POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

SKPU 4453
DR MUHAMMAD ADIL KHATTAK
ASSIGNMENT 3
MOHAMAD HANIF BIN BASIR
A13KP0145
4SKPN
20th OCTOBER 2016

1. (a)Overfeed Principle
The primary air enters the grate from the bottom. The air while moving through
the grate openings get heated up and air while moving through the grate
openings get heated up and the grate is cooled. The hot air that moves through
a layer of ash and picks up additional energy. The air then passes through a layer
of incandescent coke where oxygen reacts with coke to form-C0 2 and water
vapours accompanying the air react with incandescent coke to form CO 2, CO and
free H2. The gases leaving the surface of fuel bed contain volatile matter of raw
fuel and gases like CO2, CO, H2, N2 and H2O. Then additional air known as
secondary air is supplied to burn the combustible gases. The combustion gases
entering the boiler consist of N2, CO2, O2 and H2O and also CO if the combustion
is not complete.

Underfeed Principle
In underfeed principle air entering through the holes in the grate comes in
contact with the raw coal (green coal). Then it passes through the incandescent
coke where reactions similar to overfeed system take place. The gases produced
then passes through a layer of ash. The secondary air is supplied to burn the
combustible gases. Underfeed principle is suitable for burning the semibituminous and bituminous coals.

(b) What are the different methods of firing coal? Discuss the
advantages of mechanical methods of firing coal.
Hand firing and Mechanical firing.
Advantages of mechanical firing method:
Large quantities of fuel can be fed into the furnace. Thus, greater
combustion capacity is achieved.
Poorer grades of fuel can be burnt easily.
Stoker save labour of handling ash and are self-cleaning.
By using stokers better furnace conditions can be maintained by
feeding coal at a uniform rate.
Stokers save coal and increase the efficiency of coal firing. The
main disadvantages of stokers are their more costs of operation
and repairing resulting from high furnace temperatures.

(c) Make neat sketch and explain the working of

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Chain Grate Stoker

The chain travels over two sprocket wheels, one at the front and one at
the rear of furnace. The traveling chain receives coal at its front end
through a hopper and carries it into the furnace. The ash is tipped from the
rear end of chain. The air required for combustion enters through the air
inlets situated below the grate.

Spreader Stoker

The coal from the hopper is fed on to a feeder which measures the coal in
accordance to the requirements. Feeder is a rotating drum fitted with
blades. From the feeder, the coal drops on to spreader distributor which
spread the coal over the furnace. The spreader system should distribute
the coal evenly over the entire grate area. The spreader speed depends on
the size of coal.

Multi-retort Stoker

The coal falling from the hopper is pushed forward during the inward
stroke of stoker ram. The distributing rams (pushers) then slowly move the
entire coal bed down the length of stoker. The slope of stroke helps in
moving the fuel bed and this fuel bed movement keeps it slightly agitated
to break up clinker formation. The primary air enters the fuel bed from
main wind box situated below the stoker. Partly burnt coal moves on to the
extension grate. A thinner fuel bed on the extension grate requires lower
air pressure under it. The air entering from the main wind box into the
extension grate wind box is regulated by an air damper.

(d) What is Fluidised Bed Combustion System

Fluidised Bed combustion system is a combustion technology used to burn fuels.
It can burn any fuel including low grade coals (even containing 70% ash), oil, gas
or municipal waste. Improved desulphurisation and low NOX emission are its
main characteristics.

The fuel and inert material dolomite are fed on a distribution plate and air is
supplied from the bottom of distribution plate. The air is supplied at high velocity
so that solid feed material remains in suspension condition during burning. The
heat produced is used to heat water flowing through the tube and convert water
into steam.
3

Advantages of FBC system:

FBC system can use any type of low grade fuel including municipal wastes
and therefore is a cheaper method of power generation.
It is easier to control the amount of SO2 and NOX, formed during burning.
Low emission of SO2 and NOX. will help in controlling the undesirable
effects of SO2 and NOX. during combustion. SO2 emission is nearly 15% of
that in conventional firing methods.
There is a saving of about 10% in operating cost and 15% in the capital
cost of the power plant.
The size of coal used has pronounced effect on the operation and
performance of FBC system. The particle size preferred is 6 to 13 mm but
even 50 mm size coal can also be used in this system.

2. Describe the various types of grates used with hand fired

furnaces.

Tuper grate
Common Grate Bar
Sawdust Grate

3. Name the various methods of ash handling. Describe the

pneumatic system of ash handling. Why it is essential to
quench the ash before handling?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Hydraulic System
Water Jetting
Ash Sluice Ways and Ash Sump System
Pneumatic system
Mechanical ash handling system

In pneumatic system, ash from the boiler furnace outlet falls into a crusher
where larger ash particles are crushed to small sizes. The ash is then carried by a
high velocity air or steam to the point of delivery. Air leaving the ash separator is
passed through filter to remove dust, so that the exhauster handles clean air
which will protect the blades of the exhauster.

Essential to quench the ash before handling due to following reasons:

1. Quenching reduces the temperature of ash.
2. It reduces the corrosive action of ash.
3. Ash forms clinkers by fusing in large lumps and by quenching clinkers will
disintegrate.
4. Quenching reduces the dust accompanying the ash.

4. (a) Describe the various methods used to fire pulverised coal

Unit System or Direct System. In this system, the raw coal from the coal
bunker drops on to the feeder. Hot air is passed through coal in the feeder to dry
the coal. The coal is then transferred to the pulverising mill where it is
pulverised. Primary air is supplied to the mill, by the fan. The mixture of
pulverised coal and primary air then flows to burner where secondary air is
added. The unit system is so called from the fact that each burner or a burner
group and pulveriser constitute a unit.
Bin or Central System. Crushed coal from the raw coal bunker is fed by gravity
to a dryer where hot air is passed through the coal to dry it. The dryer may use
waste flue gases, preheated air or bleeder steam as drying agent. The dry coal is
then transferred to the pulverising mill. The pulverised coal obtained is
transferred to the pulverised coal bunker (bin). The transporting air is separated
from the coal in the cyclone separator. The primary air is mixed with the coal at
the feeder and the mixture is supplied to the burner.

(b) Make a neat sketch of ball and Race mill and explain its
working

In this mill the coal passes between the rotating elements again and again until it
has been pulverized to desired degree of fineness. The coal is crushed between
two moving surfaces namely balls and races. The upper stationary race and
lower rotating race driven by a worm and gear hold the balls between them. The
raw coal supplied falls on the inner side of the races. The moving balls and races
catch coal between them to crush it to a powder. The necessary force needed for
crushing is applied with the help of springs. The hot air supplied picks up the coal
dust as it flows between the balls and races, and then enters the classifier.
Where oversized coal particles are returned for further grinding, whereas the coal
particles of required size are discharged from the top of classifier.

(c) State the advantages of pulverised fuel firing

The advantages of using pulverized coal are as follows:
1. It becomes easy to burn wide variety of coal. Low grade coal can be burnt
easily.
2. Powdered coal has more heating surface area. They permit rapids and high
rates of combustion.
3. Pulverized coal firing requires low percentage of excess air.
4. By using pulverized coal, rate of combustion can be adjusted easily to
meet the varying load.
5. The system is free from clinker troubles.
6. It can utilize highly preheated air (of the order of 700F) successfully
which promotes rapid flame propagation.
7. As the fuel pulverising equipment is located outside the furnace, therefore
it can be repaired without cooling the unit down.
8. High temperature can be produced in furnace.

5. Name the different types of coal-pulverising mills. Describe

Ball-Mill
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Ball mill
Hammer mill
Ball and race mill
Bowl mill
Shaft mill

Ball mill consists of a slowly rotating drum which is partly filled with steel balls.
Raw coal from feeders is supplied to the classifiers from where it moves to the
drum by means of a screw conveyor. As the drum rotates the coal gets
pulverized due to the combined impact between coal and steel balls. Hot air is
introduced into the drum. The powdered coal is picked up by the air and the coal
air mixture enters the classifiers, where sharp changes in the direction of the
mixture throw out the oversized coal particles. The over-sized particles are
returned to the drum. The coal air mixture from the classifier moves to the
exhauster fan and then it is supplied to the burners.

6. Describe the various types of burners used to burn pulverised

coal

1. Long Flame Burner (U-Flame Burner). In this burner air and coal
mixture travels a considerable distance thus providing sufficient time for
complete combustion.
2. Short Flame Burner (Turbulent Burner). The burner is fitted in the
furnace will and the flame enters the furnace horizontally.
3. Tangential Burner. In this system, one burner is fitted attach corner of
the furnace. The inclination of the burner is so made that the flame
produced are tangential to an imaginary circle at the centre.
4. Cyclone Burner. This burner uses crushed coal intend of pulverised coal.

7. Name various draught systems. Describe the operation of a

balanced draught system.
Draught system can be consists of two types:
-

Natural Draught
Artificial Draught

Artificial draught can be further classified as:

1. Forced draught
In a forced draught system, a lower is installed near the base of the boiler
and air is forced to pass through the furnace, flues, economizer, airpreheater and to the stack. This draught system is known as positive
draught or forced draught system because the pressure of air throughout
the system is above atmospheric pressure and air is forced to flow through
the system. A stack or chimney is also used in this system but its function
is to discharge gases high in the atmosphere to prevent the
contamination. It is not much significant for producing draught therefore
height of the chimney may not be very much.

2. Induced draught
In this system, the blower is located near the base of the chimney instead
of near the grate. The air is sucked in the system by reducing the pressure
through the system below atmosphere. The induced draught fan sucks the
burned gases from the furnace and the pressure inside the furnace is
reduced below atmosphere and induces the atmospheric air to flow
through the furnace. The action of the induced draught is similar to the
action of the chimney. The draught produced is independent of the
temperature of the hot gases therefore the gases may be discharged as
cold as possible after recovering as much heat as possible in the airpreheater and economizer.
This draught is used generally when economizer and air-preheater are
incorporated in the system. The fan should be located at such a place that
the temperature of the gas handled by the fan is lowest. The chimney is
also used in this system and its function is similar as mentioned in forced
draught but total draught produced in induced draught is the sum of the
draught produced by the chimney and the fan.

3. Balanced draught
It is always preferable to use a combination of forced draught and induced
draught instead of using any one of these system alone. If the forced
furnace is used alone, then the furnace cannot be opened either for
inspection or for firing because the high pressure air inside the furnace will
try to blow out suddenly and there us every chance of blowing out the fire
completely and furnace stops. If the induced draught is used alone, then
also furnace cannot be opened either for firing or inspection because the
cold air will try to rush into the furnace as the pressure inside the furnace
is below the atmospheric pressure. This reduces the effective draught and
dilutes the combination. To overcome both the difficulties mentioned
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above either using forced draught or induced draught alone, a balanced

draught is always preferred. The balanced draught is a combination of
forced and induced draught. The forced draught overcomes the resistance
of the fuel bed therefore sufficient air is supplied to the fuel bed for proper
and complete combustion. The induced draught fan removes the gases
from the furnace maintaining the pressure inside the furnace just below
atmosphere. This helps to prevent the blow-off of flames when the doors
are opened as the leakage of air is inwards. The pressure inside the
furnace is near atmospheric so there is no danger of blowout of flames or
there is no danger of inrushing the air into the furnace when the doors are
opened for inspection. The pressure of air below the grate is above
atmosphere and it helps for proper and uniform combustion. The pressure
of air above the grate is just below the atmosphere and it helps to remove
the exhaust gases as quick as possible from the combustion zone.

8. What is the cause of smoke? State the factors necessary for its
prevention.
Smoke is caused by the incomplete combustion of coal which consists of
particles of soot or carbon, tarry droplets of unburnt hydrocarbons and CO. The
main sources of atmospheric pollution may be summarized as follows:
-

The combustion of fuels to produce energy for heating and power

generation both in the domestic sector as well as in the industrial sector.
The exhaust emissions from the transport vehicles that use petrol, or
diesel oil etc.
Waste gases, dust and heat from many industrial sites including chemical
manufacturers, electrical power generating stations etc.

Smoke can increase the atmospheric turbidity and reduce the amount of solar
radiation reaching the ground. The overall effect of air pollution upon the
biosphere and the built environment can be broadly considered under 3 headings
which are:
1. Building and materials
2. Soil, vegetation, crops and animal life
3. Human beings
Government has taken some important initiatives in the recent years. To start
with the emphasis and implementation has been primarily in the big cities but
gradually to spread throughout the country. Unloaded petrol has been used to
reduce the pollution in atmosphere. Secondly, Sulphur in diesel supplied has
been reduced from 0.5% in 1996 to 0.25% in 1997 so as to meet the EURO-II
norms. Thirdly, tightening of the vehicular emission norms must be implemented
in the passenger cars. Fourthly, low smoke 2-T oil for two stroke engines need to
be used to reduce the atmosphere pollution.

9. Name the different types of chimneys used. State the

advantages of steel chimney. Derive an expression for the height
of chimney.
Chimneys are tall and slender structures which are used to discharge waste/flue
gases at higher elevation with sufficient exit velocity such that the gases and
suspended solids (ash) are dispersed into the atmosphere over a defined spread
such that their concentration, on reaching the ground is within acceptable limits
specified by Pollution Control Regulatory Authorities.
Chimneys can be classified into:
(a) Based on number of flues
- Single flue (each boiler will have an independent chimney)
- Multi flue (single chimney serves more than one boiler, more flues are
housed inside a common concrete windshield)
(b) Based on material of construction
- Concrete (chimney); reinforced/pre-stressed
- Steel (stack)
(c) Based on structural support
- Guyed stacks (used in steel stacks for deflection control)
- Self-supporting (cantilever structures)
(d) Based on lining
- With lining : lined chimneys/stacks
- Without lining : unlined chimneys/stacks
Advantages of steel chimney are that it resists corrosion and can withstand a
strong wind. Moreover, the steel chimney is cheaper compared with concrete
chimney.
The height of the chimney must be low to facilitate the locomotive to pass
through tunnels and bridges.

10. Describe the various methods used to control the degree of

superheat. Name the advantages gained by using super-heat
steam.
A method for controlling the degree of superheat of an air conditioner, said air
conditioner including a compressor controlled in a pulse width modulation
manner according to duty control signals, an electronic expansion valve and an
evaporator, comprising the steps of:
-

Detecting entrance and exit temperatures of said evaporator

Calculating degree of superheat on the basis of detected entrance and exit
temperatures
Calculating target opening value of said electronic expansion valve on the
basis of the calculated degree of superheat
Regulating said electronic expansion valve to a calculated target opening
value

Advantages gained by using super-heat steam are:

-

High temperature at normal pressure

Extremely high thermal conductivity
Highly efficient drying capability
10

Low oxygen conditions

11

11. What is condenser? Name the different types of condenser.

Describe the operation of (i) surface condenser (ii) jet condenser
Condenser is a closed vessel in which steam is condensed by abstracting the
heat and where the pressure is maintained below atmospheric pressure. There
are two types of condenser which are:
-

Surface condenser
In surface condensers there is no direct contact between the steam and
cooling water and the condensate can be re-used in the boiler: In such
condenser even impure water can be used for cooling purpose whereas
the cooling water must be pure in jet condensers. Although the capital
cost and the space needed is more in surface condensers but it is justified
by the saving in running cost and increase in efficiency of plant achieved
by using this condenser. Depending upon the position of condensate
extraction pump, flow of condensate and arrangement of tubes the
surface condensers may be classified as follows:
1. Down flow type shows a sectional view of dawn flow condenser. Steam
enters at the top and flows downward. The water flowing through the
tubes in one direction lower half comes out in the opposite direction in
the upper half.
2. Central flow condenser shows a central flow condenser. In this
condenser the steam passages are all around the periphery of the
shell. Air is pumped away from the center of the condenser. The
condensate moves radially towards the center of tube nest. Some of
the exhaust steams while moving towards the center meets the
undercooled condensate and pre-heats it thus reducing undercooling.
3. Evaporation condenser is when steam to be condensed is passed
through a series of tubes and the cooling waterfalls over these tubes in
the form of spray. A steam of air flows over the tubes to increase
evaporation of cooling water, which further increase the condensation
of steam.

Jet condenser
In jet condensers the exhaust steam and cooling water come in direct
contact with each other. The temperature of cooling water and the
condensate is same when leaving the condensers. Elements of the jet
condenser are as follows:
1. Nozzles or distributors for the condensing water.
2. Steam inlet.
3. Mixing chambers: They may be (a) parallel flow type (b) counter flow
type depending on whether the steam and water move in the same
direction before condensation or whether the flows are opposite.
4. Hot well.
In jet condensers the condensing water is called injection water.

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12. What is a steam trap? Where it is located? Describe Ball Float

steam trap.
Steam trap is a device used to discharge condensate and noncondensable gases with a negligible consumption or loss of live steam.
Most steam traps are nothing more than automatic valves. They open, close or
modulate automatically. Usually steam trap is located at the lowest point of
the equipment. Since steam condensate will collect at the lowest point and live
steam is about 1200 times greater in volume than this hot liquid, condensate is
effectively removed and steam is blocked.
Ball float steam trap is a mechanical traps where they have a float that
rises and falls in relation to condensate level and this usually has a
mechanical linkage attached that opens and closes the valve. It operates
in direct relationship to condensate levels present in the body of the steam trap.
Mechanical traps have a typical service of life of 3 years.

13. What are the requirement of a well-designed pipe line in a

steam power plant? Name and describe the various expansion
bends used in piping steam.
Steam pipe lines are joined together with any type of pipe joints. Some
flexible joints are also necessary for bearing the thermal expansion of pipes and
to save the pipe and other fittings from undue stress and strain. These joints are
called expansion joints. Valves are also required to control the steam or
condensate flow, through pipes. Safety valves must be used for the safety of
steam pipes, joints, fittings and steam using equipment and their safeguard
against blast due to higher pressure in steam distribution system. Some other
pipeline ancillaries like isolation valve, pressure reducing valves, check valves,
strainers, separators, pressure gauges, temperature indicators, sight glasses,
and vacuum breakers are also required in the steam pipe distribution system.
Expansion bends make use of pipe fabricated with special bends.
The increase in the length of pipe due to expansion is taken up by flexing or
springing these bends. The use of expansion bends is usually preferred for high
pressure work as there is no maintenance involved and little likelihood of leaks
developing.

Two types of expansion bends are slip and corrugated

-Slip expansion bends features a slip pipe with a flange bolted to an adjoining
pipe
-Corrugated expansion bends consists of a flexible corrugated section which is
able to absorb a certain amount of endwise movement of the pipe

14. What are the advantages of using large capacity boilers?

Large capacity boilers are water tube boilers
Thus, the advantages of water tube boilers are:
(i) High pressure of the order of 140 kg/cm2 can be obtained.
(ii) Heating surface is large. Therefore steam can be generated easily.
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(iii) Large heating surface can be obtained by use of large number of tubes.
(iv) Because of high movement of water in the tubes the rate of heat transfer
becomes large resulting into a greater efficiency.
Describe the operation of:
(i) Velox Boiler
1. Air is compressed to 2.5 bar with the help of a compressor run by gas turbine
before supplying to the combustion chamber to get the supersonic velocity of the
gases passing through the combustion chamber and gas tubes and high heat
release rates (40 MW/m3).
2. The burned gases in the combustion chamber are passed through the annulus
of the tubes.
3. The heat is transferred from gases to water while passing through the annulus
to generate the steam.
4. The mixture of water and steam thus formed then passes into a separator
which is so designed that the mixture enters with a spiral flow.
5. The centrifugal force thus produced causes the heavier water particles to be
thrown outward on the walls. This effect separates the steam from water.
6. The separated steam is further passed to superheater and then supplied to the
prime-mover. The water removed from steam in the separator is again passed
into the water tubes with the help of a pump.
7. The gases coming out from the annulus at the top are further passed over the
superheater where its heat is used-for superheating the steam.
8. The gases coming out of superheater are used to run a gas turbine as they
carry sufficient kinetic energy. The power output of the gas turbine is used to run
the air compressor.
9. The exhaust gases coming out from the gas turbine are passed through the
economiser to utilise the remaining heat of the gases. The extra power required
to run the compressor is supplied with the help of electric motor.
10. Feed water of 10 to 20 times the weight of steam generated is circulated
through the tubes with the help of water circulating pump. This prevents the
overheating of metal walls. The size of the Velox boiler is limited to 100 tons per
hour because 400 KW is required to run the air compressor at this output. The
power developed by the gas turbine is not sufficient to run the compressor and
therefore some power from external source must be supplied

(ii) Benson Boiler

A Benson boiler is a type of Once-Through Boiler. A high pressure, drum less
water tube steam boiler works on forced circulation. Feed water enters at one
end and discharge superheated steam at the other end. Feed pump increase

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pressure of water to supercritical pressure. Water directly transforms into steam

without boiling.

(iii) Loeffler Boiler

1. The pressure feed pump draws the water through the economiser and
delivers it into the evaporator drum as shown in the figure. About 65% of
the steam coming out of superheater is passed through the evaporator
drum in order to evaporate the feed water coming from economiser.
2. The steam circulating pump draws the saturated steam from the
evaporator drum and is passed through the radiant superheater and then
connective superheater. About 35% of the steam coming out from the
superheater is supplied to the H.P. steam turbine. The steam coming out
from H.P. turbine is passed through reheater before supplying to L.P.
turbine as shown in the figure.
3. The amount of steam generated in the evaporator drum is equal to the
steam tapped (65%) from the superheater. The nozzles which distribute
the superheated steam through the water into the evaporator drum are of
special design to avoid priming and noise.
4. This boiler can carry higher salt concentration than any other type and is
more compact than indirectly heated boilers having natural circulation.
These qualities fit it for land or sea transport power generation. Loeffler
boilers with generating capacity of 94.5 tonnes/hr and operating at 140
bar have already been commissioned.

15. State the advantages and disadvantages of a steam power

station as compared to hydroelectric power station and nuclear
power station.
N
o
1
2
3
4

Particular

Steam PP

Hydroelectric PP

Nuclear PP

High
Low
Low
No fuel used

High
Low
Low
Yes. Disposal of
radioactive waste
More economical.
No CO2 or CO is
emitted.

Lifespan

High
High
Low
Ash handling after
furnace is difficult
Pollution emitted.
Even the ash is
filtered, the ash still
escaped to
atmosphere
20-25 years

Environmental Problem

6
7

Space Required

Less space require

Initial Cost
Operational Cost
Manpower required
Fuel Handling and Waste Handling

15

No pollution

More than 50
years
Moderate

60-100 years
Less
occupied

space

16. Describe the various factors which determine the location of a

steam power station.
1. Proximity to linear facilities (road, rail, transmission corridors, water
supply, and pipeline corridor) essential to support plant development.
2. Topographic factors
3. Air quality exclusion zones
4. Proximity to urbanized or unincorporated residential
5. Aesthetic constraints (including noise, open space and public view)
affecting facilities or height
6. Cultural, terrestrial or aquatic environmental constraints (including
cemeteries, wetlands or other sensitive habitats ) impacting site licensing,
development or operation
7. Geological factors

17. Write short notes on the following:

(a) Cyclone and collector
Cyclone dust collector is commonly used for stoker as well as pulverized fuel
firing. The efficiency range is around 60% to 90%.
A cyclone dust collector uses a downward flowing vortex for dust laden gases
along the inner walls. The clean gas leaves from an inner upward flowing vortex.
The dust particles fall to the bottom due to centrifuging action.
Advantages: 1. High efficiency for large size particles. 2. Low maintenance cost.
3. Simple, cheap and easy operation. 4. Increase in efficiency with increasing
load.
Disadvantages: 1. Efficiency decreases with fineness of particles. 2. High power
requirement for higher vortex velocity of flue gases. 3. Large space requirement.
4. High pressure loss
(b) Industrial steam turbines
A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam
and uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft.
The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives much of its improvement
in thermodynamic efficiency from the use of multiple stages in the expansion of
16

the steam, which results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible expansion
process.
The purpose of turbine technology is to extract the maximum quantity of energy
from the working fluid, to convert it into useful work with maximum efficiency, by
means of a plant having maximum reliability, minimum cost, minimum
supervision and minimum starting time.
(c) Hydraulic test of boiler
Hydraulic test in steam boiler is one of non-destructive examinations which
should be performed for new steam boiler or steam boiler which has been
repaired such as replace water wall, superheater, reheater, economizer and so
on to. Hydrostatic test must be done to make sure that steam boiler is free from
leakage before start up is performed. Before hydrostatic test is executed,
inspection for all welds and installation of pressure parts should be done.
Moreover inside and outside of steam boiler and pressure part shall be free from
all dirt, scale, paint, debris, dirt, weld slag, rust, oil, spatter and all other foreign
matter.
(d) Draught fans
Draught fans are used to produce the necessary draught in order to reduce the
height of chimney , to obtain brought that is independent of atmospheric
condition and to control draught easily in case of fluctuating of loads on the
plant. Mechanical draught might be induced, forced or balanced.
The induced draught system in which fan is located near the base of the
chimney. In this system the air is sucked in the boiler by reducing the pressure
through the boiler below atmosphere. The fan sucks the burned gases from the
boiler side and discharges it to the chimney.
(e) Steam separator
Steam separator has main function to separate water and steam and this
equipment is usually located in steam drum. Water surface in steam drum is
turbulent, so make it easy to mix between steam and water. The principle of
steam separator is make steam flow is changed in any direction. Because of
density of steam is lighter than water make steam can be distributed easier than
water. The water droplet which has higher density will be separated and dropped
from steam. Moisture will be removed by steam separator to eliminate damage
and erosion if water or wet steam is distributed to the steam line.
(f) Economiser
Economizers are heat exchange devices that heat fluids, usually water, up to but
not normally beyond the boiling point of that fluid. Economizers are so named
because they can make use of the enthalpy in fluid streams that are hot, but not
hot enough to be used in a boiler, thereby recovering more useful enthalpy and
improving the boiler's efficiency. They are a device fitted to a boiler which saves
energy by using the exhaust gases from the boiler to preheat the cold water
used to fill it (the feed water).Feed water passes through the economiser before
fed to the boiler. The temperature of the feed water is increased by extracting
heat from flue gases.
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(g) Cyclone fired boilers

The hot gases travel axially into the water tube section having a tight helix path.
The temperature generated in the combustion zone is quite high and because of
this the tubes are coated with fused ash which goes on collecting the ash
particles going in the flue gases. The outgoing gases contain particles less than
20 microns. The cyclone furnaces can successfully burn coals having low ash
fusion temperature. The cyclone furnace is operated under combustion air
pressure of 700 to 1000 mm of water gauge.
Advantages of Cyclone fired boilers:
(i) Quick load variations can be easily handled.
(ii) Nearly 55% of ash in coal is burnt in the form of liquid slag. The ash can be
removed in the molten form.
(iii) The slag can be used as a building material.
(iv) Fly-ash problem is reduced to much lower limits
(h) Pressure Filter
- semi-continuous type machines that enter a wash and cake discharge mode at
the end of the filtration cycle

(i) Air preheater

Air pre-heaters are provided in boilers to preheat the combustion air. The
purpose of the air preheater is to recover the heat from the boiler flue gas which
increases the thermal efficiency of the boiler by reducing the useful heat lost in
the flue gas. As a consequence, the flue gases are also conveyed to the flue gas
stack (or chimney) at a lower temperature, allowing simplified design of the
conveyance system and the flue gas stack. It also allows control over the
temperature of gases leaving the stack
(j) Pipe fittings
Steam pipe line fittings are design to carry out the different functions and to
ensure the supply of right pressure, condensate free and right quantity of steam
from steam mains to steam using equipment, various types of control valves,
safety valves, steam separator, traps, strainers, condensate valves, air vents,
pressure, temperature indicators are fitted in the steam line
(k) Heat flow in steam plant
steam produced inside of steam generator (boiler) from heating process of water.
-the steam is then being superheated, and flows to the turbine, to convert heat
energy into mechanical energy. The superheated steam reduced in its
temperature, becoming exhausted steam.
-the exhausted steam enters the condenser, being condensed and converted
back into water.
-the water will be flowed into boiler again through feed water pump.

18

18. What is the difference between water-tube and fire tube

boilers? Describe the working principle of Cochran Boiler or
Lancashire Boiler
N
o
1

Particular

Fire Tube Boilers

Water Tube Boiler

Position of water and hot

gases

Mode of firing

Water inside the tubes

and hot gases outside
the tubes
Externally fired

Operating pressure

4
5

Rate of steam production

Suitability

Hot gases inside the

tubes
and
water
outside the tubes
Generally
internally
fired
Operating
pressure
limited to 16 bar
Lower production
Not suitable for large
power plants

Risk on bursting

Floor area

Involves more risk on

bursting due to high
pressure
For a given power, it
occupies less floor-area

8
9
1
0
1
1
1
2
1
3

Construction
Transportation
Shell diameter

Involves lesser risk on

explosion
due
to
lower pressure
For a given power, it
occupies more floor
area
Difficult
Difficult
Large for same power

Chances of explosion

Less

More

Treatment of water

Not necessary

More necessary

Accessibility
part

Various parts are more

accessible

1
4

Requirement of skill

Various parts not so

easily accessible for
cleaning, repair and
inspection
Require less skill for
efficient
and
economic working

of

various

Operating pressure as
high as 100 bar
Higher production
Suitable for large power
plants

Simple
Simple
Small for same power

Require more skill and

careful attention.

Cochran Boiler
This boiler consists of a cylindrical shell with its crown having a spherical shape.
The furnace is also hemispherical in shape. The grate is also placed at the
bottom of the furnace and the ash-pit is located below the grate. The coal is fed
into the grate through the fire door and ash formed is collected in the ash-pit
located just below the grate and it is removed manually. The furnace and the
combustion chamber are connected through a pipe. The back of the combustion
chamber is lined with firebricks. The hot gases from the combustion chamber
flow through the nest of horizontal fire tubes (generally 6.25 cm in external
diameter and 165 to 170 in number). The passing through the fire tubes
19

transfers a large portion of the heat to the water by convection. The flue gases
coming out of fire tubes are finally discharged to the atmosphere through
chimney.
The spherical top and spherical shape of firebox are the special features of this
boiler. These shapes require least material for the volume. The hemi spherical
crown of the boiler shell gives maximum strength to withstand the pressure of
the steam inside the boiler. The hemi-spherical crown of the fire box is
advantageous for resisting intense heat. This shape is also advantageous for the
absorption of the radiant heat from the furnace.
Coal or oil can be used as fuel in this boiler. If oil is used as fuel, no grate is
provided but the bottom of the furnace is lined with firebricks. Oil burners are
fitted at a suitable location below the fire door. A manhole near the top of the
crown of shell is provided for cleaning. In addition to this, a number of handholes are provided around the outer shell for cleaning purposes. The smoke box
is provided with doors for cleaning of the interior of the fire tubes.
The airflow through the grate is caused by means of the draught produced by the
chimney. A damper is placed inside the chimney (not shown) to control the
discharge of hot gases from the chimney and thereby the supply of air to the
grate is controlled. The chimney may also be provided with a steam nozzle (not
shown; to discharge the flue gases faster through the chimney. The steam to the
nozzle is supplied from the boiler.
The function of each component is briefly described below:
1. Pressure Gauge. This indicates the pressure of the steam in the boiler.
2. Water Level Indicator. This indicates the water level in the boiler. The water
level in the boiler should not fall below a particular level otherwise the boiler will
be overheated and the tubes may burn out.
3. Safety Valve. The function of the safety valve is to prevent the increase of
steam pressure in the holler above its design pressure. When the pressure
increases above design pressure, the valve opens and discharges the steam to
the atmosphere. When this pressure falls just below design pressure, the valve
closes automatically. Usually the valve is spring controlled.
4. Fusible Plug. If the water level in the boiler falls below a predetermined level,
the boiler shell and tubes will be overheated. And if it is continued, the tubes
may burn, as the water cover will be removed. It can be prevented by stopping
the burning of fuel on the grate. When the temperature of the shell increases
above a particular level, the fusible plug, which is mounted over the melts and
forms an opening. The high-pressure steam pushes the remaining water through
this hole on the grate and the fire is extinguished.
5. Blow-off Cock. The water supplied to the boiler always contains impurities like
mud, sand and, salt Due to heating, these are deposited at the bottom of the
boiler, and if they are not removed, they are accumulated at the bottom of the
boiler and reduces its capacity and heat transfer rates. Also the salt content will
goes on increasing due to evaporation of water. These deposited salts are
removed with the help of blow off cock. The blow-off cock is located at the
bottom of the boiler as shown in the figure and is operated only when the boiler
20

is running. When the blow-off cock is opened during the running of the boiler, the
high-pressure steam pushes the water and the collected material at the bottom
is blown out.
Blowing some water out also reduces the concentration of the salt. The blow-off
cock is operated after every 5 to 6 hours of working for few minutes. This keeps
the boiler clean.
6. Steam Stop Valve. It regulates the flow of steam supply outside. The steam
from the boiler first enters into an ant-priming pipe where most of the water
particles associated with steam are removed.
7. Feed Check Valve. The high pressure feed water is supplied to the boiler
through this valve.
This valve opens towards the boiler only and feeds the water to the boiler. If the
feed water pressure is less than the boiler steam pressure then this valve
remains closed and prevents the back flow of steam through the valve.

Lancashire Boiler
The main features of the Lancashire boiler with its brickwork shelling are shown
in figure. The boiler consists of a cylindrical shell and two big furnace tubes pass
right through this. The brick setting forms one bottom flue and two side flues.
Both the flue tubes, which carry hot gases, lay below the water level.
The grates are provided at the front end of the main flue tubes of the boiler and
the coal is fed to the grates through the fire doors. A low firebrick bridge is
provided at the end of the grate to prevent the flow of coal and ash particles into
the interior of the furnace tubes. Otherwise, the ash and coal particles carried
with gases form deposits on the interior of the tubes and prevent the heat
transfer to the water. The firebrick bridge also helps in deflecting the hot gases
upward to provide better heat transfer.
The hot gases leaving the grate pass up to the back end of the tubes and then in
the downward direction. They move through the bottom flue to the front of the
boiler where they are divided into two and pass to the side flues. Then they
move along the two-side flues and come to the chimney
With the help of this arrangement of the flow passages of the gases, the bottom
of the shell is first heated and then its sides. The heat is transferred to the water
through surfaces of the two flue tubes (which remain in water) and bottom part
and sides of the main shell. This arrangement increases the heating surface to a
large extent.
Dampers in the form of sliding doors are placed at the end of side flues to control
the flow of gases. This regulates the combustion rate as well as steam
generation rate. These dampers are operated by chains passing over a pulley at
the front of the boiler. This boiler is fitted with usual mountings. The pressure
gauge and water level indicator are provided at the front whereas steam stop
valve, safety valve, low water and high steam safety valve and manhole are
provided on the top of the shell.
21

The blow-off cock is situated beneath the front portion of the boiler shell for the
removal of sediments and mud. It is also used to empty the water in the boiler
whenever required for inspection. The fusible plugs are mounted on the top of
the main flues just over the grates to prevent the overheating of boiler tubes by
extinguishing the fire when the water level falls below a particular level. A low
water level alarm is usually mounted in the boiler to give a warning in case the
water level going below the precast value. A feed check valve with a feed pipe is
fitted on the front end plate. The feed pipe projecting into the boiler is perforated
so that the water is uniformly distributed into the shell.
The super-heater is placed at the end of the main flue tubes. The hot gases
before entering the bottom flue are passed over the super-heater tubes as shown
in the figure and the steam drawn through the steam stop-valve are passed
through the super-heater. The steam passing through the super-heater absorbs
heat from hot gases and becomes superheated.
The economizer is placed at the end of side flues before exhausting the hot
gases to the chimney. The water before being fed into the boiler through the feed
check valve is passed through the economizer.
The feed water is heated by absorbing the heat from the exhaust gases, thus
leading to better boiler efficiency. Generally, a chimney is used to provide the
draught.

22

19. a) How will you classify various types of boilers?

Boiler can be classified according to following criteria:
1. According to flow of water and hot gases:
o Water tube
o Fire tube
In water tube boilers, water circulates through the tubes and hot products
of
combustion
flow
over these tubes. In fire tube boiler, the hot products of combustion pass
through the tubes, which are surrounded, by water.
2. According to position of furnace:
o Internally fired
o Externally fired
In internally fired boilers, the grate combustion chamber is enclosed within
the
boiler
shell
whereas in case of externally fired boilers, furnace and grate are
separated from the boiler shell.
3. According to the position of principles axis:
o Vertical
o Horizontal
o Inclined
4. According to its application
o Stationary
o Mobile (Marine, locomotive)
5. According to the circulating water
o Natural circulation
o Forced circulation
6. According to steam pressure
o Low pressure
o Medium pressure
o High pressure

b) Write short notes on the following:

1) Efficiency of boiler
23

Boiler Efficiency is the percentage of the total absorption heating value of

outlet steam in the total supply heating value. Boiler efficiency depends
on combustion efficiency and also thermal efficiency. In other word, it is a
rate how the boiler runs efficiently. The actual calculation for the boiler efficiency
is the followings;
E= [Q (H-h)/q*GCV]*100
Where,
Q=Quantity of steam generated (kg/hr)
H= Enthalpy of steam (Kcal/kg)
h= Enthalpy of water (kcal/kg)
GCV= Gross calorific value of the fuel
q=Fuel consumption per hour (kg/hr)

2) Maintenance of boiler
Boiler need to maintain in good condition so that it is in optimal efficiency
and any unnecessary repair can be avoided. Boiler need to be maintain in
good condition to avoid any accidents in which may cause harm to
workers and boiler. Any residue such as soot or scale need to be removed
from the boiler to ensure optimum boiler performance and longer life span of
boiler. These residues will interfere with heat transfer and reduce the efficiency
of the boiler. As efficiency of boiler reduced, more fuel needed to supply the
same amount of heat causing the cost of fuel increased.

3) Accessories of a boiler
Boiler accessories are device which are installed with a boiler and its
neighbouring area to increase the efficiency of the boiler. These are not the
essential part of the boiler and thus without installing these devices, the boiler
operation can be accomplished though at a lower efficiency. The following are
the important accessories of the boiler are:

Feed water pump

Injector
Pressure reducing valve
Economizer
Air preheater
Super heater
Steam drier or separator
Steam trap

Feed water pump: the feed water pump is used to feed water to the boiler.
Injector: function of the injector is the same as that of feed pump i.e.; to deliver
feed water to boiler under pressure.

24

Pressure reducing valve: the function of the pressure reducing valve is to

maintain constant pressure on its delivery side of the valve irrespective of
fluctuating demand of steam from the boiler.
Economizer: a considerable quantity of heat of the plant is carried away by flue
gases, so to utilize these waste heat. An economizer is placed in the path of the
flue gases to preheat the feed water.
Air preheater: the function of the preheater is to heat the air before it enters
the combustion chamber.
Super heater: super preheater is used for stationary boiler. The function of the
super heater is to convert dry saturated steam into superheated at the
desired temperature.
Steam drier: the function of the steam drier or separator is to separate water
particles from steam before it is supplied to the point of application.

4) Overall efficiency of steam power plant

Steam power plants operate on the modified Rankine thermodynamic cycle.
The efficiency is dictated by the parameters of this thermodynamic cycle. The
overall coal plant efficiency ranges from 32 % to 42 %. This is mainly
dictated by the Superheat and Reheat steam temperatures and Superheat
pressures. Most of the large power plants operate at steam pressures of 170 bar
and 570 C Superheat, and 570 C reheat temperatures. The efficiencies of
these plants range from 35 % to 38 %. Super critical power plants operating at
220 bar and 600C can achieve efficiencies of 42 %. Ultra-super critical pressure
power plants at 300 bar and 600C can achieve efficiencies in the range of 45%
to 48 % efficiency.
5) Steam turbine specifications
Steam turbine specifications consists of following
1. Turbine rating
a. Turbine kilowatts
b. Generator kilovolt amperes
c. Generator voltage
d. Phases
e. Frequency
f. Power factor
g. Excitor characteristics
2. Steam condition
a. Initial steam pressure and temperature
b. Reheat steam pressure and temperature
c. Exhaust pressure
3. Steam extraction arrangement (automatic or non-automatic)
4. Accessories (stop and throttle valve, tachometer)
5. Governing arrangement

25

6) Causes of heat loss in boiler

Heat loss due to unburned carbon. When the fuel is burnt, the small amounts of
carbon will be left in the ash and this constitutes a loss of potential heat in the
fuel.
Heat loss due to dry flue gas. The major energy loss in a boiler occurs through
flue gases which escapes at a high temperature.
Heat loss due to moisture in fuel. The moisture in the fuel absorbs heat and
leaves the air heater at the gas temperature. The change in enthalpy of the
water vapor due to moisture in the fuel constitutes a heat loss.
Heat loss on ignition. It occurs when not all of the available carbon comes in
contact with combustion air. This loss can be also caused by insufficient grinding
of the fuel. If the fuel particles are too large than the surface area is reduced and
not all of the particles completely burned.
Heat loss due to surface radiation and convection. Represent the heat loss from
the boiler skin to the surrounding environment. These losses are difficult to
measure and can be reduced by proper maintenance of the boiler.
Heat loss due to blow down. Some blow down is necessary to get rid of dissolved
solids in the boiler water because these solids have absorbed heat.

20) Explain the methods used to increase thermal efficiency of a steam

power plant.
Thermal efficiency improvement techniques are by decreasing average
temperature at which heat is rejected from the working fluid (steam) in
the condenser (lowering condenser pressure) and by increasing steam
temperature entering the turbine. Steam leaves the turbine and enters the
condenser as saturated mixture in line with the corresponding pressure of steam
in the condenser. Lowering the condenser pressure always helps in delivering
more net work in the turbine as more expansion of steam in turbine is possible.
Superheating of steam is the phenomenon in which heat is transferred to the
steam to super heat the steam to higher temperature by maintaining the
constant pressure in the boiler. Thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle increases
on account of increase in steam temperature.
Alternative way of increasing the Rankine cycle efficiency is by increasing the
boiler operating pressure and thus in a way related with the temperature at
which boiling is taking place in the boiler. Thus, the thermal efficiency of the
cycle increases.
In order to increase the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle, supercritical pressure is used in steam-generators. When the steam generators
operate above 22.06Mpa then the steam generators are called super-critical
steam-generators and the plant is called super-critical power generation plant.
Because of the higher operating pressures these plants are known for giving
higher efficiencies.

26

Re-heat Rankine cycle is for taking the advantage of increased cycle efficiency at
higher boiler pressure without compromising on moisture content of the steam in
the last stages of the turbine. Higher cycle efficiency is possible with re-heating
cycle that too without compromising on dryness fraction this is possible by
expanding the steam in turbine in two stages by re-heating it in between. Reheating is practically acceptable way of tackling the problem of excessive
moisture in the last stages of the turbine.
Thermal efficiency also can be increased by reducing the leakage of steam
and flue gases. The leaked-out steam does not contribute to the power
generation and is wasted thus decreasing the overall efficiency. Hence, leakage
must be reduced which can be done by continuous real time monitoring of boiler,
pipes, heat exchanger using advanced software and computation technologies.
Also, the seals of boiler, pipes must be examined regularly and, if required, must
be replaced.

21) Write short notes on the following:

a) pH value of water
In general, a water with a pH < 7 is considered acidic and with a pH > 7 is
considered basic. The normal range for pH in surface water systems is 6.5 to 8.5
and for groundwater systems 6 to 8.5. Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of
the water to resists a change in pH that would tend to make the water more
acidic. The measurement of alkalinity and pH is needed to determine the
corrosivity of the water. The pH of pure water (H20) is 7 at 25 C, but when
exposed to the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere this equilibrium results in a pH
of approximately 5.2. Because of the association of pH with atmospheric gasses
and temperature, it is strongly recommended that the water be tested as soon as
possible. The pH of the water is not a measure of the strength of the acidic or
basic solution and alone does not provide a full picture of the characteristics or
limitations with the water supply. In general, a water with a low pH (< 6.5) could
be acidic, soft, and corrosive. Therefore, the water could leach metal ions such as
iron, manganese, copper, lead, and zinc from the aquifer, plumbing fixtures, and
piping.
b) Power plant pumps
Pumps are very important components of any power plant. The major
applications are the condensate, boiler-feed, heater drain, and condenser
circulating pumps. There is various pump used but the main function of using
pump is to supply energy to the fluid by increasing its speed. Pump used in
power plant named as boiler feed pumps, booster pumps, high-speed highpressure boiler feed pumps, condensate pumps, heater drain pumps, condenser
circulating pumps, boiler circulation pumps, and ash handling pump.

27

c) Steam turbine capacity

The capacities of small turbines and coupled generators vary from 500 to 7500
kW
whereas
large
turbo alternators have capacity varying from 10 to 90 MW. Very large size units
have
capacities
up
to
500 MW. Generating units of 200 MW capacity are becoming quite common. The
steam
consumption
by
steam turbines depends upon steam pressure, and temperature at the inlet,
exhaust
pressure
number
of
bleeding stages etc. The steam consumption of large steam turbines is about 3.5
to 5 kg per kWh.

d) Comparison of forced and induced draft system for boiler.

Both forced and induced draft system are method of mechanical draft. In forced
draft system, leakage of gas through the system and usually involved less
volume (less mass flow rate) while in induced draft system, air is infiltrated and
involved larger volume (more mass flow rate).

In forced draft system, fan delivers air along an air duct to an enclosed furnace
front while in induced system, fan pulls the gases through the boiler and pushes
them up the stack. In forced draft system, the entire furnace casing is under
positive pressure while in induced draft system, pressure slightly lower than
atmospheric is created in boiler.

e) Principles of steam power plant design

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Selection of site
Estimation of capacity of power station
Selection of turbine and their auxiliaries
Selection of boiler and their auxiliaries
Design of fuel handling system
Selection of condenser
Design of cooling system
Design of piping system to carry steam and water
28

9. Selection of electrical generator

10.Design and control of instruments
11.Design of layout of power station
Steam power plant has to have high efficiency, low capital cost, ability to burn
coal especially of high ash content, reduced environmental impact (pollution),
reduced water requirement, high reliability and availability.
f) Korba super thermal power station
Korba Super Thermal Power Plant is located at Jamnipali in Korba district in the
Indian state of Chhattisgarh. The power plant is one of the coal-based power
plants of National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC). The coal for the power
plant is sourced from Kusmunda and Gevra Mines. The source of water for the
power plant is Hasdeo River. This power station has 7 unit that have capacity of
2600 MW altogether.

g) Singrauli super thermal power plant

Singrauli Super Thermal Power Plant is located at Shaktinagar in Sonebhadra
district in Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. The power plant is the first power plant
of National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC). It sources coal from Jayant and
Bina mines and water from Rihand Reservoir. The states benefitting from this
power plant are Uttar Pradesh, Uttranchal, Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Jammu &
Kashmir and Himachal
Pradesh and
the
Union
Territories
of Delhi and Chandigarh. An investment worth 11,907 million (US$180 million)
has already been cleared. It even gets international assistance from International
Development Association (IDA). This power station has 7 unit that have capacity
of 2000 MW altogether. On 31 December 2014, a 15 MW solar PV was
commissioned at NTPC SIngrauli. A 8 MW small hydro CW discharge plant is
under construction on discharge canal.

29

22) Determine the quantity of air per kg of coal burnt in a furnace

if
the
stack
height
is
58
m
and
draught produced is 35 mm of water. The temperature of flue
gases is 380 C.
Assuming temperature of furnace, T a is room temperature , 27 +273=300 K
Given value,
Height of draught ,h=35 mm
Height of furnace , H=58m

Temperature of flue gases , T g=380 +273=653 K

Using the formula of,
h=353 H

[ ( ) ]
[ ( ) ]
m +1
1
1
a

Ta
ma
Tg

35=353 58

m +1
1
1
a

300
ma
653

m a+ 1
=1.0603
ma

( )

ma=16.584

kg of air
kg of coal

30

31