As Used in Geometry

So how does inductive and deductive reasoning figure into geometry? Well,
inductive reasoning is the beginning point of proofs as it gives you a hypothesis
you can test out, similar to what we discussed with the mice. For example, we
could observe that all three angles of several pairs of triangles are equal, and that
each pair of triangles look the same, except that one is bigger than the other.
Through inductive reasoning, we can reach the conclusion that if two triangles
have angles that all measure the same, then they are similar triangles.
But is this reliable? Not yet, because it is not based on facts. However, it does
become our hypothesis that we can test out in order to make a correct and valid
conclusion. We can use deductive reasoning now to begin making correct
conclusions. We look for facts that we know. What do we know? We know for a
fact that there is a formal theorem that has been proved time and time again that
tells us that if two triangles have the same angles, then they are similar.

Goal 2: Geometry, Measurement, And Reasoning

The student will demonstrate the ability to solve mathematical and real-world problems using
measurement and geometric models and will justify solutions and explain processes used.
EXPECTATION
2.1 The student will represent and analyze two- and three-dimensional figures using tools and
technology when appropriate.

INDICATOR
2.1.1 The student will analyze the properties of geometric figures.

SKILL STATEMENTS

PUBLIC RELEASE

LESSON PLANS

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Assessment limit:
Essential properties, relationships, and geometric models include the following:

Congruence and similarity

line/segment/plane relationships (parallel, perpendicular, intersecting, bisecting, midpoint,
median, altitude)
point relationships (collinear, coplanar)

angles and angle relationships (vertical, adjacent, complementary, supplementary, obtuse,

acute, right, interior, exterior)

angle relationships with parallel lines

polygons (regular, non-regular, composite, equilateral, equiangular)

geometric solids (cones, cylinders, prisms, pyramids, composite figures)

circle/sphere (tangent, radius, diameter, chord, secant, central/inscribed angle, inscribed,

circumscribed).
INDICATOR

2.1.2 The student will identify and/or verify properties of geometric figures using the coordinate
plane and concepts from algebra.

SKILL STATEMENTS

PUBLIC RELEASE

LESSON PLANS

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Assessment limits:

Verify properties means to justify solutions using definitions and/or mathematical principles.
Properties, relationships, and geometric models include the following:

Congruence and similarity

line/segment relationships (parallel, perpendicular, intersecting, bisecting, midpoint,

median, altitude)

point relationships (collinear)

angles and angle relationships (obtuse, acute, right)

polygons (regular, non-regular, equilateral, equiangular)

circle (tangent, radius, diameter, chord).

Items for this indicator may be set on the coordinate plane or may just have coordinates
identified with no grid.

Concepts from algebra include applications of the distance, midpoint, and slope formulas.
INDICATOR

2.1.3 The student will use transformations to move figures, create designs, and/or demonstrate
geometric properties.

SKILL STATEMENTS

PUBLIC RELEASE

LESSON PLANS

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Assessment limits:

Transformations include reflections, rotations, translations, and dilations.

Items should go beyond the identification of transformations.
Essential properties and relationships include the following: congruence, similarity, and
symmetry.
The students explanation of a transformation must include the following:

translation distance and direction

reflection line of reflection

rotation center of rotation, angle measure, direction (clockwise or counterclockwise)

dilation center and scale factor

Paper folding and the use of MirasTM and mirrors are appropriate methods for performing
transformations, and their use must be referenced.

INDICATOR
2.1.4 The student will construct and/or draw and/or validate properties of geometric figures
using appropriate tools and technology.

SKILL STATEMENTS

PUBLIC RELEASE

LESSON PLANS

PDF

Assessment limits:

Validate properties in this indicator, means justifying solutions using definitions, mathematical
principles and/or measurement.

Students may use a compass, straightedge, patty paper, a MiraTM, and/or a mirror
as construction tools. Using a ruler or protractor cannot be part of the strategy.

Students may use a compass, ruler, patty paper, a MiraTM, a mirror and/or a protractor
as drawing tools.

It is acceptable to do a construction when the item asks for a drawing.

Paper folding and the use of MirasTM and mirrors are appropriate methods for representing,
constructing, and/or analyzing figures, and their use must be referenced.

Constructions and drawings are limited to the two-dimensional relationships listed in 2.1.1.
EXPECTATION
2.2 The student will apply geometric properties and relationships to solve problems using tools and
technology when appropriate.

INDICATOR
2.2.1 The student will identify and/or verify congruent and similar figures and/or apply equality
or proportionality of their corresponding parts.

SKILL STATEMENTS

PUBLIC RELEASE

LESSON PLANS

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Assessment limits:

Students will demonstrate geometric reasoning and justify conclusions. Although the focus is on
geometric theory, answers to some items may include a numeric answer.

Corresponding measurements include length, angle measure, perimeter, circumference, area,

volume, surface area and lateral area.
INDICATOR

2.2.2 The student will solve problems using two-dimensional figures and/or right-triangle
trigonometry.

SKILL STATEMENTS

PUBLIC RELEASE

LESSON PLANS

PDF

Assessment limits:

Students will demonstrate geometric reasoning and justify conclusions.

Trigonometric functions may be used to find sides or angles.

Trigonometric functions will be limited to sine, cosine, and tangent and their inverses.
INDICATOR

2.2.3 The student will use inductive or deductive reasoning.

SKILL STATEMENTS

PUBLIC RELEASE

LESSON PLANS

PDF

Assessment limits:

Students are expected to demonstrate their geometric reasoning and justify conclusions.
Although the focus is on geometric theory, answers to some questions may include a numeric
answer.

Items may include geometric applications, patterns, and logic, including syllogisms.

Narrative, flow chart, or two-column proof may be used as a valid argument.

EXPECTATION
2.3 The student will apply concepts of measurement using tools and technology when appropriate.

INDICATOR
2.3.1 The student will use algebraic and/or geometric properties to measure indirectly.

SKILL STATEMENTS

PUBLIC RELEASE

LESSON PLANS

PDF

Assessment limits:

Measure indirectly means to use mathematical concepts such as congruence, similarity, and
ratio and proportion to calculate measurements.

Similarity and congruence will be directly stated or implied (scale drawings, enlargements).

Items may require the student to make comparisons.

This indicator may incorporate measuring.

This indicator does not include right-triangle trigonometry.

INDICATOR

2.3.2 The student will use techniques of measurement and will estimate, calculate, and/or
compare perimeter, circumference, area, volume, and/or surface area of two-and three-dimensional
figures and their parts.

SKILL STATEMENTS

PUBLIC RELEASE

LESSON PLANS

PDF

Assessment limits:

Two-dimensional shapes include polygons, circles, and composite figures.

Three-dimensional shapes include cubes, prisms, pyramids, cylinders, cones, spheres, and
composite figures.
Formulas will be provided.
No oblique solids will be used.
Items may involve applications of geometric properties and relationships.
Students may be required to make comparisons which do not require calculations

Deductive Reasoning and Measurements in Geometry

Want to learn more? Take an online course in Geometry.

Key Terms

Deductive reasoning

Deduction

Premise

Conditional statement

If-then statement

Antecedent

Consequent

Proof by contradiction

Two-column proof

Objectives

Know how to derive conclusions from premises using basic deduction

Recognize a two-column proof

Recognize the importance of units in geometric measurement

Understand how arbitrary units are used in measurement

Before we begin to take a more in-depth look at geometry proper, it behooves us to

first review some basic rules of deductive and mathematical reasoning that will aid
our analyses. The methods of deductive and mathematical reasoning can also be of
great benefit even beyond geometry and mathematics. In addition, we can consider
some aspects of measurement as they apply to geometry.

Deductive Reasoning in Geometry

Deductive reasoning (or deduction) is the process of deriving logically necessary

conclusions from a set of premises, which are simply statements or facts. Another
way of stating this definition is that a conclusion reached through the process of
deduction is necessarily true if the premises are true. Premises are often either
simple statements, such as "all squares are rhombuses" or "a rectangle has four
sides," or slightly more involved conditional statements (also known asif-then
statements), such as "if a polygon has three sides, then it is a triangle." We can look
at if-then statements in a general sense by considering a basic form: if x, then y. In
this

format, x is

the antecedent (or

premise),

and y is

theconsequent (or

conclusion). Assuming the conditional statement is true, then it logically follows that
if x is true, ymust also be true. If x is false, however, then we cannot draw any
conclusions about y. Let's consider these properties by way of some practice
problems.

Practice Problem: What conclusions, if any, can be drawn from the following
statements?

A: Figure x is a rhombus.
B: If a figure is a rhombus, then it has four sides.

Solution: We are given premises A and B, where A is a simple factual statement and
B is a conditional statement. The conditional statement tells us that if a figure is a
rhombus, then it has four sides. Premise A tells us that figure x is a rhombus. As a
result, because the antecedent ("a figure--x in this case--is a rhombus") is true, the
consequent ("x has four sides") must also be true. We can therefore conclude that
figure x has four sides.

Practice Problem: Determine whether any conclusions can be drawn from the
following statements.

A: Figure x is an ellipse.
B: If a figure is a circle, then its diameter is proportional to its circumference.

Solution: Note that figure x is identified in premise A as an ellipse; although this does
not rule out x being a circle, we cannot be sure from the given information. As a
result, the antecedent of premise B may or may not be true in the case of figure x.
We therefore cannot draw any conclusions on the basis of these premises.

Definitions in geometry can be thought of as conditional statements. For instance,

we might define a rhombus as follows: "A rhombus is a quadrilateral with all four
sides of equal length." We can recast this statement as follows: "If all four sides of a
quadrilateral are of equal length, then it is a rhombus." Note that the force of the

conditional statement is the same as that of the definition, but it provides us with a
tool for drawing conclusions using deduction.

Practice Problem: A quadrilateral containing only right angles is a rectangle.

Quadrilateral P contains only right angles. What conclusions (if any) can be drawn
about P?

Solution: Let's write the premises in the problem as follows:

A: If a quadrilateral contains only right angles, then it is a rectangle.

B: Quadrilateral P contains only right angles.

Clearly, then, quadrilateral P is a rectangle.

Sometimes, we do not have enough information to perform a simple series of direct

deductive steps to reach our desired conclusion. In such cases, proof by
contradiction is another potential approach. Let's assume we want to prove some
statement, such as "figure D is a square." Although a direct proof may not possible
(depending on what information we are provided with), a proof by contradiction may
be possible. We perform a proof by contradiction by assuming the opposite of what

we want to prove-in this case, "figure D is not a square." We would then apply our
standard deductive tools until we reach a contradiction (for instance, we conclude
that a true premise is false). At this point, we know that our assumption must be false
because it is not logically consistent. The following practice problem illustrates a
proof by contradiction.

Practice Problem: For a quadrilateral U, no two sides are parallel. If a quadrilateral is

a parallelogram, then it has two pairs of parallel sides. Prove that U is not a
parallelogram.

Solution: There is no direct way to prove that U is not a parallelogram, so let's

assume the opposite: assume that U is a parallelogram. We can then conclude from
the conditional statement given in the problem that U has two pairs of parallel sides.
This conclusion, however, contradicts the statement in the problem that U has no
parallel sides. Thus, we must reject our assumption, thereby proving that U is not a
parallelogram.
These few basic facts provide an acceptable foundation for reasoning in the context
of geometry. Much of the reasoning that we will do involves the use of definitions and
basic facts, along with conditional statements, to derive conclusions about geometric
figures. A formal method of displaying the process of reasoning in geometry is
the two-column proof, which includes premises and derived conclusions on the lefthand side and the reasoning for each step on the right-hand side. The ability to
recognize two-column proofs is beneficial. Let's consider a short example. Let's say
we are analyzing the figure below (not necessarily drawn to scale).

Assume we are told that a = b = c = d, and we know that a rhombus is defined as a

quadrilateral with four sides of equal length. Our given task is to prove that the figure
in the diagram above is a rhombus. A two-column proof in this case might look like
the following.

1. a = b = c = d

Given

2. If a quadrilateral has four

Definition of a rhombus

sides of equal length, then it is a rhombus.

3. Figure Y is a quadrilateral

Figure in diagram has four sides

4. Figure Y is a rhombus

Statements 1, 2, and 3

Measurement in Geometry

Geometry sometimes involves measurements of the characteristics of a figure. For

instance, we may be interested in determining the length of a line segment. Mostly
for our purposes, we do not use units to describe measurements-instead, we simply
use numbers. In real life, however, a number isn't always helpful. If a construction
worker were to say that a steel beam was 78 long, no one would be able to figure out
how long the beam is. If the construction worker said (or otherwise implied)
78 inches, or 78 meters, or 78 with some other unit, then we would be able to identify
the length of the beam. Thus, units are a critical part of geometry, even though they
may be omitted when we are analyzing figures that do not necessarily correspond to
any particular object in the real world.

Units of measurement are based on arbitrary standards. For instance, a foot is

simply the length of some object that people have agreed to use as a standard for
length. Thus, when performing a measurement, the characteristic being measured is
compared to the arbitrary standard. If we called the length of a certain bar a foot,
then we could measure the length of a line segment by determining how many feet it
is. In the example diagram below, the line segment is shown to be four feet long.

In addition to lengths, we can also measure areas. Units of area are defined
using square feet, square meters, or some other square length unit. Such a unit is

simply a square whose sides have a length of one foot, one meter, or one of
whatever unit is being used for the measurement. The area of a figure is simply the
number of these square units that we can fit inside the bounds of that figure. (To be
sure, as with length, we may need to use portions of a unit to fill in small regions.
These portions are simply fractional values of the unit, however.) The diagram below
shows a rectangle that is eight square feet in area.

Volume, likewise, involves cubic units, as shown below. We might imagine a threedimensional figure being hollow, and our cubic unit like a cup that we can fill with
water. We measure the volume, according to this heuristic approach, by filling the
unit with water and pouring it into the figure until the figure is filled. In the example
below, the cylinder might be (for instance) 2.5 cubic feet, or two and one-half of the
cubes filled with water and poured into the cylinder. A cubic foot is the volume of a
cube whose sides all have a length of one foot.

Another important geometric parameter that we can measure is angle. Armed with
an understanding of geometric reasoning and the nature of measurements in
geometry, we can begin to analyze figures and the relationships between them.

Practice Problem: Using the arbitrarily defined length shown, determine the length of
the line segment

Solution: One approach is to take any available object (a pencil or a scrap of paper,
for instance), mark off (with a pencil or just your finger) the length of a "quatloo," then
determine how many quatloos are needed to span the length of the line segment. As

shown below, the result is about 5 quatloos. (Obviously, the term "quatloo" has been
invented for this situation-nevertheless, we are able to do this legitimately, since
units are based on arbitrary standards!)

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Throughout the Geometry SparkNotes, we have learned almost everything

there is to know about figures in plane geometry. One of the most important
ways to apply that knowledge is through writing geometric proofs. Geometric
proofs are ways to logically make an argument about a certain figure or
figures in geometrical terms; a formal geometric proof is a meticulous, stepby-step way to show, in most cases, that certain figures or parts thereof are
congruent. Using proofs, you could measure one figure or part of a figure and
know the measure of another figure or part of that figure which is impossible to
measure. Naturally, just as proofs can prove congruence, they can be used to
prove incongruence as well.
To learn how to write a formal proof, which is the main purpose of this text, it is
necessary to backtrack a little and look at the way a mathematician must
reason in order to come to useful conclusions with limited knowledge. Two of
the most basic methods of mathematical reasoning are inductive and
deductive reasoning. They are both useful ways to arrive at conclusions, and
are both very important to the study of geometry. Deductive reasoning is used
more heavily than inductive reasoning in geometry, but in all of mathematics,

including some of geometry, the process of deductive reasoning is only

possible after inductive reasoning has led a mathematician to hypothesize
about a given situation: only after a proof has been attempted can a
mathematicians hypothesis be verified or refuted.
In the following lessons, we'll see exactly how inductive and deductive
reasoning are used in geometry. Finally, just as we studied the
buildings blocks of geometric figures in Geometry 1, in following lessons we'll
take a look at the building blocks of geometric proofs. These include
definitions, postulates, axioms, and theorems. By the end of Geometry 3, we'll
fully understand how to use these building blocks to write geometric proofs.
The task begins in the next few lessons as we learn about the nature of
mathematical reasoning

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is the process of arriving at a conclusion based on a set of

observations. In itself, it is not a valid method of proof. Just because a person
observes a number of situations in which a pattern exists doesn't mean that
that pattern is true for all situations. For example, after seeing many people
outside walking their dogs, one may observe that every dog that is a poodle is
being walked by an elderly person. The person observing this pattern could
inductively reason that poodles are owned exclusively by elderly people. This
is by no means a method of proof for such a suspicion; in fact, in the real
world it is a means by which people and things are stereotyped. A hypothesis
based on inductive reasoning, can, however, lead to a more careful study of a
situation. By inductive reasoning, in the example above, a viewer has formed
a hypothesis that poodles are owned exclusively by elderly people. The
observer could then conduct a more formal study based on this hypothesis
and conclude that his hypothesis was either right, wrong, or only partially
wrong.

Inductive reasoning is used in geometry in a similar way. One might observe

that in a few given rectangles, the diagonals are congruent. The observer
could inductively reason that in all rectangles, the diagonals are congruent.
Although we know this fact to be generally true, the observer hasn't proved it
through his limited observations. However, he could prove his hypothesis
using other means (which we'll learn later) and come out with a theorem (a
proven statement). In this case, as in many others, inductive reasoning led to
a suspicion, or more specifically, a hypothesis, that ended up being true.
The power of inductive reasoning, then, doesn't lie in its ability to prove
mathematical statements. In fact, inductive reasoning can never be used to
provide proofs. Instead, inductive reasoning is valuable because it allows us to
form ideas about groups of things in real life. In geometry, inductive reasoning
helps us organize what we observe into succinct geometric hypotheses that
we can prove using other, more reliable methods. Whether we know it or not,
the process of inductive reasoning almost always is the way we form ideas
about things. Once those ideas form, we can systematically determine (using
formal proofs) whether our initial ideas were right, wrong, or somewhere in
between.

Building Blocks of Proof

page 1 of 2
Just as figures in a plane are made of building blocks such as points,
segments, and lines, geometric proofs are made of building blocks, too. These
building blocks include definitions, postulates, axioms, and theorems.
Together, these building blocks are combined to make each step of a proof.
In the prior two groups of Geometry SparkNotes, we learned the definitions of
many terms. These definition are used all the time in geometric proofs. For
example, a polygon with three sides is a triangle. This is a definition. In a
proof, we might be confronted with a three-sided polygon, but not know much

about it. Using the definition of a triangle, we could deduce that the polygon is
a triangle, and with that knowledge, and our knowledge of triangles, we could
deduce much about the previously unknown polygon. In this way, definitions
are used in proofs.
Whenever a number of terms are defined, there must be a foundation of terms
that are understood to begin with. Without the use of a such terms, every
definition would be circular--words would be defined in terms of themselves.
These terms in geometry are called undefined terms. The undefined terms are
the building blocks of geometric figures, like points, lines, and planes. Points,
lines, and planes don't have specific, universal definitions. They are explained
in any text as clearly as possible, so that every following term can be
explained using a combination of undefined terms as well as previously
defined terms. Only with an understanding of these undefined terms can other
terms, like polygons, for example, be defined.
Postulates and Axioms
Postulates and axioms are statements that we accept as true without proof.
They are essentially the same thing, and in many textbooks, a distinction isn't
made between them. But more often than not, axioms are statements or
properties of real numbers, whereas postulates are statements or properties
of geometric figures.
Although axioms and postulates pertain to different concepts (numbers, and
figures, that is), they play the same role in geometric proofs: they form the
foundation of theorems. The reason we accept both without proof is that
postulates and axioms often can't be proved. Take the parallel postulate, for
example. It states that given a line and a point not on that line, exactly one line
can be drawn that contains the point and is parallel to the line. There is no
formal proof for this, but it is doubtlessly true. In this way, Postulates and
axioms are much like undefined terms. Just as undefined terms are accepted
without formal definitions (the concepts are explained, but not really defined),
and a foundation of undefined terms makes it possible to define a wide range

of other terms, postulates and axioms are understood to be true even though
we have no formal way to prove their truth. With a foundation of a few
postulates or axioms, countless theorems can be proved.
Theorems
Theorems are statements that can be proved. Once a theorem has been
proved, it can be used in other proofs. This way the bank of geometric
knowledge builds up so that one doesn't need to re-prove the simplest
properties. For example, the fact that the diagonals of a rectangle are
congruent is a very basic theorem that can be proved using the SAS method
of proving triangles congruent. (The method for formally proving this will come
later.) In a future proof, you can simply state that the diagonals of a rectangle
are congruent according to this theorem instead of having to go through the
SAS method again.
Proving the truth of certain universal geometric properties is one of the
ultimate goals of geometry. Most of the things we'll prove will be congruent in
specific situations; to prove the general fact that the diagonals of any
rectangle are congruent is a much greater accomplishmentHow do you use
geometry in daily life?
A:
QUICK ANSWER
Geometry is the math related to proportions, or size, shape and position, so
practical applications of geometry come in measurement and spatial
reasoning. Everything from wrapping a gift to designing a backyard landscape
is governed by geometry.
CONTINUE READING
KEEP LEARNING

What is geodesic dome math?

What are the applications of geometry in real life?

What does "congruent" mean in geometry?

FULL ANSWER
People commonly use geometry area problems when working on their homes.
Area problems help them decide how much carpet or paint to buy and even
which furniture will work in a given space. Likewise, decorating a room or an
outdoor area takes spatial reasoning and an arrangement of geometric
shapes.
Volume problems are another daily-life use of geometry. People use volume
equations to determine how much water goes in a fish tank, how much sand is
needed for a sandbox or even how much soil is needed for a window garden.
Elements of plane geometry, or the relationship of two-dimensional shapes on
a flat surface, also have their significance in real life. For instance, pool
players have to determine angles when shooting the balls across the table.
Likewise, angles and symmetry are very important for hairstyling. Hair styles
should complement a client's face shape. Likewise, when cutting the hair,
hairstylists need to cut at certain angles so that the hair falls in the desired
shape. For symmetry, hair actually has to be cut at different lengths to conform
to the shape of the client's head.
Finally, many professions such as engineering, interior design, landscape
architecture and even furniture moving use geometry as a basis for their work.

How do you use geometry in

daily life?
A:
QUICK ANSWER

Geometry is the math related to proportions, or size, shape and position, so practical
applications of geometry come in measurement and spatial reasoning. Everything
from wrapping a gift to designing a backyard landscape is governed by geometry.
CONTINUE READING

KEEP LEARNING

What is geodesic dome math?

What are the applications of geometry in real life?

What does "congruent" mean in geometry?

FULL ANSWER

People commonly use geometry area problems when working on their homes. Area
problems help them decide how much carpet or paint to buy and even which
furniture will work in a given space. Likewise, decorating a room or an outdoor area
takes spatial reasoning and an arrangement of geometric shapes.
Volume problems are another daily-life use of geometry. People use volume
equations to determine how much water goes in a fish tank, how much sand is
needed for a sandbox or even how much soil is needed for a window garden.
Elements of plane geometry, or the relationship of two-dimensional shapes on a flat
surface, also have their significance in real life. For instance, pool players have to
determine angles when shooting the balls across the table. Likewise, angles and
symmetry are very important for hairstyling. Hair styles should complement a client's
face shape. Likewise, when cutting the hair, hairstylists need to cut at certain angles
so that the hair falls in the desired shape. For symmetry, hair actually has to be cut at
different lengths to conform to the shape of the client's head.
Finally, many professions such as engineering, interior design, landscape
architecture and even furniture moving use geometry as a basis for their work.

What are the applications of

geometry in real life?
A:

QUICK ANSWER

In real life, there are many different applications of geometry including everyday uses
such as the "stop sign," which is an octagon shape. The shape, volume, location,
surface area and various other physical properties are central to the objects around
people.
Another example of geometry used in everyday life would be in providing a home for
fish. A fish tank needs to be filled carefully so that it does not overflow and so that it
is at the right capacity to sustain the fish. To determine the appropriate amount of
water to be used, a person must use basic geometry.
Yet another example of geometry used in everyday life would be wrapping a gift.
When a person is wrapping a gift, they must determine the appropriate amount of gift
wrapping to use in order to wrap the gift in the best possible way. This requires a use
of geometry to determine the best shape and size.
Geometry is also used in a more technical sense within various job disciplines such
as design and manufacturing, medicine and biology, robotics, graphics and
visualization, information systems and physical sciences. Architecture is one of the
applications of geometry that is crucial because architects are responsible for
building sound structures and they must use geometric components to do so.