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For heat transfer calculations, the log-mean temperature difference ( ) has to be used instead of
temperature difference. The formula for is:
=
ln(
(1)
(, , ) (, , )
(, , )
ln(
(, , )
(2)
(, , ) (, , )
(, , )
ln(
(, , )
(3)
(4)
In an efficient heat exchanger (assuming there are no heat loss), the amount of heat transferred
from the hot stream, Q, would equal the amount of heat transferred to the cold stream. Therefore:
= ( ) (, , ) = ( ) (, , )
(5)
Where is the mass flow rate of water is, is the specific heat capacity of water, is the
temperature of the hot stream and is the temperature of the cold stream.
To find the actual heat transfer, the following formula can be used:
|( )|
= ( )
(6)
Where smaller means the smaller value when comparing between the hot and cold stream, and vice
versa for larger.1
The maximum theoretical heat transferred, is calculated using the equation:
= ( )
, )
(
,
(7)
Also, assuming that no heat was lost when heat is transferred from the hot water through the pipe
surface, the amount of heat could be calculated using the formula:
=
(8)
Where the heat transfer coefficient of fluid, h can be calculated from U using the equation:
1
(9)
And is the thermal conductivity of the tube wall and x is the thickness of the tube wall.
Where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, and A is the heat transfer area of the pipe, and is
calculated using the formula
=
(10)
Where D is the inner diameter of the tube, L is the length of the tube and N is the number of tubes in
the heat exchanger.
The thermal effectiveness, E, is a ratio of the actual heat transfer and the maximum possible heat
transfer rate.
(|( )| )
(, , )
=
( )
( )
(|( )| )
(11)
(, , )
( )
|( ) |
(12)
C* is the specific heat capacity ratio between the hot and cold stream.
=
( )
( )
(V )
(V )
=
(13)
(14)
Where u is the velocity of the fluid, A is the cross-sectional area of the tube, the density and the
viscosity of the fluid.
The Prandtl Number3 is given by the equation:
Pr =
(15)
(16)
Assuming that the density, and specific heat capacity, of the hot and cold stream are the same.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Thermopedia. Mean Temperature Difference. [Online] Available from: Engineering Toolbox. Reynolds Number. [Online]
Available from: http://www.thermopedia.com/content/945/ [Accessed: 10 November 2015]
Engineering Toolbox. Reynolds Number. [Online] Available from: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/reynolds-numberd_237.html [Accessed: 10 November 2015]
Engineering Toolbox. Prandtl Number. [Online] Available from: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/prandtl-numberd_1068.html [Accessed: 10 November 2015]
[Online] Available from: http://www.me.umn.edu/courses/old_me_course_pages/me3333/gallery/eq%203.pdf [Accessed: 10
November 2015]
1.3 Relevance
Heat transfer is a very important aspect in industry and in our everyday lives. For any given process,
heat is released into the environment. Some of the processes require cooling to prevent the hardware
from overheating. The shell and tube heat exchanger is one out of many designs which is efficient at
cooling down systems.
Some examples of heat transfer include car radiator, which cools down the engine using the flow of
air. Also, refrigerators help transfer heat from the inside to the outside, keeping food cool. In industry,
heat exchangers are used to cool down reactants to achieve optimum reaction kinetics.
Section 2.0: Experimental Work
2.1 System Used
The system used in this experiment was hot and cold water.
2.2 Experiment and Procedure
Safety goggles were worn because the machinery has sharp edges.
Lab coats were worn in case there were spillages of hot water.
Extra caution was taken when handling the water to prevent electrocution.
Extra caution was taken to prevent water spillages.
2.4 Results
(a) Observed Data
/
.
L min-1
1.90
1.60
1.30
1.00
0.70
0.40
1.14
1.02
0.90
0.78
0.66
0.54
0.57
0.51
0.45
0.39
0.33
0.27
0.19
0.18
0.16
0.15
0.13
0.12
/
.
L min-1
1.90
1.60
1.30
1.00
0.70
0.40
1.90
1.70
1.50
1.30
1.10
0.90
1.90
1.70
1.50
1.30
1.10
0.90
1.90
1.80
1.60
1.50
1.30
1.20
/ .
In
Out
/ .
In
Out
65.2
55.5
13.8
24.4
66.5
55.6
13.9
24.4
66.7
55.5
14.0
24.8
66.7
55.0
14.1
25.0
66.1
52.8
14.4
26.6
61.5
46.6
15.1
29.2
66.2
53.7
13.9
21.5
66.8
53.9
14.0
21.9
67.0
53.2
14.0
21.9
66.6
52.3
14.2
22.8
64.2
49.5
14.3
23.0
50.8
39.1
14.4
22.3
48.5
36.9
14.1
17.6
47.0
35.1
14.0
17.7
45.4
33.7
14.1
17.7
44.7
32.7
14.2
18.0
43.8
31.5
14.2
18.1
43.6
31.3
14.4
18.7
43.2
27.6
14.0
16.4
42.4
27.4
14.1
16.4
41.6
27.0
14.1
16.5
41.5
26.4
14.2
16.7
41.8
26.6
14.1
16.8
41.8
26.4
14.2
17.1
Table 1: Observed data for co-current flow at 70.
/
.
L min-1
1.90
1.60
1.30
1.00
0.70
0.40
1.14
1.02
0.90
0.78
0.66
0.54
0.57
0.51
0.45
0.39
0.33
0.27
0.19
0.18
0.16
0.15
0.13
0.12
/
.
L min-1
1.90
1.60
1.30
1.00
0.70
0.40
1.90
1.70
1.50
1.30
1.10
0.90
1.90
1.70
1.50
1.30
1.10
0.90
1.90
1.80
1.60
1.50
1.30
1.20
/ .
In
Out
/ .
In
Out
66.6
55.9
14.1
24.5
66.8
55.8
14.2
25.3
66.8
55.1
14.1
24.5
67.1
54.8
14.4
25.6
66.6
52.6
14.7
27.7
60.5
45.6
15.4
30.1
66.6
53.9
14.0
22.1
66.3
53.2
14.1
22.1
67.0
53.1
14.1
22.4
66.3
51.8
14.1
23.4
64.0
49.0
14.2
22.9
60.7
45.5
14.4
23.2
50.2
37.4
13.9
17.7
48.9
35.0
14.0
17.9
46.3
33.8
14.1
17.8
44.9
32.1
14.2
17.7
45.2
32.5
14.3
18.7
44.5
31.1
14.3
18.9
43.5
27.4
14.0
16.4
42.4
26.8
14.0
16.4
42.3
26.6
14.0
16.4
42.2
26.3
14.2
16.8
42.1
26.0
14.2
17.1
41.7
25.7
14.2
17.2
Table 2: Observed data for counter-current flow at 70.
/
.
L min-1
1.90
1.60
1.30
1.00
0.70
0.40
1.14
1.02
0.90
0.78
0.66
0.54
0.57
0.51
0.45
0.39
0.33
0.27
0.19
0.18
0.16
0.15
0.13
0.12
/
.
L min-1
1.90
1.60
1.30
1.00
0.70
0.40
1.90
1.70
1.50
1.30
1.10
0.90
1.90
1.70
1.50
1.30
1.10
0.90
1.90
1.80
1.60
1.50
1.30
1.20
/ .
In
Out
/ .
In
Out
39.7
35.0
13.7
18.4
40.1
35.1
13.7
18.4
40.4
35.2
13.9
19.0
39.8
34.3
14.0
19.2
39.4
33.2
14.2
19.9
39.1
31.4
14.7
21.8
38.9
33.3
13.7
17.2
39.5
33.6
13.8
17.6
39.4
33.3
13.9
17.7
38.9
32.5
13.9
17.8
38.2
31.7
14.0
18.3
38.1
30.8
14.1
18.3
36.8
29.2
13.8
16.1
35.8
28.1
13.8
16.2
36.5
28.6
13.8
16.5
36.3
27.4
13.9
16.6
35.6
26.8
14.0
17.2
35.0
25.8
14.1
17.1
34.6
23.6
13.8
15.4
34.0
23.5
13.8
15.4
33.8
23.1
13.8
15.6
33.5
22.9
13.9
15.7
33.3
22.6
13.9
15.9
34.0
22.6
14.0
16.1
Table 3: Observed data for counter-current flow at 40.
/
.
L min-1
1.90
1.60
1.30
1.00
0.70
0.40
1.14
1.02
0.90
0.78
0.66
0.54
0.57
0.51
0.45
0.39
0.33
0.27
0.19
0.18
0.16
0.15
0.13
0.12
/
.
L min-1
1.90
1.60
1.30
1.00
0.70
0.40
1.90
1.70
1.50
1.30
1.10
0.90
1.90
1.70
1.50
1.30
1.10
0.90
1.90
1.80
1.60
1.50
1.30
1.20
/ .
In
Out
/ .
In
Out
57.1
48.7
13.8
23.0
57.9
49.0
13.9
22.9
57.9
48.9
14.0
23.1
58.1
48.8
14.2
23.6
56.2
45.3
14.4
24.2
52.0
39.8
15.0
26.6
57.2
47.2
13.9
20.3
57.6
47.2
14.0
20.6
57.8
46.8
14.1
20.9
57.2
45.9
14.1
21.6
55.6
43.7
14.1
21.3
48.3
37.7
14.3
20.6
48.0
36.4
13.9
17.5
46.4
34.7
13.9
17.5
43.3
33.1
14.0
17.6
43.1
31.4
14.0
17.6
42.5
30.8
14.1
18.0
41.3
29.6
14.2
18.4
40.2
26.2
13.8
15.9
39.8
25.5
13.9
16.0
39.1
25.6
14.0
16.2
39.1
24.8
14.0
16.2
39.3
25.0
14.0
16.6
39.2
24.9
14.1
16.8
Table 4: Observed data for counter-current flow at 60.
0.13
0.11
0.09
0.07
0.05
0.03
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.09
0.08
0.06
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.09
0.08
0.06
0.13
0.13
0.11
0.11
0.09
0.08
C*
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
Q / kW / kW
NTU
9.7
10.6
1.29
6.84
40.40
0.24
10.9
10.5
1.22
5.89
40.97
0.27
11.2
10.8
1.02
4.80
40.71
0.28
11.7
10.9
0.82
3.68
40.25
0.29
13.3
12.2
0.65
2.53
37.52
0.35
14.9
14.1
0.42
1.30
29.57
0.50
12.5
7.6
1.00
4.17
41.44
0.30
12.9
7.9
0.92
3.77
41.54
0.31
13.8
7.9
0.87
3.34
41.20
0.33
14.3
8.6
0.78
2.86
39.86
0.36
14.7
8.7
0.68
2.31
36.97
0.40
11.7
7.9
0.44
1.38
25.35
0.46
11.6
3.5
0.46
1.37
26.13
0.44
11.9
3.7
0.42
1.18
24.37
0.49
11.7
3.6
0.37
0.99
22.80
0.51
12.0
3.8
0.33
0.83
21.65
0.55
12.3
3.9
0.28
0.68
20.44
0.60
12.3
4.3
0.23
0.55
19.75
0.62
15.6
2.4
0.21
0.39
18.78
0.83
15.0
2.3
0.19
0.36
18.31
0.82
14.6
2.4
0.16
0.31
17.66
0.83
15.1
2.5
0.16
0.29
17.01
0.89
15.2
2.7
0.14
0.25
17.23
0.88
15.4
2.9
0.13
0.23
16.82
0.92
Table 5: Derived results for co-current flow at 70.
E
0.19
0.21
0.21
0.22
0.26
0.32
0.24
0.24
0.26
0.27
0.29
0.32
0.34
0.36
0.37
0.39
0.42
0.42
0.53
0.53
0.53
0.55
0.55
0.56
Co-current 70 C
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.13
0.11
0.09
0.07
0.05
0.03
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.30
0.6
0.20
0.3
0.10
0.1
0.00
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
NTU
U / kW m2 K
1.97
1.84
1.55
1.26
1.07
0.87
1.49
1.37
1.30
1.21
1.13
1.08
1.09
1.08
1.00
0.93
0.86
0.73
0.68
0.64
0.57
0.58
0.50
0.47
0.13
0.11
0.09
0.07
0.05
0.03
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.09
0.08
0.06
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.09
0.08
0.06
0.13
0.13
0.11
0.11
0.09
0.08
C*
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
Q / kW / kW
NTU
10.7
10.4
1.42
41.95
0.26
6.98
11.0
11.1
1.23
41.55
0.26
5.89
11.7
10.4
1.06
41.65
0.28
4.80
12.3
11.2
0.86
40.95
0.30
3.69
14.0
13.0
0.69
38.40
0.36
2.54
14.9
14.7
0.42
30.30
0.49
1.26
12.7
8.1
1.01
42.16
0.30
4.20
13.1
8.0
0.94
41.60
0.31
3.73
13.9
8.3
0.88
41.74
0.33
3.33
14.5
9.3
0.79
40.24
0.36
2.85
15.0
8.7
0.69
37.86
0.40
2.30
15.2
8.8
0.57
34.20
0.44
1.75
12.8
3.8
0.51
27.76
0.46
1.45
13.9
3.9
0.50
25.68
0.54
1.25
12.5
3.7
0.39
23.83
0.52
1.01
12.8
3.5
0.35
22.23
0.58
0.84
12.7
4.4
0.29
22.09
0.57
0.71
13.4
4.6
0.25
20.89
0.64
0.57
16.1
2.4
0.21
19.45
0.83
0.39
15.6
2.4
0.20
18.63
0.84
0.36
15.7
2.4
0.18
18.46
0.85
0.32
15.9
2.6
0.17
17.94
0.89
0.29
16.1
2.9
0.15
0.23
17.58
0.92
16.0
3.0
0.13
0.00
17.19
0.93
Table 6: Derived results for counter-current flow at 70.
E
0.20
0.21
0.22
0.23
0.27
0.33
0.24
0.25
0.26
0.28
0.30
0.33
0.35
0.40
0.39
0.42
0.41
0.44
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.57
0.58
0.58
Counter-current 70 C
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.6
0.20
0.3
0.13
0.11
0.09
0.07
0.05
0.03
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.1
0.10
0.00
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
NTU
U / kW m2 K
2.09
1.83
1.58
1.30
1.10
0.85
1.48
1.39
1.30
1.21
1.13
1.04
1.14
1.19
1.02
0.97
0.82
0.75
0.68
0.65
0.59
0.57
0.51
0.39
0.13
0.11
0.09
0.07
0.05
0.03
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.09
0.08
0.06
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.09
0.08
0.06
0.13
0.13
0.11
0.11
0.09
0.08
C*
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
Q / kW / kW
NTU
4.7
4.7
0.63
3.46
16.00
0.29
5.0
4.7
0.56
2.96
21.55
0.23
5.2
5.1
0.47
2.41
21.35
0.24
5.5
5.2
0.39
1.81
20.45
0.27
6.2
5.7
0.30
1.23
19.25
0.32
7.7
7.1
0.22
0.68
17.00
0.45
5.6
3.5
0.45
2.01
20.63
0.27
5.9
3.8
0.42
1.83
20.83
0.28
6.1
3.8
0.38
1.61
20.53
0.30
6.4
3.9
0.35
1.37
19.82
0.32
6.5
4.3
0.30
1.12
18.78
0.35
7.3
4.2
0.28
0.91
18.21
0.40
7.6
2.3
0.30
0.92
17.92
0.42
7.7
2.4
0.27
0.79
16.81
0.46
7.9
2.7
0.25
0.72
17.27
0.46
8.9
2.7
0.24
0.61
16.41
0.54
8.8
3.2
0.20
0.50
15.43
0.57
9.2
3.0
0.17
0.40
14.58
0.63
11.0
1.6
0.15
0.28
13.98
0.79
10.5
1.6
0.13
0.25
13.67
0.77
10.7
1.8
0.12
0.22
13.26
0.81
10.6
1.8
0.11
0.21
12.90
0.82
10.7
2.0
0.10
0.18
12.55
0.85
11.4
2.1
0.10
0.17
12.69
0.90
Table 7: Derived results for counter-current flow at 40.
E
0.18
0.19
0.20
0.21
0.25
0.32
0.22
0.23
0.24
0.26
0.27
0.30
0.33
0.35
0.35
0.40
0.41
0.44
0.53
0.52
0.54
0.54
0.55
0.57
Counter-current 40 C
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.13
0.11
0.09
0.07
0.05
0.03
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.30
0.6
0.20
0.3
0.10
0.1
0.00
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
NTU
U / kW m2 K
2.41
1.60
1.37
1.16
0.97
0.78
1.34
1.25
1.16
1.09
0.99
0.94
1.04
1.01
0.89
0.91
0.81
0.74
0.65
0.60
0.56
0.53
0.48
0.47
0.13
0.11
0.09
0.07
0.05
0.03
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.09
0.08
0.06
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.09
0.08
0.06
0.13
0.13
0.11
0.11
0.09
0.08
C*
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
Q / kW / kW
NTU
8.4
9.2
1.12
5.76
34.50
0.24
8.9
9.0
1.00
4.93
35.05
0.25
9.0
9.1
0.82
3.99
34.85
0.26
9.3
9.4
0.65
3.07
34.55
0.27
10.9
9.8
0.53
2.05
31.45
0.35
12.2
11.6
0.34
1.04
25.10
0.49
10.0
6.4
0.80
3.46
35.07
0.29
10.4
6.6
0.74
3.11
35.07
0.30
11.0
6.8
0.69
2.75
34.76
0.32
11.3
7.5
0.62
2.35
33.66
0.34
11.9
7.2
0.55
1.92
31.89
0.37
10.6
6.3
0.40
1.29
25.49
0.42
11.6
3.6
0.46
1.36
26.30
0.44
11.7
3.6
0.42
1.16
24.63
0.48
10.2
3.6
0.32
0.92
22.24
0.46
11.7
3.6
0.32
0.79
21.19
0.55
11.7
3.9
0.27
0.66
20.35
0.57
11.7
4.2
0.22
0.51
18.90
0.62
14.0
2.1
0.19
0.35
17.69
0.79
14.3
2.1
0.18
0.33
16.98
0.84
13.5
2.2
0.15
0.28
16.61
0.81
14.3
2.2
0.15
0.26
16.10
0.89
14.3
2.6
0.13
0.23
16.15
0.89
14.3
2.7
0.12
0.21
15.90
0.90
Table 8: Derived results for counter-current flow at 60.
E
0.19
0.20
0.21
0.21
0.26
0.33
0.23
0.24
0.25
0.26
0.29
0.31
0.34
0.36
0.35
0.40
0.41
0.43
0.53
0.55
0.54
0.57
0.57
0.57
Counter-current 60C
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.13
0.11
0.09
0.07
0.05
0.03
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.30
0.6
0.20
0.3
0.10
0.1
0.00
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
NTU
U / kW m2 K
2.00
1.76
1.45
1.16
1.05
0.84
1.40
1.31
1.23
1.13
1.06
0.97
1.09
1.05
0.89
0.93
0.82
0.72
0.65
0.66
0.56
0.58
0.50
0.47
1 3
1
= 1000 3 1.9
4.2
= 0.13 1
1000
60
2. Temperature difference, .
When temperature of the inlet of the hot stream is at 65.2, temperature at the outlet is
55.5.
= 65.2 55.5 = 9.7
3. Amount of heat transferred, Q.
Applying equation (6), when is 0.130.13 1 , is 9.7.
= 0.13 9.7 = 1.26
4. Maximum amount of heat transferred, .
Applying equation (7), when is at 0.131 , temperature at the inlet of hot stream is
65.2 and 13.8 at the cold stream inlet.
= 0.13 (65.2 13.8) = 6.68
5. Thermal effectiveness, E.
Applying equation (11), and using the same sets of data above:
65.2 55.5
=
= 0.19
65.2 13.8
6. Log mean temperature difference, .
Applying equation (2), and using the same sets of data above:
(65.2 13.8) (55.5 24.4)
=
= 40.4
(65.2 13.8)
(
)
(55.5 24.4)
7. Number of transfer units, NTU.
Applying equation (11), and using the same sets of data above:
65.2 55.5
=
= 0.24
40.4
8. Heat transfer area, Am.
Applying equation (10), and using the data given on Blackboard5:
= 0.004 0.184 7 = 0.01622
9. Overall heat transfer coefficient, U.
Applying equation (8), and using the same sets of data as above:
1.29
=
= 1.97 2 1
0.0162 40.4
10. Reynolds Number, Re and Prandtl Number, Pr.
1.9
The volumetric flow rate of water in 1 tube = 1000 60 7 = 4.52 106 3 1
At 70 (inlet of hot stream): = 4191 1 1 , = 1023 3 1 , =
4.05 104 , = 0.662 W 1 1 .
4 1023 4.52 106
=
= 3637
4.05 104 0.004
6
4191 4.05 10
Pr =
= 2.56
0.662
11. Nusselt Number, Nu.
For the hot water stream,
= 0.023 36370.8 2.560.33 = 22.1
12. Fluid heat transfer coefficient, h.
Applying equation (16):
For the hot water stream,
22.1 0.662
= 3663 = 3.663 1 1
0.004
For the cold water stream, the thermal conductivity of stainless steel at around 50 is given
to be 0.01524kW m-1 K-1.6 Also, the thickness of the tube wall is 1mm as given on Blackboard.
Applying equation (9) and using the same sets of data as above:
1
1
1
=
+ +
1
1
=
= 5.915 1 1
1
1
1
1
0.001
1.97 3.663 0.01524
This value seems acceptable for a moderate flow of water in a pipe through forced
convection.7 Also, the value of h makes sense because hc is larger than hh as the temperature
difference for the hot stream is larger.
13. Error for heat capacity, C.
Using the method of propagation of error, the error for heat capacity for the above sets of
data can be calculated as follow:
2
2
(
) = (
)
0.13 0.01
=
=
= 6.84 104 1
1.9
=
2
2
= (
) + (
)
= 1.29(
1.
2.
3.
6.84 104
0.2 2
) + ( ) = 0.03
0.13
9.7
C
C*
Q
U
Am
A
x
h
D
L
N
E
NTU
Re
Pr
Nu
Definition
Log mean temperature difference
Heat capacity
Heat capacity ratio
Enthalpy
Maximum theoretical enthalpy
Mass flow rate
Specific heat capacity
Overall heat transfer coefficient
Heat transfer area
Cross-sectional area
Thickness of tube
Thermal conductivity
Heat transfer coefficient
Diameter of tube
Length of tube
Number of tube
Thermal effectiveness
Number of transfer units
Reynolds number
Prandtls number
Nusselts number
Viscosity
Unit
K
kJ K-1
kJ
kJ
kg s-1
kJ kg -1 K-1
kW m-2 K-1
m2
m2
m
kW m-1 K-1
kW m-2 K-1
m
m
Pa s