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LastLecture

CommunicationTheory

FundamentalsofFrequencyModulation
PrinciplesofPhaseModulation
ConvertingPMtoFM
PhaseShiftKeying
ModulationIndexandSidebands

Lecture5
Dr.MuhammadAamir Khan
AssistantProfessor
DepartmentofInformaticsandSystems
SchoolofSystemsandTechnology(SST)
UniversityofManagementandTechnology
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Outlines

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RevisionofLecture1

RevisionofLecture1

RevisionofLecture1

ModulationIndexandSidebands
NoiseSuppressionEffectsofFM
FrequencyModulationVersusAmplitudeModulation
AdvantagesofFM
DisadvantagesofFM

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FMSignalBandwidth

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CarsonsRule

Asstatedpreviously,thehigherthemodulationindexinFM,thegreaterthe
numberofsignificantsidebandsandthewiderthebandwidthofthesignal.
Whenspectrumconservationisnecessary,thebandwidthofanFMsignalcanbe
deliberatelyrestrictedbyputtinganupperlimitonthemodulationindex.
ThetotalbandwidthofanFMsignalcanbedeterminedbyknowingthe
modulationindexandusingtablegivenabove.Forexample,assumethatthe
highestmodulatingfrequencyofasignalis3kHzandthemaximumdeviationis6
kHz.Thisgivesamodulationindexofmf =6kHz/3kHz=2.Referringtoprevious
table,youcanseethatthisproducesfoursignificantpairsofsidebands.The
bandwidthcanthenbedeterminedwiththesimpleformula:
BW=2fmN
whereNisthenumberofsignificantsidebandsinthesignal.Accordingtothis
formula,thebandwidthofourFMsignalis
BW=2(3kHz)(4)=24kHz
Ingeneralterms,anFMsignalwithamodulationindexof2andahighest
modulatingfrequencyof3kHzwilloccupya24kHzbandwidth.

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AnotherwaytodeterminethebandwidthofanFMsignalistouse
Carsonsrule.Thisrulerecognizesonlythepowerinthemostsignificant
sidebandswithamplitudesgreaterthan2percentofthecarrier(0.02or
higherinFigureabove).Thisruleis
BW=2[fd(max) +fm(max) ]
AccordingtoCarsonsrule,thebandwidthoftheFMsignalintheprevious
examplewouldbe
BW=2(6kHz+3kHz)=2(9kHz)=18kHz
Carsonsrulewillalwaysgiveabandwidthlower thanthatcalculatedwith
theformulaBW=2fmN.However,ithasbeenprovedthatifacircuitor
systemhasthebandwidthcalculatedbyCarsonsrule,thesidebandswill
indeedbepassedwellenoughtoensurefullintelligibilityofthesignal.

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FMSignalBandwidth(Cont.)

Example

Sofar,alltheexamplesofFMhaveassumedasinglefrequencysinewave
modulatingsignal.However,asyouknow,mostmodulatingsignalsarenot
puresinewaves,butcomplexwavesmadeupofmanydifferent
frequencies.
Whenthemodulatingsignalisapulseorbinarywavetrain,thecarrieris
modulatedbytheequivalentsignal,whichisamixofafundamentalsine
waveandalltherelevantharmonics,asdeterminedbyFouriertheory.For
example,ifthemodulatingsignalisasquarewave,thefundamentalsine
waveandalltheoddharmonicsmodulatethecarrier.Eachharmonic
producesmultiplepairsofsidebandsdependingonthemodulationindex.
Asyoucanimagine,FMbyasquareorrectangularwavegeneratesmany
sidebandsandproducesasignalwithanenormous bandwidth.
Thecircuitsorsystemsthatwillcarry,process,orpasssuchasignalmust
havetheappropriatebandwidthsoasnottodistortthesignal.Inmost
equipmentthattransmitsdigitalorbinarydatabyFSK,thebinarysignalis
filteredtoremovehigherlevelharmonicspriortomodulation.This
reducesthebandwidthrequiredfortransmission.

WhatisthemaximumbandwidthofanFMsignalwithadeviationof30
kHzandamaximummodulatingsignalof5kHzasdeterminedby(a)
previoustableand(b)Carsonsrule?
a.
mf =fd /fm
=30kHz/5kHz
=6
Theprevioustableshowsninesignificantsidebandsspaced5kHzapartfor
mf =6.
BW=2fmN=2(5kHz)9=90kHz

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b.

BW=2[fd(max) +fm(max)]
=2(30kHz+5kHz)
=2(35kHz)
BW=70kHz
CommunicationTheory Lecture5

NoiseSuppressionEffectsofFM

NoiseSuppressionEffectsofFM

(Cont.)

Noise isinterferencegeneratedbylightning,motors,automotiveignition
systems,andanypowerlineswitchingthatproducestransientsignals.
Suchnoiseistypicallynarrowspikesofvoltagewithveryhighfrequencies.
Theyaddtoasignalandinterferewithit.Thepotentialeffectofsuch
noiseonanFMsignalisshowninfigurebelow.Ifthenoisesignalswere
strongenough,theycouldcompletelyobliteratetheinformationsignal.

FMsignals,however,haveaconstantmodulatedcarrieramplitude,and
FMreceiverscontainlimitercircuitsthatdeliberatelyrestrictthe
amplitudeofthereceivedsignal.Anyamplitudevariationsoccurringon
theFMsignalareeffectivelyclippedoff,asshowninfigureabove.
ThisdoesnotaffecttheinformationcontentoftheFMsignal,sinceitis
containedsolelywithinthefrequencyvariationsofthecarrier.
Becauseoftheclippingactionofthelimitercircuits,noiseisalmost
completelyeliminated.EvenifthepeaksoftheFMsignalitselfareclipped
orflattenedandtheresultingsignalisdistorted,noinformationislost.
Infact,oneoftheprimarybenefitsofFMoverAMisitssuperiornoise
immunity.TheprocessofdemodulatingorrecoveringanFMsignal
actuallysuppressesnoiseandimprovesthesignaltonoiseratio.

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NoiseandPhaseShift

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NoiseandPhaseShift(Cont.)

Thenoise amplitudeaddedtoanFMsignalintroducesasmall frequency

variation,orphaseshift,whichchangesordistortsthesignal.Thenext
figureshowshowthisworks.
Thecarriersignalisrepresentedbyafixedlength (amplitude)phasor S.
Thenoiseisusuallyashortdurationpulsecontainingmanyfrequenciesat
manyamplitudesandphasesaccordingtoFouriertheory.Tosimplifythe
analysis,however,weassumeasinglehighfrequencynoisesignalvarying
inphase.Innextfigure(a),thisnoisesignalisrepresentedasarotating
phasor N.Thecompositesignalofthecarrierandthenoise,labeledC,isa
phasor whoseamplitudeisthephasor sumofthesignalandnoiseanda
phaseangleshiftedfromthecarrierbyanamount.Ifyouimaginethe
noisephasor rotating,youcanalsoimaginethecompositesignalvarying
inamplitudeandphaseanglewithrespecttothecarrier.

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NoiseandPhaseShift(Cont.)

NoiseandPhaseShift(Cont.)

Themaximumphaseshiftoccurswhenthenoiseandsignalphasors areat
arightangletoeachother,asillustratedinpreviousfigure(b).Thisangle
canbecomputedwiththearcsineorinversesineaccordingtotheformula
= sin1(N/C)
Itispossibletodeterminejusthowmuchofafrequencyshiftaparticular
phaseshiftproducesbyusingtheformula:
= (fm)
where
=frequencydeviationproducedbynoise
=phaseshift,rad
fm =frequencyofmodulatingsignal
Assumethatthesignaltonoiseratio(S/N)is3:1andthemodulating
signalfrequencyis800Hz.Thephaseshiftisthen:
=sin1(N/S)=sin1(1/3)=sin1 (0.3333)=19.47

Sincethereis57.3 perradian,thisangleis=19.47/57.3=0.34rad.The
frequencydeviationproducedbythisbriefphaseshiftcanbecalculatedas
=0.34(800)=271.8Hz
Justhowbadlyaparticularphaseshiftwilldistortasignaldependson
severalfactors.Lookingattheformulafordeviation,youcandeducethat
theworstcasephaseshiftandfrequencydeviationwilloccuratthe
highestmodulatingsignalfrequency.
Theoveralleffectoftheshiftdependsuponthemaximumallowed
frequencyshiftfortheapplication.Ifveryhighdeviationsareallowed,i.e.,
ifthereisahighmodulationindex,theshiftcanbesmalland
inconsequential.
Ifthetotalalloweddeviationissmall,thenthenoiseinduceddeviation
canbesevere.Rememberthatthenoiseinterferenceisofveryshort
duration;thus,thephaseshiftismomentary,andintelligibilityisrarely
severelyimpaired.Withheavynoise,humanspeechmightbetemporarily
garbled,butsomuchthatitcouldnotbeunderstood.

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NoiseandPhaseShift(Cont.)

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Example

Assumethatthemaximumalloweddeviationis5kHzintheexample
above.Theratiooftheshiftproducedbythenoisetothemaximum
alloweddeviationis:
Frequencydeviationproducedbynoise 271.8
5000 =0.0544
Maximumalloweddeviation
Thisisonlyabitmorethana5percentshift.The5kHzdeviation
representsthemaximummodulatingsignalamplitude.The271.8Hzshift
isthenoiseamplitude.Therefore,thisratioisthenoisetosignalratioN/S.
ThereciprocalofthisvaluegivesyoutheFMsignaltonoiseratio:
S/N=1/(N/S)=1/0.0544=18.4
ForFM,a3:1inputS/Ntranslatestoan18.4:1outputS/N.
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Preemphasis

Preemphasis (Cont.)

NoisecaninterferewithanFMsignal,andparticularlywiththehigh
frequencycomponentsofthemodulatingsignal.Sincenoiseisprimarily
sharpspikesofenergy,itcontainsalotofharmonicsandotherhigh
frequencycomponents.Thesefrequenciescanbelargerinamplitudethan
thehighfrequencycontentofthemodulatingsignal,causingfrequency
distortionthatcanmakethesignalunintelligible.
Mostofthecontentofamodulatingsignal,particularlyvoice,isatlow
frequencies.Invoicecommunicationsystems,thebandwidthofthesignal
islimitedtoabout3kHz,whichpermitsacceptableintelligibility.In
contrast,musicalinstrumentstypicallygeneratesignalsatlowfrequencies
butcontainmanyhighfrequencyharmonicsthatgivethemtheirunique
soundandmustbepassedifthatsoundistobepreserved.Thusawide
bandwidthisneededinhighfidelitysystems.Sincethehighfrequency
componentsareusuallyataverylowlevel,noisecanobliteratethem.
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Toovercomethisproblem,mostFMsystemsuseatechniqueknownas
preemphasis thathelpsoffsethighfrequencynoiseinterference.Atthe
transmitter,themodulatingsignalispassedthroughasimplenetworkthat
amplifiesthehigh frequencycomponentsmorethanthelowfrequency
components.Thesimplestformofsuchacircuitisasimplehighpassfilterofthe
typeshowninthenextfigure(a).Specificationsdictateatimeconstanttof75s,
wheret=RC.Anycombinationofresistorandcapacitor(orresistorandinductor)
givingthistimeconstantwillwork.

2123Hz
2RC 2t 2(75s)
Suchacircuithasacutofffrequencyof2123Hz;frequencieshigherthan2123Hz
willbelinearlyenhanced.Theoutputamplitudeincreaseswithfrequencyatarate
of6dBperoctave.Thepreemphasis circuitincreasestheenergycontentofthe
higherfrequencysignals sothattheybecomestrongerthanthehighfrequency
noisecomponents.Thisimprovesthesignaltonoiseratioandincreases
intelligibilityandfidelity.
fL =

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Preemphasis (Cont.)

Preemphasis (Cont.)
Thepreemphasis circuitalsohasanupperbreakfrequencyfu,atwhichthe
signalenhancementflattensout[seefigure(b)],whichiscomputedwith
theformula
fu =

R1+R2
2R1R2C

Thevalueoffu isusuallysetwellbeyondtheaudiorangeandistypically
greaterthan30kHz.

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Deemphasis Circuit

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Deemphasis Circuit(Cont.)

Toreturnthefrequencyresponsetoitsnormal,flatlevel,adeemphasis
circuit,asimplelowpassfilterwithatimeconstantof75s,isusedat
thereceiver[seefigure(c)].
Signalsaboveitscutofffrequencyof2123Hzareattenuatedattherateof
6dBperoctave.Theresponsecurveisshowninfigure(d).Asaresult,the
preemphasis atthetransmitterisexactlyoffsetbythedeemphasis circuit
inthereceiver,providingaflatfrequencyresponse.
Thecombinedeffectofpreemphasis anddeemphasis istoincreasethe
signaltonoiseratioforthehigh frequencycomponentsduring
transmission sothattheywillbestrongerandnotmaskedbynoise.Next
figure(e)showstheoveralleffectofpreemphasis anddeemphasis.

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FrequencyModulationVersus
AmplitudeModulation

FrequencyModulationVersus
AmplitudeModulation(Cont.)

AdvantagesofFM:Ingeneral,FMisconsideredtobesuperiortoAM.
AlthoughbothAMandFMsignalscanbeusedtotransmitinformation
fromoneplacetoanother,FMtypicallyofferssomesignificantbenefits
overAM.
NoiseImmunity:ThemainbenefitofFMoverAMisitssuperiorimmunity
tonoise,madepossiblebytheclipperlimitercircuitsinthereceiver,
whicheffectivelystripoffallthenoisevariations,leavingaconstant
amplitudeFMsignal.Althoughclippingdoesnotresultintotalrecoveryin
allcases,FMcanneverthelesstolerateamuchhighernoiselevelthanAM
foragivencarrieramplitude.Thisisalsotrueforphaseshiftinduced
distortion.

CaptureEffect: AnothermajorbenefitofFMisthatinterferingsignalson
thesamefrequencyareeffectivelyrejected.Becauseoftheamplitude
limitersandthedemodulatingmethodsusedbyFMreceivers,a
phenomenonknownasthecaptureeffecttakesplacewhentwoormore
FMsignalsoccursimultaneouslyonthesamefrequency.Ifonesignalis
morethantwicetheamplitudeoftheother,thestrongersignalcaptures
thechannel,totallyeliminatingtheweakersignal.Withmodernreceiver
circuitry,adifferenceinsignalamplitudesofonly1dBisusuallysufficient
toproducethecaptureeffect.
Incontrast,whentwoAMsignalsoccupythesamefrequency,bothsignals
aregenerallyheard,regardlessoftheirrelativesignalstrengths.Whenone
AMsignalissignificantlystrongerthananother,naturallythestronger
signalisintelligible;however,theweakersignalisnoteliminatedandcan
stillbeheardinthebackground.WhenthesignalstrengthsofgivenAM
signalsarenearlythesame,theywillinterferewitheachother,making
bothnearlyunintelligible.

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FrequencyModulationVersus
AmplitudeModulation(Cont.)

FrequencyModulationVersus
AmplitudeModulation(Cont.)

CaptureEffect(Cont.):Althoughthecaptureeffectpreventstheweakerof
twoFMsignalsfrombeingheard,whentwostationsarebroadcasting
signalsofapproximatelythesameamplitude,firstonemaybecaptured
andthentheother.Thiscanhappen,e.g.,whenadrivermovingalonga
highwayislisteningtoaclearbroadcastonaparticularfrequency.
Atsomepoint,thedrivermaysuddenlyheartheotherbroadcast,
completelylosingthefirst,andthen,justassuddenly,heartheoriginal
broadcastagain.Whichonedominatesdependsonwherethecarisand
ontherelativesignalstrengthsofthetwosignals.

TransmitterEfficiency: AthirdadvantageofFMoverAMinvolves
efficiency.RecallthatAMcanbeproducedbybothlowlevelandhigh
levelmodulationtechniques.Themostefficientishighlevelmodulationin
whichaclassCamplifierisusedasthefinalRFpowerstageandis
modulatedbyahighpowermodulationamplifier.TheAMtransmitter
mustproducebothveryhighRFandmodulatingsignalpower.Inaddition,
atveryhighpowerlevels,largemodulationamplifiersareimpractical.
Undersuchconditions,lowlevelmodulationmustbeusediftheAM
informationistobepreservedwithoutdistortion.TheAMsignalis
generatedatalowerlevelandthenamplifiedwithlinearamplifiersto
producethefinalRFsignal.LinearamplifiersareeitherclassAorclassB
andarefarlessefficientthanclassCamplifiers.FMsignalshaveaconstant
amplitude,anditisthereforenotnecessarytouselinearamplifiersto
increasetheirpowerlevel.Infact,FMsignalsarealwaysgeneratedata
lowerlevelandthenamplifiedbyaseriesofclassCamplifierstoincrease
theirpower.Theresultisgreateruseofavailablepowerbecauseofthe
highlevelofefficiencyofclassCamplifiers.EvenmoreefficientclassD,E,
orFamplifiersarealsousedinFMorPMequipment.

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DisadvantagesofFM

DisadvantagesofFM

ExcessiveSpectrumUse:PerhapsthegreatestdisadvantageofFMisthat
itsimplyusestoomuchspectrumspace.ThebandwidthofanFMsignalis,
ingeneral,considerablywiderthanthatofanAMsignaltransmitting
similarinformation.Althoughitispossibletokeepthemodulationindex
lowtominimizebandwidth,reducingthemodulationindexalsoreduces
thenoiseimmunityofanFMsignal.IncommercialtwowayFMradio
systems,themaximumalloweddeviationis5kHz,withamaximum
modulatingfrequencyof3kHz.Thisproducesadeviationratioof5/35
1.67.Deviationratiosaslowas0.25arepossible,althoughtheyresultin
signalsthataremuchlessdesirablethanwidebandFMsignals.Bothof
thesedeviationratiosareclassifiedasnarrowbandFM.
SinceFMoccupiessomuchbandwidth,itistypicallyusedonlyinthose
portionsofthespectrumwhereadequatebandwidthisavailable,i.e.,at
veryhighfrequencies.Infact,itisrarelyusedbelowfrequenciesof30
MHz. MostFMcommunicationworkisdoneattheVHF,UHF,and
microwavefrequencies.

CircuitComplexity.OnemajordisadvantageofFMinthepastinvolvedthe
complexityofthecircuitsusedforfrequencymodulationand
demodulationincomparisonwiththesimplecircuitsusedforamplitude
modulationanddemodulation.Today,thisdisadvantagehasalmost
disappearedbecauseoftheuseofintegratedcircuits.AlthoughtheICs
usedinFMtransmissionarestillcomplex,theyrequireverylittleeffortto
useandtheirpriceisjustaslowasthoseofcomparableAMcircuits.
Sincethetrendinelectroniccommunicationistowardhigherandhigher
frequenciesandbecauseICsaresocheapandeasytouse,FMandPM
havebecomebyfarthemostwidelyusedmodulationmethodin
electroniccommunicationtoday.

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FMandAMApplications

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NextLecture
Inthenextlecture(s)wewillstartdiscussingtheBasicsof
FourierTransformsandtheirapplications.

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Questions?

Any questions?

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