The World of Energy

Chapter 33 LNG Steam Turbine

33.2. Theory of Steam Turbine

Ch. 33 - 12

Classifications of Steam Turbines

By details of stage design

Impulse
Reaction

By steam supply and

exhaust conditions:

Condensing
Non-condensing (back
pressure)
Automatic or controlled
extraction
Mixed pressure (where there
are two or more steam
sources at different
pressures)
Reheat (where steam is
extracted at an intermediate
stage, reheated in the boiler,
and re-admitted at a lower
turbine stage)

Single or multi-stage

Single casing
Tandem compound (two or
more casings with the shaft
coupled together in line)
Cross compound (two or
more shafts not in line, and
possibly at different RPM)

By number of exhaust
stages in parallel

Two flow, four flow, six flow

5. By direction of steam flow

By casing or shaft
arrangement

Axial flow
Radial flow
Tangential flow

By steam supply

Superheat
Saturated.

Ch. 33 - 13

Steam Turbine Type

Impulse turbine

High velocity fluid operate on the

concave surfaces of the blades almost
exclusively
This is a "bucket effect" means of
extracting energy.
Fluid directed into the concave surface of
the blades and at an angle of about 45
to 85 degrees, relative to the shaft, will
transfer power to the shaft through
impulse.
The unique characteristic of impulse
engines is that the velocity of the gas
decreases upon exiting the blades,
whereas the pressure remains constant.
Energy is transferred by changing the
velocity of the gas -- not its pressure.

Reaction Turbine

The reaction blade acts like a wing

section of a plane, whereas the impulse
blade acts like the piston of an engine.
In the reaction turbine, kinetic gas
energy is converted to shaft power by
decreasing the velocity of the gas and
lowering gas pressure -- just like on an
airplane wing.
As gas enters from the left of the blade
section and travels across the blade
surface, there is a decrease in pressure
on the upper surface, and an increase in
pressure on the lower surface.
As the gas leaves the trailing edge there
is a decrease in gas velocity, pressure,
and a downward angle -- resulting in a
lifting or reaction force.

Ch. 33 - 14

Impulse Turbine

The figure shows the operating

principles of an impulse turbine.
Steam enters an impulse turbine
through a stationary nozzle that
expands the steam and creates a
steam jet.
The steam jet strikes the rotor
buckets.
Note that the terms bucket and
blade are synonymous, however
people uses the term buckets most
often.
In an ideal impulse turbine, the
steam expansion occurs through
the stationary nozzle ; the buckets
change only steam velocity.
Pure, ideal impulse turbines are
seldom used in practice.

Ch. 33 - 15

Reaction Turbine

The figure shown the basic

operating principles of an ideal
reaction turbine.
The turbine rotor is forced to turn
by the active force of the steam
jet leaving the nozzle.
In an ideal reaction turbine, the
moving buckets would be the only
nozzle. Therefore, all the steam
expansion would occur in the
moving buckets.
This is impractical in large
turbines because it is difficult to
admit steam to moving nozzles.
Large turbines use fixed nozzles
to admit steam to moving
nozzles.
Therefore, large reaction turbines
use a combination of impulse and
reaction principles

Ch. 33 - 16

Function of Turbine Stages

There are two basic types of steam turbine stages

Impulse stages are used mostly at the high pressure inlet end
of the turbine.

Impulse stages
Reaction stages.

In an impulse stage, the steam accelerates as it expands through

the nozzle row.
Little further expansion occurs within the rotating blade passages.
Energy is then transferred to the rotor by the change in direction of
the steam flow within the blade passages.
The blades exert a turning force on the steam, and this force drive
the rotor.

Reaction blades are customarily used toward the low-pressure

end of the turbine.

In a pure reaction stage, the blades and nozzles are of similar

(possibly identical) profile, and the steam expands continuously as
it passes through both the stationary and rotating rows.
This permits a more controlled expansion of the steam to be
designed into the turbine.

Ch. 33 - 17

Steam turbine representation on a T-S diagram

Ch. 33 - 18

Turbine Shells and Casings

The function of casings and shells in the turbine is to either

keep the steam in the turbine and/or the air out.
The shells and casings also support the stationary internals of
the turbine and hold those parts in alignment with the rotor.
The HP/IP turbine always has shells or casings. When steam
pressures and temperatures are high enough, there are two
shells used to split up the pressure and temperature
change. The inner shells are supported and positioned within
the outer shell. The inner shells in turn support and position
the other internals, diaphragms and labyrinth seals. The shells
have bolted joints at the horizontal centerline to permit
assembly of the internals.
In operation, the shells are covered with insulation to prevent
heat loss. Appearance lagging is installed over most of the
turbine. This lagging is to the turbine what the body of a car is
to the frame and engine.

Ch. 33 - 19

Steam Turbine Cutaway

Tandem Compound-Two flow, Reheat, Condensing Turbine

Ch. 33 - 20

Steam Turbine Cutaway

Typical Opposed-Flow High Pressure Reheat

Section and Intermediate Pressure Section

Ch. 33 - 21

Inner & Outer Shells

The low pressure turbine always has inner

and outer shells or casings.
Shells are most common in smaller and
older units and casings on larger newer
units.
The outer shell or casing prevents air from
entering the turbine exhaust and condenser
and directs the steam from the turbine
exhaust to the condenser.
The outer shell or casing is generally
referred to as the exhaust hood.

The inner shell or casing supports and

positions the LP turbine internals.
This inner shell or casing is located inside
the exhaust hood.
The exhaust hood is connected directly to
the condenser, usually at the bottom, and
so is under a partial vacuum in operation.

Ch. 33 - 22

Nozzles and Diaphragms

The purpose of nozzles is to expand

the high pressure steam to extract
its energy and direct the resulting
steam jets toward the rotating
buckets or blades.

The nozzles are made up of many

partitions that have the appearance
of airfoils, similar to rotating blades.

The partitions change the direction

of steam flow to cause it to impinge
on the moving blades of the rotor,
as well as to increase the velocity of
the flow.

The partitions are held in place in a

disk-like structure that, together
with the partitions, is called a
diaphragm (see figure).

The diaphragm fits into circumferential slots in the turbine shell inside
diameter. It is split at the horizontal joint for assembly.

There are labyrinth seals at the inside diameter of the diaphragm to reduce
steam leakage between the rotor and the diaphragm and seal strips near the
outside diameter to reduce leakage around the bucket tips.

Ch. 33 - 23

Diaphragms and Buckets

Cutaway

Cross Section

Ch. 33 - 24

Turbine Seals

Seals are used to control the leakage of steam.

The leakage may be between turbine stages inside the
turbine or where the shaft penetrates the turbine shells or
casings.
The interstage seals, as they are called, are mounted on the
inside diameter of the diaphragms.
Seals which are used to seal the penetration of the rotor
through the turbine casings or one turbine section from
another (as in an HP/IP opposed flow section) are mounted
in packing heads or packing casings.

These seals are numbered in order from the front of the turbine
to the generator as N1, N2 and so on.

The seals which seal the rotor at the penetration through the
shells and casings are connected to the steam seal system
There are a number of different seal types including carbon
seals, labyrinth seals and water seals.
Carbon seals are used on smaller and older units. Seals are
also commonly referred to as packing.

Ch. 33 - 25

Labyrinth Seal (Packing) Ring in Hook Fit

Ch. 33 - 26

Turbine Rotors and Buckets

The turbine buckets or blades work with the steam from the
stationary nozzles to produce a torque on the rotor, or spindle
as it is sometimes called.
The rotor holds all the buckets and transmits the rotating
mechanical energy to the generator.
Buckets or blades generally have the appearance of airfoil
sections. The buckets at the front of the turbine are rather
short but become longer through the steam path to
accommodate the increasing volume of the steam as it flows
through the steam path.
Figure 15 shows a typical bucket. . Figures 9 and 10 show
typical HP/IP and LP turbine rotors.
Turbine rotors are large forgings with a bore hole at the
centerline. Smaller rotors, such as those for the HP and IP
sections, have wheels for the attachment of buckets machined
integrally to the forging. Larger rotors, such as those used for
the LP turbine, have separate wheels shrunk onto the spindle

Ch. 33 - 27

Turbine Rotors and Buckets

Figures show how the bucket is

installed on the rotor wheel with
shroud bands at the bucket tips typing
the buckets together.
Shroud bands are used on almost all
stages of the turbine with the
exception of the last one or two stages
on the LP turbine for most units

Typical Turbine Bucket

Ch. 33 - 28

Turbine Rotors and Buckets

Ch. 33 - 29

Bearings

Bearings support and/or properly position the turbine

rotor with respect to the stationary turbine parts

There are generally two types of bearings

Journal or radial bearings

Thrust bearings

The journal or radial bearings support the weight of the

rotor and position it radially

The thrust bearing absorbs axial forces on the rotor and

positions it axially with respect to the stationary turbine
parts

The generator or the driven process compressors also

uses journal bearings which are the same design as
those used for the turbine.
Ch. 33 - 30

Journal Bearings

Utility turbines use journal

bearing instead of ball or
roller bearings

Journal bearings have a

smooth surface of a soft
material called babbitt

The bearings are fed with

oil ; as the rotor turns, it
produces a pumping action
that builds up pressure and
a film of oil between the
journal surface and the
babbitt so that in normal
operation the surfaces never
touch

Formation of Oil Film in Journal

Bearing

Figure shows the pressure

distribution of the oil in the
bearing.

Ch. 33 - 31

Thrust Bearings

The second type of

turbine bearing is the
thrust bearing.
Like the journal
bearing, the thrust
bearing builds up a
thin film of oil
between the bearing
and a thrust runner
on the rotor.
Thus the rotor never
touches the bearing
surface in normal
operation.
There may be many
journal bearings for
each turbine;
however, there is
only one thrust
bearing.

Thrust
Bearing
Details

It is usually mounted in the front standard for smaller units or in a

standard between the HP or IP section and the LP sections for larger
ones.

Ch. 33 - 32

Turning (Ratcheting) Gear

The turning gear turns the

turbine rotor slowly, about
3-7 rpm, during shutdown,
prior to starting the
turbine, or when the
turbine is hot.
Turning the rotor slowly
ensures that it is heated or
cooled evenly. If the rotor
is allowed to come to a
rest when hot, temporary
bowing and excessive
vibration can
result. Distortion of the
turbine casing also results
because the hotter steam
rises to the top of the
casing.

The turning gear consists of an electric motor driving a speed

reducing gear train.
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called, that can swing toward and away from the turbine rotor.
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of the coupling between the turbine and generator.
Ch. 33 - 33

Shaft grounding brushes

A static charge can build up on the turbine rotor due to

the flow of steam over the buckets. This affect is
somewhat similar to the accumulation of static charge in
clouds that result in lightning

Voltages on the turbine rotor can also result from currents

in the generator rotor and/or the exciter. If there were no
shaft grounding brushes, there would be electrical
discharges from the shaft through the bearings

When the voltage difference between the rotor and

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bearing. The high voltage discharge (up to 150 volts)
would damage the bearings
The shaft grounding brushes provide a low resistance
current path from the rotor to ground. This prevents high
voltages from developing and so prevents bearing
damage. There are generally two types of shaft grounding
brushes used.

Ch. 33 - 34

Main Steam Valves

The main steam valves control the flow of steam
from the boiler to the turbine under emergency and
normal operating conditions
There are generally two sets of valves in series in
the piping from the boiler to the turbine for each
section of the turbine that gets steam directly from
the boiler
On a nonreheat unit, only the HP turbine receives
steam directly from the boiler, and the main stop
valves and the control valves control steam flow

If the turbine is a reheat unit, then there will be a

second set of valves in series at the reheat turbine
inlet after the reheater, the reheat stop valves and
intercept valves.

Ch. 33 - 35

Main Stop Valves

A main stop valve is not a

modulating valve ; it is either fully
open, or fully closed.
The main stop valves open fully when
the turbine is reset and remain fully
open until the turbine is shut down or
an emergency such as overspeed
trips the valves closed.
The main stop valve(s) are located
upstream of the control valves.
The figure shows a cross section of a
typical main stop valve and
actuator.

The stem passes through the

bottom of the valve, downstream
of the seat through the pressure
seal head.
The valve has a backseat in the
pressure seal head which
essentially seals the valve stem
when the valve in fully open. It is
sealed by closely fitting bushings
in the pressure seal head for
situations where the valve is not
fully opened or closed.
There are generally connections to
the steam seal system to help seal
the valve.
There are also drains in the valve,
generally one upstream of the seat
and another downstream. These
are called the before and after seat
drains, respectively.

Ch. 33 - 36

Steam Control Valves

The control valves are located at the

turbine inlet, downstream of the main
stop valve(s). there are usually at
least four, and as many as ten, control
valves.
The control valves control the flow of
steam into the turbine and thus control
speed before the unit is synchronized
to the system, and load after it is
synchronized. They may be positioned
anywhere within their stroke.
There are a number of different control
valve designs.

One of the most simple designs is called

the bar lift. In this design, the valve
stems are opened when the bar is
raised. The sequence of valve opening
is controlled by the length of the
individual valve stems. This type of
design is generally used for small units.
The most common type of valve design
is shown here. There is a separate stem
for each valve operated by a lever and
cam mechanism. Often there will be a
set of valves on the top of the turbine
and another on the bottom.

Ch. 33 - 37

Moisture Separators and Reheaters

One of the most

significant differences
between nuclear and
fossil units is the steam
conditions.
The steam supplied to
fossil units is
superheated
considerably at the inlet
and usually reheated in
the boiler and so the
turbine operates with
dry steam through all
but the last two or three
stages.
The steam supplied to nearly all nuclear units is dry but at or near saturation
conditions. At the HP turbine exhaust the steam may have as much as 15%
moisture. Operation with wet steam causes inefficiency and erosion.
Moisture separators are installed between the HP turbine exhaust and the low
pressure turbines.
Moisture separators are large vessels with special panels which force the wet
steam to follow a zig zag path. 7KHVHSDQHOVDUHPDGHXSRIFKHYURQSODWHV
The water droplets cannot follow the same path since they are so much more
dense than the steam. The droplets fall out and are drained from the
vessel. These moisture separators can remove all but a small fraction of (less
than 1%) the moisture in the steam.

Ch. 33 - 38

Moisture Separator Reheater

Ch. 33 - 39

Turbine Supporting Systems

The turbine, like most large pieces of
equipment, requires support from a
number of subsystems for operation

Lube oil system

EHC hydraulic system
Steam and water seal systems
Exhaust hood cooling system

Ch. 33 - 40