ANNAMALAI

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY

B.Sc. AGRICULTURE
UNIVERSITY
AGR 121: AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY THEORY NOTES
Chapter No. Chapter Name Introduction to Agricultural Meteorology Atmosphere Wea
ther and Climate Temperature Part - I Page No. 2 18 39 Part II 57 2 6
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 9.
Solar Radiation and Light
Atmospheric Pressure Wind
Atmospheric Humidity (Moisture) Clouds and Precipitation Evaporation and Transpi
ration Precipitation
12 27 33 39 2
Part - III
Agroclimatic Zones
Agroclimatic normals for field crops Weather Forecasting Agricultural Seasons of
India
23 26 30 35
1

Part II Chapter 6 Atmospheric Pressure

Pressure is defined as the force acting over any surface. Atmospheric pressure i
s the expressed by the height of mercury in inches or millimeters. Pressure mainly a
ffects pressure of 1.034 g/cm2. The weight of air mass is over 56 trillion tons.
(56x1014ton). weight of the air, which lies vertically above a unit area, cente
red at a point and temperature and precipitation. The weight of the air presses
down the earth with the
Weight of 1sq. Inch column of air from sea level to top of the atmosphere weighs
nearly
15 1b. This weight is balanced by column of mercury 29.93 inches or 760 mm tall
having the same cross sectional area. This is the pressure at sea level at latit
ude 450. Another unit of measurement millibar is widely adopted by national weat
her service of
2

the world. (Millibar = 1000 dynes / cm2). Dyne is a unit of force approximately
equal to the weight of a milligram. Sea level pressure under this system is 1013
.2 m.bars (mb). One tenth of an inch of mercury is approximately equal to 3.4 mb
. Units of measurement:
Up to the year 1914 the unit of measurement of pressure was in inches or in m.m.
At sea level the atmospheric pressure is 30 or 76 cm or 760 mm. At a temperature
of 2730A. In the year 1914 a scientist by name Bjehkres derived a new unit calle
d the millibar (mb). Normal pressure at sea level is roughly 30 inches or 760 mm.
which corresponds to 1013 MB. The conversion from units of length to unit of pre
ssure is as follows. (13.595) and mass of Hg column is found out.
Suppose the Hg column at M.S.L. is 76cm it is then multiplied by the density of
mercury
76 x 13.595 = 1033.22 gm. The acceleration of gravity (normal) in CGS units is 9
80.665. Multiplying the mass by gravitational force i.e. 1033.22 x 980.665 we ob
tain the pressure in CGS units (centimeter dynes called a bar. gram second) is 10,
13,250 dynes/sq.cm. For convenient sake it is taken as 10, 00,000
One thousandth of a bar is called a millibar. A millibar Approximately 760 mm = 10
00 m.b. or 1 mb 33 m.b. = 0,76 x 33 = 1. = 0.76 mm. = 1000 dynes/cm2
= 25.08 mm or
The observed pressure is reduced to 320F or 00C at M.S.L. at 450 Latitude as the
standard to facilitate the comparison of pressure of different stations.
3

Factors affecting the Atmospheric Air Pressure: 1. Altitude

It is the relative height of place above M.S.L. The pressure decreases for every
increases of the altitude. At sea level the air column exerts its full pressure
, but we when we go pressure is decreased by 1 mb for every 10 meters. 2. Latitu
de up, pressure is reduced at high altitude. For every 900 ft of altitude 25 mm
or 33 mb
When the latitude increases the pressure will increase. Temperature
When the temperature increases the pressure will decrease. The density of given
volume of air vary with temperature. Thus when air is heated, it expands and bec
omes less dense, so that column of warm, light air weight less than a column of
cold, heavy
air both having the same height and cross sectional area. Changes in temperature
produces changes in air density which setup vertical and horizontal movement re
sulting in differences in air pressure. Over a warm region when air is heated it
expands and overflows aloft to adjacent region when air is heated it expands an
d horizontal transfer, the weight of the air is reduced in the warm region with
and
overflows aloft to adjacent region when temperature is lower. As a result of thi
s increased the adjacent cooler regions. Hence region with high temperature are
likely to have lower air pressure than other regions where temperature is not so
high. In other temperature is conducive to high sea level pressure. words, high
temperature tends to produce low sea level pressure while low
There is a rapid decrease in air weight or pressure with increasing altitude. Th
e lower layers of atmosphere are densest because the weight of all layers above
which rests up decrease, is in neighborhood of 1 or 34 mb of pressure for each 90
0 to 1000. on them. For the first few thousand feet above the sea level the rate
of pressure
4

Nearness to the sea

Places near to the sea are often subjected to cyclones due to low pressure. Wate
r Vapour
Moist air of high temperature exerts less pressure. When compared to moist air o
f low temperature, because water vapour content is lighter in cold area than air
, which is dry. Rotation of the earth Due to rotation of earth the pressure at 6
0 - 650N and S becomes low for the air to escape from these belts that move towa
rds the horse latitude (30 350 N&S) and these belts absorb air from the sub-pola
r belts making the pressure high. Seasonal variation Pressure system changes acc
ording to the season. Season changes according to the position of the sun. When
the sun moves to the tropic of cancer, pressure belts move to the North by 50 aw
ay from their normal. When sun moves to tropic of Capricorn, the pressure belt a
lso moves south and sight by 50 away from their original position. This is known
as Swing of pressure belts. Significance of pressure
The pressure are forms the cyclones. Whenever the atmospheric pressure of a plac
e drops from the normal conditions, depression occurs and cyclone may be formed.
storm as well as rain in area. The barometer reading is the best indication of
the possible occurrence of cyclone or
5

Sea breeze and land breeze due to seasons

During summer horse latitudes receive the direct sunrays and an area of low pres
sure increases over the continent masses and they enlarge a small high-pressure
center over the continents. But surrounding seas have a vast high-pressure area
in summer the wind blows from sea (high pressure) towards the lands. (Low pressu
re) In winter comparatively at low pressure. So winds start moving from the land
towards the sea. Diurnal variations season, a major area of high pressure cover
s the landmasses. The sea areas are
To find out the mean daily change in air pressure, the average of hourly-observe
d pressure for a long period of time is calculated. The mean value of the daily
pressure is free from the temporary effect of atmospheric disturbances. There is
a definite rhythm in the rise and fall of mercury. Insolational heating and rad
iational cooling are the principal reasons for diurnal variations of air pressur
e. In other words, pressure changes are mainly due to the expansion and contract
ion of the air. Seasonal or annual variation
This is clearly the effect of annual variation in the amount of insolation recei
ved in a particular region. Annual pressure variation in the tropical region is
larger than other their seasonal pressures, because there is practically no vari
ation in the amount of insolation received at the equator throughout the year Hi
gh pressure Low pressure - warm season - cold season regions of the world. The e
quatorial regions record the smallest amount of variation in
Pressure systems of the world types
Pressure system differs greatly in both size and duration. Pressure System is of
two i. High pressure system ii. Low pressure system
6

Centers of low pressure are called as depression, cyclones or lows. Prolonged lo

w pressure, centers are called troughs. The equatorial belt of low pressure is c
alled falling vertically all round the year, water vaporization being high and r
ising of air. doldrums (50 N & 50 S of Equator) and it is because of the followi
ng factors viz of sun
The doldrums belt is spread over Amazon, Congo, Passion and Guinea belt etc. The
centers of high pressures are called anticyclones or highs. An elongated high p
ressure is air from the equator descends down in this belt and polar air from th
e sub-polar belts also descents here. Storm called as Ridge. Near 300N and 300S
the pressure is always high because intensive hot
A marked atmospheric disturbance characterized by a strong wind, usually or hail
) or hail and often thunder and lighting. Thunder Strom
accompanied by rain, snow, sleet (rain that freezes as it falls-mixture of rain
with snow
A storm invariably produced by a cumulonimbus cloud and always accompanied by th
under, usually accompanied by strong wind, gusts, heavy rain and sometimes hails
. It is usually of short duration, seldom over 2 hour. Vertical motion is having many weather modifications. condensation.
Upward motion results due to expansion that it gets cooled and eventual Cumuloni
mbus cloud types are closely related to the strength of the vertical motion. A t
hunderstorm is as the name implies a storm accompanied by thunder and therefore
lightning. As Benjamin Franklin demonstrated in 1750 lightning discharges giant
electrical sparks.
7

Cumulonimbus clouds therefore are great electrical generators. The cloud produce
+ and -value charges by charged poles. The lower part of the cloud is negatively ch
arged and upper part is positively charged.
Hail
Precipitation in the form of balls or irregular lumps of ice is referred as hail
. Hail Strom
Small round pieces of ice hail that sometimes fall during thunder storms (frozen
rain drops, hail storms) is referred as hail storm and its features are It fall
s from cumulonimbus clouds. Hails may be sometimes greater in size than a large
marble. Hails are destructive to crops to crops that cause mechanical damage, st
ructures.
8

Hurricane
A violent tropical cyclone with wind speed of 73 or more miles per hour or 134 a
nd more km/h usually accompanied by torrential (very heavy fall) rain, originati
ng usually in West Indian regions.
Tornado
Tornado is coined from a Spanish word Torn as means, to turn and its characteristi
cs are as follows. The smallest vortex (whirlpool, whirl or powerful eddy of air
, whirl wind - a caught in the motion are drawn). circular motion. whirling mass of water forming a vacuum at its center, into which anything Eddy
- current of air, water, etc., moving against the main current and worth But mos
t powerful one.
The intense rotation is confined normally to diameter of kilometer or less. But
its wind speed can reach even 300 km/h
9

Water spouts
The tornado occasionally forms over water and because of high moisture content o
f the air, the funnels are heavily laddened with water drops, so they look somew
hat like a stream of water pouring from the base of the cloud. For this reason t
hey are called waterspouts. Dust Devil
A whirlwind that frequently forms on very hot days especially over desert is the
dust devil. Normally there are no clouds associated with it.
10

Cyclone
It is a system of winds blowing around the center of low barometric pressure i.e
., means hemisphere the characteristics are closed circulation about a low-pressure center, which is anti clockwise in the N
orthern
Cyclonic whirls are the Storms of middle latitude. Around the low-pressure centers
.
In the temperate latitude they produce much of the winter precipitation. Air cir
culates anti clockwise direction in Northern Hemisphere.
The air is heterogeneous in relation to temperature and moisture.
Anticyclone
is high relative to the surroundings. Circulation is a clockwise in northern hem
isphere and anti clockwise in Southern hemisphere. It is a condition in which the atmospheric pressure distribution where central p
ressure
The whirling speed reduces @ 10-15 cm/sec. and fair weather generally The air ma
sses are homogenous with respect to temperature and moisture. prevail.
Typhoon
Any violent tropical cyclone originating in the western Pacific especially in th
e South China Sea
Plant growth
It is the resultant of all the environmental factors-climatic, physiographic, ed
aphic and
biotic factors. For a particular field it is primarily a function of climate wit
h temperature and height being the most important factors. A very close relation
ship exists between plant phenology and both latitude and altitude.
11

Chapter 7 Wind
Wind is defined as the moving air of atmosphere parallel to earths surface air in
horizontal motion. All other masses of air in motion (vertical) should be calle
d as Air Currents. Wind is an invisible weather element but the effect of wind c
an be seen from of wind is affected by various factors.
the movement of tree branches, dust particles and by feeling. The pattern and in
tensity
Advantages of wind:
1. Fresh wind is useful for renewing the environment. 3. It is useful for cleani
ng for agricultural produces.
2. Wind is useful for effecting pollination in the crops.
12

4. It is used as a force in certain machines such as windmills, winnowing machin

es etc.
Effect of Wind on crops
1. Increases transpiration under normal condition with increasing wind velocity.
Layers of humid air adjacent to plant leaf surfaces are removed by wind and bec
ome mixed with dry air above. This keeps RH low and increases transpiration rate
. There is a greater increase in cuticular transpiration than stomatal transpira
tion witch cause moisture stress in plants.
2. Wind increases the rate if Photosynthesis. Wind increases turbulence in atmos
phere thus raising the supply of Co2 to the plants and thereby increasing the ra
te of photosynthesis. However, the increase is only up to a certain wind speed.
3. When the wind is hot it accelerates the drying of the plants by replacing hum
id wind affects the maturing cell and that result in dwarfing of plants.
air by dry air in the intercellular spaces. At the time of cell expansion, the h
ot dry
4. Much damage is caused by hot dry winds at or near the time of flowering. The
injury is blossom injury caused by evaporation of secretions in the stigma.
internal water balance is upset, resulting in poor seed setting. Another form of
5. Interfere pollination by insects. But mild wind will favour pollination by wi
nd. 6. Deplete soil moisture. 7. Due to mechanical effect of wind the growth pat
tern and shape of trees ate 8. Uprooting of plants is common where as crops and
trees with shallow roots are 9. Cause fruit drops in plants. Example. Citrus fru
it drop. Fruits and nuts are stripped off from trees. uprooted. changed lopsidal
growth.
13

10. Soil erosion occurs when the plant cover is not thick, strong winds remove t
he dry soil exposing their roots and killing them. The eroded material from one
place is deposited in another place causing hazard to small plants in that place
. The deposited materials reduce the aeration around the roots and plants.
11. Salt deposition by wind is another phenomenon where wind from sea carries se
nsitive to excess salts. Disadvantages of wind
salts as spray on coastal area and makes it impossible to grow crops which are
1. High-speed wind accelerates the drying of moisture from the soil and also it
2. High-speed wind results in lodjing of many crops such as Banana, Sugarcane an
d 3. other fruit trees. withered. Heavy wind will affect the fruit set and also
the available fruits to fall or to be increases the rate of transpiration in pla
nts thereby necessitating frequent irrigation.
4. Heavy wind also results in soil erosion. practices.
Effect of high wind can be prevented to some extent by means of the following 1.
Properly oriented and designed shelterbelts. damage caused by cold winds.
2. In temperature conditions wind breaks save plants from freezing and mechanica
l 3. Windbreaks also reduce soil erosion caused by wind.
4. Tall crops such as Corn, Sorghum, Sunflower etc are used as temporary wind ba
rriers to protect crop viz., Sugar beat, Soy bean, Tomato, Brinjal etc.,
Causes for the formation of the wind:
The principal cause for wind is difference in pressure. Air always moves from ar
eas of high pressure to those of low pressure. 1. Due to variation in the atmosp
heric temperature, pressure etc., i.e. when the
atmospheric temperature is very high the pressure will decrease correspondingly.
14

Due to fall of the atmospheric pressure the air moves from high-pressure area to
2. Due to deflection of atmosphere air over the earth surface while it revolves
and this deflectional force is called as Coriolis force low-pressure area and thi
s gradient decides the direction of wind.
Types of movement of air
5. Horizontal movement called wind Subsidence.
6. Vertical movement called Eddies, Convection currents, Convergent accents and
Wind force
The following are the wind forces and they are the factors affecting the wind mo
tion. 1. Pressure force
The forces that move the air depend primarily at the distribution of pressure. L
et us consider a vertical cross section through a cube of air with horizontal an
d vertical faces.
Since the atmospheric pressure decreases with elevation the pressure P1 on the low
er by the weight of air with in the cube or the gravity force. Usually there is
balance between the two forces so that no vertical motion results. Rarely there
will be in balance and vertical acceleration results and convective currents are
created.
face of the cube is greater a force that of P2 on the top face. This force is coun
teracted
Large wind systems are mainly horizontal currents. The pressure also varies in t
he
horizontal direction and the pressure on the vertical force will exceed the othe
r force and the difference in pressure is equivalent to a force to drive the cub
e horizontally from high to low pressure.
2. Pressure gradient force and Isobars
Suppose when we observe the atmospheric pressure in large number of places in a
horizontal surface and plot the pressures on a map and draw curves through the p
oints
15

that have identical pressure gradient which are called as isobars. The horizonta
l pressure gradient may be defined as the decrease in pressure/unit distance in
the direction in which the pressure decreases most rapidly.
The isobars are the lines connecting different places of same pressure on chart
or map of country or world. The lines can be drawn after reducing the readings t
o M.S.L. Such lines or curves are called isobars. These lines are drawn every 5th
of a millibar. Pressure distributive charts are constructed for sea level and fo
r number of constant pressure surfaces in the atmosphere. 700 mb at 10,000 ft. 5
00 mb at 18,000 ft.
In sea level pressure chart all pressures at different elevation are reduced to
pressure receiving to sea level.
There is rapid change in pressure in a direction at right angle to the isobars.
The rate of change in atmospheric pressure between two points at the same elevat
ion is called the which causes the horizontal movement of air. pressure gradient
of isobaric slope. It is proportional to the difference in pressure,
The change in atmospheric pressure during 3 hours preceding the observation is c
alled barometric tendency. When the tendencies have been plotted on the map the li
nes connecting the points are called isallobars. They represent the pressure chang
es as
that of isobars but are drawn for each millibar. Usually the tropical regions ar
e lowpressure belt due to high temperature in and around the equatorial line. Th
e temperature regions are high-pressure belt (areas). Beyond temperate belt, the
pressure pressure).
diminishes regularly in south but irregularly in North. (Alaska and ice lands ha
ve high
16

Two important factors that exist between pressure gradient and winds are:
The direction of airflows is from regions of greater to those of less density i.
e. from high to low pressure, which may be represented by a line drawn at night
at night angles to the isobars.
The pressure gradient is:
1. Everywhere perpendicular to the isobars
2. Points from high to low values of pressure
3. Inversely proportional to the distance between the isobars, the more crowed t
he isobars the stronger is the pressure gradient.
3. Horizontal deflection force due to earth rotation
Surface winds do not flow directly down the barometric slope (right angles to th
e hemisphere becomes northwestern wind. The cause for the deviation of wind from
the gradient direction is the deflective force of the earths rotation plus frict
ion. This causes all winds to be turned to the right in the northern hemisphere
and to the left in the It is a resultant effect of the two motions.
isobars) but instead are deflected into oblique courses. Thus a west wind in the
northern
Southern hemisphere (Farrels Law). This deflective force is called the Coriolis for
ce. 1. Rotational movement of the earth.
2. The movement of the body relative to the surface of the earth.. This deflecti
ve force of the earth is minimum near the equator and it increases with
latitude and is maximum near the equator and it increases with latitude and is m
aximum at the poles. Therefore air moves rather directly across the isobars in l
ow latitudes and is greatly deflected in the Polar Regions. This deflective forc
e also
increases with the wind velocity. The Coriolis force is directly proportional to
the and has no influence on influence on the velocity of the wind. The broken a
rrow shows
moving mass of air and its velocity. It acts at right angles to the direction of
the motion the direction of the pressure gradient and the solid arrows shows th
e direction of wind 17

due to Corolis force. Friction its next factor, which affects the wind motion. It m
odifies the effects of gravity and deflection.
Friction prevents the winds from attaining velocities and also from blowing para
llel with the isobars.
4. Centrifugal force
The amount of deflection due to this force is dependent on the velocity of the w
ind. More the velocity greater will be the outward force and hence greater will
be the deflection produced. Therefore in the northern hemisphere the rotational
deviation is to the right and therefore the centrifugal force will enhance this
deflection. This force is it will be subjected to centrifugal force. Pressure be
lts
negligible near the surface of the wind is low. If the path of the wind is curvi
linear than
These are the regions of the high and low pressure formed on the earth as a resu
lt of 1. The differences in the rate of insolation
18

2. Differences in the rate of absorption of heat by water and the different type
s of 3. The rotation of the earth. earths surfaces and
There are two types of pressure belts namely High and Low pressure belts. Low pr
essure belts
Cyclones and anti-cyclones are two special pressure and wind systems. A cyclone
is a
system of very low pressure in the center surrounded by increasing high pressure
the southern hemisphere and in an anticlockwise direction in the Northern hemis
phere.
outwards. In a cyclone, the wind blows in a circular manner in a clockwise direc
tion in It is believed that most cyclones in the temperate regions occur due to
the coming close conditions. Cyclones of this types are also known as
and imperfect mixing of two masses of air of contrasting temperature and humidit
y hand cyclones in tropical areas result from the intense heating up of air in s
ome regins causing great loss of life and property in coastal areas. These tropi
cal depressions are China Sea and willy-willes in northwest Australia. The equat
orial strip and the polar known as cyclones in the Indian ocean , Hurricanes in
the west Indies, typhoons in the zones are low-pressure belts. As a result of in
tense heat at the equator, the air rise to the upper layers, producing a belt of
low density and pressure of air and the lower layers near the surface of the ea
rth called the doldrums. The air in the Polar Regions is swung Regions is of low
density and pressure and these are called Polar calms. In the following chapter a
detail study on cyclones is attempted. Wave cyclones. On the other
to the temperate regions by the rotation of the earth. The atmosphere above the
Polar
Anticyclones, which are the centers of high pressure, are the opposite of cyclon
es in all respect.
Tornadoes are very strong tropical cyclones of a smaller size. They are speciall
y feared in some parts of southeastern United States. Sometimes, when they occur
over sea, the
19

funnel -shaped cloud formed by the whirling motion of the wind descends to the
surface and draws up the water forming a column of water known as a waterspout. Th
e jet Stream
The jet stream is a system of upper-air westerlies. It gives rise to slowly movi
ng upperair waves. In the upper-air waves are some narrow zones in which wind velocities
of up and is one of the systems affecting the distribution of pressure in the u
pper atmosphere. India. Jet streams develop over areas of steep pressure gradien
t. High Pressure Belts:
to 250 knots are observed in some air streams. This phenomenon is called the jet
stream The phenomenon of jet stream is believed to affect the onset and retreat
of monsoons in
The areas of high pressure relative to the surroundings are called high-pressure
belts or from the center. Air currents at the upper layers from both the equato
r and the poles meet at latitudes 300 to 350 N and S called the horse latitudes
and produces a belt of high
anticyclone. The wind circulation is clockwise around an anticyclone with a drif
t away
pressure. From these horse latitudes, winds blow towards the equator and the pol
es. These should take northerly and southerly courses but are deflected by the r
otation of S.W. winds towards the poles. the earth. Thus in the northern hemisph
ere N.E. wind blows towards the equator and
In the southern hemisphere S.E. blows towards the equator and N.W. winds towards
the poles.
A trough of low pressure is an elongated area of relatively low pressure, which
extends
from the center of a cyclone. The trough may have U shaped V shaped isobars. The
wind circulation around a trough is essentially of the cyclone type. A wedge of
high pressure is an elongated area of high pressure that extends from the center
of an anticyclone, and the wind circulation is anticyclonic.
20

Around the equator there is a region of almost uniform pressure in which the win
ds are both the hemisphere into the doldrums. This convergence results in ascend
ing air
light and variable and this belt is called the doldrums. The winds converge from t
he currents, adiabatic cooling, condensation and precipitation. The doldrums are
therefore characterized by frequent showers, thunderstorms and heavy rainfall.
Further away, and westerly winds on the pole ward side. These belts of high pres
sure are called the anticyclones. The winds on this equatorial side are called T
rade winds. They blow from the equator are belt of high pressure with easterly w
inds on their equatorial sides subtropical anticyclones. The winds on this equat
orial side are called the subtropical mainly from the east and have a component
towards the equator; on the pole ward side
the winds have a pole ward component. The subtropical anticyclones are regions o
f descending air currents, low R.H. almost clear sky and deficit of rainfall. Mo
st deserts are found in the region. In the central portion of the subtropical an
ticyclone the winds are light and referred to by seamen as the Horse Latitude. The
wind on the pole ward side of the high pressure are called prevailing westerlie
s. They increase in strength as the latitude increases.
Wind Systems
There are three types of wind systems namely: 1. Primary wind system 2. Secondar
y wind system and The primary and secondary wind systems consist of Trade winds
and monsoons (discussed in later chapter )respectively and special type consists
of land and sea breezes(discussed in earlier chapter). 3. Special a type wind s
ystem.
21

1. Trade winds
Trade winds are the winds of primary wind systems that blow from subtropical cen
ters towards the equatorial side low between 30 and 350 and the winds on the equ
atorial side are called Trade winds. They are the most regular winds. Their steadi
ness has winter than in summer. They are regular and steady over the oceans. The
y blow away
earned their name trade winds. They blow with greater strength and constantly in
from the landmasses over continents. When the equatorial region gets heated, th
e air sizes from the surface and passes to the upper layers. The pressure of the
atmosphere from both north and south and this phenomenon continues right throug
h the year. near the surface decreases in due coarse. Air moves towards this low
-pressure area
The resulting wind takes the same course or track and is hence called Trade winds
or
Tropical Easserlies. As the hot air arise to the upper layers over the equator, t
he pressure is raised there in due coarse and the surplus air moves northwards a
nd southwards in the lower layer. The movement is towards the equator form the n
orth and south in the lower layers and from the equator towards north and south
in the upper layers. The latter are called Antitrade winds. Relationship of wind a
nd pressure Earth rotates from west to east along with atmosphere. Atmosphere is fixed to ea
rth by gravitational equilibrium. Wind therefore moves in addition to rotation.
Horizontal motion is greater than vertical motion. few minutes.
Wind takes several days to cross the ocean but up and down movement is only in
Seasonal and Local winds
The monsoons are the most important among seasonal winds. In this system, the Am
erica and much of South Asia, including the Indian subcontinent. These winds are
direction of the winds changes seasonally. They are experienced over parts of No
rth primarily a result of differential heating of land and sea. In summer, south
ern Asia 22

develops a low pressure and airflows landwards from the Indian Ocean. This is kn
own
as the summer monsoon. In winter, the pressure over land is higher than over the
sea and consequently the air starts flowing from land to sea. This is called th
e winter monsoon. The modern theories consider theories the monsoon a result of
the shift in the pressure and wind belts.
According to the dynamic theory, monsoons are a result of the pole ward shift of
the Inter Tropical Convergence (ITC) under the influence of the vertical sun du
ring the summer season. During summer in the northern hemisphere, in the months
of May and June the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer and the ITC
shifts north of in the northern hemisphere and from the southeast in the souther
n hemisphere. As ITC the equator. The ITC is the convergence zone of the trade w
inds bowing from northeast
23

Shifts northern of the equator, the southeast tread winds start blowing north of
the equator to reach the ITC, and as they cross the equator, their direction is
altered due to gives rise to the formation of a belt of equatorial westerilies
blowing between the equator towards the ITC from the southwest to the northeast
and they are called the southwest monsoon. the influence of the coriollis force,
i.e., they are deflected towards their right and thus it equator and the ITC. T
hese westerlies in the months of May and June blow from the
During the winter season the ITC again moves southwards and the areas north of t
he equator, which experienced the equatorial westerlies during the summer season
, now called the northeast monsoons. come under the influence of the northeast t
rade winds. These northeasterly winds are
During this very season the ITC shifts south of the equator and the northeast tr
ades blowing towards the ITC, get deflected upon crossing he equator southward.
Here they give rise to the equatorial westerlies blowing from the northwest to t
he southeast,
replacing the trade winds of the southern hemisphere between the ITC and the equ
ator. Thus the areas situated in the tropical zone come under the influence of t
he trade winds summer season. Thus the direction of the winds is reversed season
ally and it makes up the monsoon system of the region. during the respective win
ter and the equatorial westerlies during the respective
In certain regions, local winds are generated
terrain. One example of this is the simple system of land and sea breeze experie
nced in coastal areas. Due to differential heating, the air moves from sea to la
nd during the day of direction. During the day air moves up along the valley slo
pes, as the slopes are very hot. When the slopes cool at night air moves valley
wards. and from land to sea at night. Mountain and valley winds also follow dail
y alternation
as a result of the influence of the local
24

Measurement of wind speed

The speed or velocity of wind is expressed in meters per second, kilometers per
second, these units is
kilometers per hour, and miles per hour or knots per hour. The relationship betw
een
1 m/sec
= = =
3.6 km/hr 2.24 mph 1.94 knots ph
Wind speed is measured by Robinsons cup anemometer.
In 1805 Admiral Francis Beaufort introduced a wind force (speed) scale, which wa
s
based upon the response of certain objects to the wind. In applying Beaufort sca
le the extent to which smoke is carried horizontally or to which trees bend befo
re the wind is the response of sails and masts is the basis for wind speed estim
ates. and wind speed respectively. used as an index of speed. At sea, the condit
ion of waves, swell and spray in addition to In modern method wind vane and anem
ometers are used for measuring the direction Table: The Beaufort scale of wind f
orce with velocity equivalents Beaufort Term
Beaufort Number 0 1 2 3
Descriptive Calm
Land Criteria Calm, smoke rises vertically wind vans
miles/hour Less than 1 1 to 3 4 to 7 3 to 12
Velocity,
Light air Light breeze Gentle breeze
Direction shown by smoke drift, not by Wind felt on face; leaves rustle; ordinar
y vane moved by wind extend light flag. Leaves and small twigs in motion; wind
25

4 5 6
Moderate breeze Fresh breeze Strong breeze
Raises dust and loose paper, small, branches moved Small trees in leaf being to
away. Created wavelets form on inland waters Large branches in motion; whistling
in telegraph wires; umbrellas used with difficulty
13 to 18 19 to 24 25 to 31
7 8 9 10
Moderate gale Fresh gale Strong gale Whole gale
Whole trees in motion; some difficulty walking against wind impeded Breaks twigs
off trees; progress generally Slight structural damage occurs (chimney pots and
slate removed) damage inland occurs; Trees uprooted; considerable structural se
ldom experienced
32 to 38 39 to 46 47 to 54 55 to63
11 12
Strom Hurricane
Very rarely experienced; accompanied by widespread damage
63 to 75 Above 75
From Trewartha. An introduction to Climate. McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1954.
26

Chapter 8 Atmospheric Humidity (Moisture)

Moisture present in the atmosphere plays a significant role in weather and clima
te of a region. There are three major components in the atmospheric moisture. i.
Humidity ii. Precipitation iii. Evaporation Humidity
The terminology related to humidity and concerned with gaseous form of water i.e
., water vapour, several expressions of the amount of water vapour in the air is
used.
27

Absolute humidity: It denotes the actual mass of water vapour in given volume of
air. It may be expressed as the number of grams of water vapour in cubic meter
of moist air or mass of water vapour per unit volume of air.
Specific humidity: It is defined as the moisture content of moist air as determi
ned by water vapour id contained.
the ratio of the mass of water vapour to the mass of moist air in which the mass
of
Relative humidity: Relative humidity is a common parameter for expressing water
vapour content of the air. It is the percentage of water vapour present in the a
ir in comparison with saturated condition at a given temperature and pressure. T
he R.H. can be expressed as
RH
=
100r ---------rw
Where r is the mixing ratio of moist air at pressure (p) and temperature and rw is t
he saturation-mixing ratio at same temperature and pressure.
28

Mixing ratio: The mass of water vapour per unit mass of dry air is a convenient
parameter to express the relative composition of the mixture. It is defined as t
he ratio of the mass of water vapour to the mass of dry air with which the water
vapour is associated.
Dew point: The temperature at which saturation occurs in given mass of air. The
dew point temperature is often compared with the temperature of free air and als
o used to predict the occurrence of fog, dew, frost or precipitation.
air expressed in the units of millibar (or) inches of mercury.
Vapour pressure: This is the amount of partial pressure created by water vapour
in the
Vapour pressure deficit (VPD): It is the difference between saturated vapour pre
ssures
and actual vapour pressure express as bar /Pascal. When the VPD is up to 1.5 Kpa
the air is said to be humid and over and above 2.5 Kpa it is drier. It gives th
e rough estimate of drying power of air similar to RH. Rate of evaporation and t
ranspiration are indicated by the magnitude of VPD.
Saturation point: When air contains all the vapour it can hold at that temperatu
re air said to be saturated at the temperature reached saturation point.
Factors affecting humidity of the air:
1. Temperature If the temperature of the atmospheric air is more, the water vapo
ur present will be less. air to absorb more water from the earth surface.
But at the same time the high temperature will increase the capacity of the atmo
spheric
29

2. Nearness of the place to the seacoast

The places near the seacoast are supposed to be cooler due to high deposition of
water in vapour form in the atmospheric air from sea. 3. Climate
Based on the various climatological a factor such as temperature rainfall etc.,
a particular place is divided into various climatic periods like summer winter e
tc. Summer period is marked by high temperature, low rainfall and low humidity.
Rainy frequent rain and high humidity. Importance of humidity period is marked w
inter season is also marked by low temperature, but not with
It decides the dampness or dryness of the atmospheric air. Humidity has got the
same effect as that of rain in deciding the water needs of the crops. The high h
umidity has also got some adverse effect on the crop growth. There will be high
incidence of pest depends upon the saturated condition of the atmospheric air wi
th water vapour. Measurement of humidity
and diseased under high humidity. The rate of evaporation and transportations en
tirely
The amount of vapour (water) in the atmospheric air is measured by gravimetric H
ygrograph etc.
method, and also by using wet and dry bulb thermometers, Assman Psyschrometer
Effect of Relative Humidity on crops
RH directly influences the water relation of the plant and indirectly affects 1)
Leaf 5) Occurrence of pest and diseases 6) Economic yield of crop.
growth, 2) Photosynthesis 3) Pollination 4) Uptake and translocation of nutrient
s
30

Water relation:
RH affects the transpiration by modifying the vapor pressure gradient. In dry re
gion RH will be low which causes severe water deficit in plants and reduce the l
eaf water potential, plants become dry and wilt. High RH lowers the ET.
1. Leaf growth: It is not only depends on photosynthesis and biochemical process
but also depend on physical process of cell enlargement. Cell enlargement occur
s as a result of turgor pressure developed within the cell. Turgor pressure is h
igh under E.g., cotton 40% RH recorded increased growth rate compared to 25 or 6
5% RH.
high RH due to less transpiration. Thus, leaf enlargement is high in humid regio
n.
2. Photosynthesis: RH indirectly affects photosynthesis. When RH is reduced tran
spiration increases causes water deficit in plants. Water deficit causes partial
or full closure of stomata and increases mesophyll resistant blocking the entry
of CO2 thereby photosynthesis is affected.
3. Pollination: Moderately low air humidity is favorable for seed set in many cr
ops
provided in soil moisture supply is adequate. For example, Seed set was higher i
n wheat at 60% RH compared to 80 % RH. When water availability in soil is not li
miting, due to increase pollen germination. When RH is increased pollen may not
disturbed from the anther. Low RH causes pollen sterility.
4. Uptake and translocation of nutrient: High RH decreases the transpiration, wh
ich
affects uptake of nutrients and causes deficiency. Uptake of P, K and Ca was hig
her at high RH the 60%. Increased the RH increases P uptake. RH 60% is effective
for most of the crop growth by better nutrient uptake.
5. Pest and disease incidence: It increases with increased RH. Higher RH favors
easy germination of fungus spores. For example, Blight disease of Potato and Tea
. Jassid and aphid infestation will be more under high RH.
31

6. Crop Yield: Very high or low RH is not ideal. In maize low yield was obtained
due to high RH. Pest and disease incidence was observed at maturity stage and h
ence low RH is beneficial. 60-80% RH is ideal for most of the crops.
Diurnal variation in RH: The mean maximum RH occurs in the early morning hours a
nd minimum in the early afternoon. The RH has its maximum at equator and decreas
es towards the poles up to 300 N and S due to subsiding and diver sing air This
trend is known as Diurnal variation in RH. Effect of relative humidity on Plant
Growth Increase in RH-decreases the temp. This phenomenon increases heat load of
the leaves. Since transpiration is reduced not much heat energy used. Excessive
heat due to closure of stomata entry of CO2 is reduced. Reduction in transpirat
ion reduces the rate of food translocation and uptake of nutrients. Very high RH
is beneficial to Harmful to masses. From about 300 to poles the RH increase the
result of decreasing temperature.
Maize, Sorghum, Sugarcane, (C4Plants) Sunflower, Tobacco.
Affect water requirement of crops: For almost all the crops it is always safe to
have a moderate R.H. of above 40%. 60-80 % conducive for growth and development
of plants.
32

Clouds and Precipitation

Clouds are condensed moistening of droplets of water and ice crystals. The nucle
i of those droplets are dust particles. Near the surface these drops forms as fo
gs and in the free atmosphere, they form clouds. Clouds have been defined as a v
isible aggregation or minute water droplets and / or ice particles in the air, u
sually above the general ground level.
Chapter 9
Air contains moisture and this is extremely important to the formation of clouds
. Clouds are formed around microscopic particles such as dust, smoke, salt cryst
als & other materials that are present in the atmosphere. These materials are ca
lled Cloud condensation Nucleus (CCN). Without these no cloud formation will take
place. Certain special types known as ice nucleus on which cloud depletes freeze o
r ice
crystals form directly for water vapour. Generally condensation nuclei are prese
nt in plenty in air. But there is scarcity for special ice forming nuclei. Gener
ally clouds are made up of billion of these tiny water depletes of ice crystals
or combination of both.
When a current of air rises upwards due to increased temperature it goes up, exp
ands vapour condenses and forms clouds. The condensation takes place on an nucle
us of
and gets cooled. If the cooling continues till the saturation point is reached,
the water dust particles. The water particles individually are very small and su
spended in the air.
Only when the droplets coalesce to from a drop of sufficient weight, to overcome
the resistance of air, they fall as rain. Clouds are considered essential and a
ccurate tools for weather forecasting. Every feature of air masses (discontinuit
y, subsidence, instability and stability) is reflected by the shape, amount and
structure of clouds.
33

Classification of clouds
Clouds are usually classified according to their height and appearance. For conv
enience we list them in descending order as high clouds, middle clouds and low c
louds. Since characteristics make them easily, identifiable as vertical developm
ent clouds. We must exercise some caution in relying on height data. There is so
me seasonal as well as appearances of clouds are quite distinctive for each heig
ht category. for one do not fit in any of these categories. But fortunately thei
r particular
latitudinal variation and there is some overlapping from time to time. However,
the

The main cloud genera are defined and described in the international cloud atlas
of the WMO genera1957. That can be listed according to their heights as under.
34

A. High Clouds (mean heights 5 to 13 km) (Mean lower level 20000 ft) i) Cirrus (
ci) men height 9900 m. ii) Cirrocumulus (cc) 8300 m. iii) Stratus (Cs) 6500 m.
B. Middle Clouds (Mean height 2 to 7 km) (6500 to 20,000) i) Altostratus (As) 430
0 m. ii) Altocumulus (Ac) 4300 m. C. Low Clouds (mean heights 0 to 2 km) (Close
to earths surface to 6500) i) Nimbostratus (Ns) 2000 m. ii) Stratocumuls (Sc) 500m
. iii) Stratus (St) 900-1200 m. D. Vertical clouds
i) Cumulus (Cu) 1500-2000 m.
ii) Cumulonimbus (Cn) 3000-5000 m. Clouds with vertical development 1. Cirrus: D
etached clouds in the form of white, delicate filaments or white or mostly delic
ate silky appearance or both. All the cirrus or cirro-type clouds are composed o
f ice precipitation.
white patches of narrow bands. Those clouds have a fibrous (hair like) appearanc
e or a crystals. Cirrus clouds have brilliant colours of sunset sunrise. These c
louds do not give
2. Cirro-Status: Transparent whitish cloud veil of fibrous (hair like) or smooth
appearance, totally or partly covering the sky and generally producing halo phe
nomena. This type of cloud is so thin it gives the sky a mild appearance
35

3. Cirro-cumulus: Thin, white flakes, sheet or layer of cloud without shading. C

omposed of very small elements in the form of grains, ripples etc. This type of
cloud is uniformly, it forms a Mackerel sky. Mackerel Fish has greenish blue strip
ped back and silvery white belly. not common and is often connected with cirrus
or cirrostratus. When arranged
4. Alto-stratus: A uniform sheet cloud of Grayish or bluish cloud frequently show
ing a fibrous appearance, totally or partly covering the sky, and having parts t
his enough to reveal the sun at least wavely as through ground glass. Altostratu
s does not show halo Precipitation may fall either as fine drizzle or snow.
phenomena. This type of clouds a may cover all or large portions of the sky.
5. Alto-Cumulus: white or grey, or both white and grey, patch, sheet or layer of
cloud. They have devel shedding on their under surfaces. Sometimes referred to a
s sheep clouds or Woolpack clouds.
36

6. Nimbo- Stratus: Grey cloud layer, often dark, the appearances of which is rend
ered diffuse by more or less continuously falling rain or snow, which in most ca
ses reaches the ground. It is thick enough throughout to blot out the sun. It is
a rain, snow or sleet cloud. It is never accompanied by lightening, thunder or
hail. Streaks of water (rain) or snow falling from these clouds but not reaching
the ground are called Virga. Wisps or before reaching the ground. Wisps=bundle as
of straw.
streaks of water or ice particles falling from base of a cloud but evaporating c
ompletely
7. Strato-Cumulus: Grey or whitish or both grey and whitish patch, sheet or layer
of cloud which almost always has dark parts, composed of tessellations, rounded
masses, rolls, etc.
8. Stratus: Generally grey cloud layer with a fairly uniform base, which may giv
e Sun is visible through this cloud.
drizzle, ice prisms or snow grains, sky may be completely covered by this type o
f cloud.
9. Cumulus: Detached clouds, generally dense and with sharp outlines, develop ver
tically in the form of rising mounds, domes of towers, of which the bulging uppe
r parts often resembles a cauliflower. Cumulus is generally found in the dry tim
e over land areas. They dissipate at night. They produce only light precipitatio
n.
10.Cumulonimubs: Heavy and dense cloud, with a considerable vertical extent in th
e form of a mountain or huge towers. This type of cloud is associated with heavy
rainfall, thunder, lightening, hail or tornadoes. The fall of a real shower and
sudden darkening of the sky easily recognize this type of clouds. Formation of
Clouds:
Clouds are formed by condensation of moisture in the air by cooling. 2. By mixin
g of hot and cold air.
1. It is due to direct cooling as they come in contact with cold surface.
37

There are two rain forming process viz, 1. Warm rain process:
Rains occur when t
he temp is above 00C never colder than 00C. They grow larger and larger & become
raindrops. This process is known as Coalescence 2. Cold rain process
3. By expansion.
When larger droplets collide and absorb smaller cloud droplets.
Occurs when the cloud temperature is colder than 00C.
Clouds are usually with ice crystals and liquid water droplets. droplets until t
heir weight causes them to fall.
These crystals grow rapidly drawing moisture from the surrounding cloud
Falling
ice crystals may melt and join with smaller liquid cloud droplets resulting in r
aindrops. If ice crystals do not melt, they may grow into large snowflakes and r
each the ground as snow.
Conditions favorable for the occurrence of precipitation The lifetime of the clo
ud (at least 2-3 hrs.) RH should be 75%
Cloud seeding Cloud Seeding:
The cloud dimension (vertical 7 km horizontal 60-70km)
of cloud droplets & ice particles. Wind velocity 20km.

The size and concentration

modified by supplying with suitable nuclei us at proper time and place.

It is the process by which the conditions of the cloud (dimension, life time and
size) are For
accelerating the warm rain process seeding with very large nuclei such as salt c
rystals iodide are used to make good the deficiency in the clouds.
can be used. In the case of cold rain process, seeding with ice nuclei such as s
ilver
38

Evaporation and Transpiration

Hydrologic cycle
Chapter 10
Hydrologic
condensation and precipitation. Though the cycle has neither a beginning nor and
end,
cycle
involves
four
major
steps
viz,
evaporation,
transpiration,
the concept of cycle begins with the water of the oceans, since it covers nearly
of the earths surface. Radiation from the sun evaporates the water vapor from th
e oceans into conditions, the cloud moisture condenses and falls back to the ear
th as rain, snow, hail the atmosphere. The water vapour rises and collects to fo
rm clouds. Under certain etc., precipitation reaching the earths surface may be i
ntercepted by vegetation, or enter
39

into the soil, may flow as run off or may evaporate. Evaporation may be from the
surface of the ground of from free water surface. Transpiration may be from pla
nts.
Evaporation: The change of state of water from solid and liquid to the vapour an
d its
diffusion into the atmosphere is referred to as evaporation. In agricultural Met
eorology, evaporation is defined as the maximum possible loss of moisture form a
wet, horizontal, flat surface exposed to weather parameters, which exist in the
vicinity of plants.
Factors affecting Evaporation 1. Those affecting water supply at the evaporating
surface. i.e., soil and plants 2. Those affecting energy supply to the evaporat
ion surface like solar radiation. including soil storage capacity, rainfall and
irrigation.
40

Transpiration: Most of the water absorbed by plants is lost to the atmosphere. T

his loss lenticular.
of water from living plants is called transpiration. It can be stomatal, cuticul
ar or
Factors affecting Transpiration: 1. Light, 2. Humidity, 4. Wind,
3. Temperature, 5. Root/shoot ratio,
6. Availability of water to plants, 7. Leaf characteristics.
Evapotranspiration (ET): As noted earlier, it is a combined loss of water throug
h evaporation from the soil and transpiration from the plants.
41

Potential Evapotranspiration (ET):

It is defined as the amount of water which will be lost from an extensive water
surface at all times.
or soil completely covered with vegetation where there is abundant moisture in t
he soil Evapotranspiration is also called water use (WU) or consumptive use (CU)
. The
factors influencing evapotranspiration (ET) are climate and management practices
. Evaporation
One of the four components of the endless hydrological cycle (Evaporation Most of
the water vapor comes from ocean. Soil Conditions. Transpiration-Condensation-P
recipitation).
It is also important in agriculture as it affects.

Plant growth crops.

Water storage dams. Evaporation depends upon the

Temperature of the water surface

Vapour pressure of the air

The pressure exerted by the water vapour in the air is known as vapour pressure. E
vaporation is more when there in greater pressure difference between vapour pres
sure and saturation vapour pressure.
Wind movement (Removes moisture) Evaporation increases with wind
Salinity presen
ce of dissolved minerals salts reduce evaporation from sea by 5% less than pure
water. velocity.
42

Factors, which affect ET from plant & Soils, are i) Those affecting water supply
Soil storage capacity.
Rainfall.
Irrigation. ii) Those affecting energy supply
Light: Stomata open in light and close in the dark.
Temperature: Humidity/ vapour pressure is function of temperature
Relative Humidity: Less humidity higher temperature. Increases difference incurr
ed. Decrease temperature increase vapour pressure reducing the saturation defici
t.
Wind
Saturated air is replaced by dry air around the plant and hence increased temper
ature was noticed. The cooling effect on leaves results in decreased in vapour p
ressure different.
Plant characters
1. Root: shoot
2. Leaf characteristics
3. More LAI results in higher transpiration high
4. Thick cuticle and presence of epidermal hair will lead to less transpiration.
When Root shoot is more or equal then transpiration will be more. PET (Potentia
l Evaporation) AE (Achal Evaporation) AE is always less than PET - Actual Evapor
ation.
- denotes evaporation forms a free water surface.
43

Factors affecting Evaporation

Climatic Factors 1. Solar radiation 2. Relative Humidity 3. Temperature 4. Wind
Soil Factors: 1. Soil texture a. Sandy soil, b. Clay soil. 2. Available soil moi
sture 3. Soil salinity 4. Hydraulic conductivity Plant characters: 1. Plant morp
hology a. Leaf size b. Thickness of the cuticle c. Stomata 2. Type of plant Othe
r factors 1. Ploughed / unploughed field 2. Plant population and row pattern 3.
Plant cover Eavapotranspiration and Crop production: 1. Working out ET or PET wi
ll be useful in scheduling the irrigation. (IW/CPE ratio method) 2. ET can also
help in demarcating the drought prone areas. These will form the base for develo
ping suitable soil and crop management practices, crop varieties, water conserva
tion techniques, cropping pattern and ways to improve productivity of rain fed c
rops. 3. Water Use Efficiency (WUE) can be worked out. Condensation The physical
process by which a vapour becomes a liquid or solid and it is a process opposit
e of evaporation.
44