse clerk and
shepherd. However, Confucius did not give in to the suffering of life. He set
*Considered the father of Chinese Historiography, he was a Chinese historian of the
Han Dynasty.
his mind on education and continued to study. At about thirty, he first began
to take on disciples. After his lifetime endeavor, Confucious became the
creator of the Confucian School of thought.
When Duke Ding of Lu was in Power, Confucious took various government
positions, such as the governor of Zhongdu City, and Minister of the Public
Construction. When he was fifty-two, he worked as Prime Minister in the
Ministry of Justice. Following a disagreement among the powerful families,
Confucious left his position and travelled around many other states, hoping
he might have a chance to enact his political agenda. However, no rulers
provided him with a position. In his later years, he went back to the state of
Lu, continued his educational career, and taught nearly three thousand
disciples in total, seventy-two of whom became noteworthy in their own
right. Confucious rearranged the documents of poems, history, rituals and
music inherited from Zhou Dynasty. These documents later became classics
and the dominant teachings for traditional political education in China.
Philosophy
At the turning point of the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States
Period (476-221 BC), radical transformation occurred economically, politically
and socially. Throughout the prolonged societal chaos and conflict, the
cultural tradition inherited from ancient times was corrupted. Being aware of
this, Confucious carried in the mission of sustainment and resurrection of the
great cultural tradition. The Analects is a collection of Confucious words and
deeds by his disciples and their followers. We can understand Confucious
political philosophy through the Analects.
Not only does Confucious exhibit keen observation of human affairs, but also
a deep understanding of the movement of nature. Once Confucious stood
over a riverbank and observed, Isnt lifes passing just like this, never
ceasing day or night! Confucious sighed over the passing water because he
felt that existence flows continuously, just as Heraclitus (540-480 BC)
considered everything in constant flux and movement, claiming we cannot
step twice into the same river. Confucious noticed that Tian does not speak,
but the four seasons turn and the myriad things flourish. This is his
illumination over natural creativity. However, Confucious does not discuss
Tian in detail.
in the son.
2. Elder brother to younger brother There should be gentility in the
your ruler, loving your family, wise and brave, modest and humble, honest
and sincere, kind and generous, having a heart of gratitude and feeling of
shame in doing something wrong.
Philosophy
Characterized by its idealism like his belief that the purpose of government
was to reflect and serve the interests of the common people and by his
assumption that mans nature is basically good Mencius theories are based
on Confucius ideas. Even so, his interpretations became classical as well in
Chinese Tradition. He is considered the second great thinker on the
philosophical school of Confucianism.
Main concepts
While Confucius himself did not explicitly focus on the subject off human
nature, Mencius asserted the innate goodness of the individual, believing
that it was societys influence its lack of a positive cultivating influence
that caused bad moral character. He who exerts his mind to the utmost
knows his nature and the way of learning is none other than finding the lost
mind.
To demonstrate the innate goodness, he exemplify by using a childs fall
down a well. Witnesses of this event immediately feel alarm and distress,
not to gain friendship with the childs parents, nor to seek the praise of their
neighbors and friends, nor because they dislike the reputation [of lack of
humanity if they did not recue the child]
The Four Beginnings (or Sprouts)
Commiseration beginning of humanity;
Shame and Dislike beginning of righteousness;
Deference and compliance beginning of propriety;
Right or wrong beginning of wisdom.
According to Mencius human nature has an innate tendency towards
goodness, but moral rightness cannot be instructed down to the last detail.
This is why merely external control fails in improving society. The true
improvements results from educational cultivation in favorable
environments. Likewise, bad environments tend to corrupt the human will.
This, however, is not proof of innate evil because a clear thinking person
would avoid causing harm to others.
Education education must awaken the innate abilities of the human mind.
Destiny he believed in the power of Destiny in shaping the roles of human
beings in society. Destiny cannot be contrived by the human intellect or
foreseen; is shown when a path arises that is both unforeseen and
constructive; should not be confused with fate; one who follows Destiny will
live a long and successful life, otherwise, will die before his time.
View on politics he emphasized the significance of the common citizens
in the state. He argued that it is acceptable for the subjects to overthrow or
even kill a ruler who ignores the peoples needs and rules harshly. This is
justified by the fact that a ruler who does not rule justly is no longer a true
ruler.
The roots of Taoism go back at least to the 4 th century BCE. Early Taoism drew its
cosmological notions from the School of Yinyang (Naturalists), and was deeply
influenced by one of the oldest text of Chinese culture, the Yijing which expounds a
philosophical system about how to keep human behavior in accordance with the
alternating cycles of nature.
Its an ancient Chinese text from the late Warring States period (476-221 BC)
which contains stories and anecdotes that exemplify the carefree nature of
the ideal Daoist sage. His author was Zhuang Zhou and it was published on
the 3rd century BC. Zhuang Zhou said to be born around 369 BC at a place
called Meng in the state of Song (around modern Shangqiu, henan Province)
and died around 301, 295, or 286 BC. Almost nothing is concretely known of
Zhuangzis life.
Is one of the two foundational texts of Daoism along with the Dao De Jing
(Laozi) and it is generally considered the most important of all Daoist
writings.
Mozi
Born: 470 BC in what is now called Tengzhou, Shandong Province
Died: 391 BC
School: Founder of Mohism
Chinese Philosopher during the Hundred Schools of Thought period (early
Warring States period). He founded the school of Mohism that argued
strongly against Confucianism and Daoism.
Philosophy
His philosophy emphasized self-restraint, self-reflection and authenticity
rather than obedience to ritual. Mohism was actively developed and
practiced in many states but fell out of favor when the legalist in Dynasty
came to power.
Born: 280 BC
Died: 236 BC (age 47-48) State of Qin
Cause of Death: Convinced to commit suicide by drinking poison
Notable Work: Han Feizi
Movement: Legalism
These are: (1) The Moral Law; (2) Heaven; (3) Earth;
(4) The Commander; (5) Method and discipline.
These five heads should be familiar to every general: he who knows them
will be victorious; he who knows them not will fail.
According as circumstances are favorable, one should modify one's plans.
All warfare is based on deception.