THE

FILTRATION
HANDBOOK
Prepared for INDA by:
Ian Butler
International Nonwovens Consulting, Inc.

Edited by:
Lutz Bergman
Ed Cornman-Homonoff
Guy E. Weismantel

Graphic design and printing by

Margaret M. Park
PRINTING by DESIGN
Raleigh, North Carolina, USA

Copyright 2000 INDA, Association of the Nonwoven Fabrics Industry. All

rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in
any medium whatsoever, without express written permission of INDA,
Association of the Nonwoven Fabrics Industry.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword ........................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 3
Where Filters are Used ..................................................................................... 5
What is Filtration? ............................................................................................. 7
Contaminants .................................................................................................... 9
How Filters Trap Particles .............................................................................. 11
Filtration Systems ........................................................................................... 13
Fibrous Filter Media ........................................................................................ 15
Fiber Properties ............................................................................................... 17
Nonwoven Filter Media ................................................................................... 21
Success Stories ................................................................................................ 25
Liquid Bag Filters ...................................................................................... 25
Vacuum Cleaner Bags ............................................................................... 26
Automotive Cabin Air Filtration ................................................................ 27
Indoor Air Filtration ................................................................................... 28
Rating Filters ................................................................................................... 29
Glossary ........................................................................................................... 31

FOREWORD
Nonwoven materials used in filtration applications are an important part of the
worldwide nonwoven industry. It is the fourth largest nonwovens end-use market
in North America. Global annual consumption of nonwoven filter media is
approaching $2 billion. The consumption of nonwoven filter media now exceeds
$400 million in North America. Nonwoven filter materials continue to grow and
capture a growing share of the filter media market because of their excellent
performance and economical cost. It is a large industry, but very diverse with
many types of filter producers supplying a wide variety of filtering systems and
filter media to meet a wide variety of liquid, air and gaseous fluids filtration
needs. The end markets are numerous and it would require pages to list them
all. The average consumer is aware of filters used in their daily life, such as
coffee filters, tea bags, furnace filters and disposable vacuum cleaner bags. They
may be unaware of the filter systems and media used for their drinking water,
air filtration at their work place or in their car, food and beverage filtration and
a host of industrial processes which use filtration to separate materials, reduce
pollution and improve the quality of their life.
This Handbook is INDAs first primer on the filtration industry. The book is
intended to provide an overview of the total filtration industry and the growing
consumption of nonwoven media in a variety of filtration applications. This primer
is intended to be used as an educational and information tool.
INDAs mission is to promote the growth and profitability of the nonwovens
industry worldwide. In serving its membership, INDA continually reviews and
produces statistics on the nonwoven industry in North America and many world
regions. In addition to a whole range of publications, INDA sponsors expositions
and conferences, offers government relations, as well as technical, marketing
and international trade services. This Handbook is an example of one of the
many services that aid us in achieving our mission.
Ted Wirtz
President, INDA

ii

Nonwoven Filter Media

Pies are roughly proportioned to volume for illustration only.

INTRODUCTION
The worldwide market for filter equipment and systems, filter elements and
filter media is an industry worth more than $100 billion per year. The industry
has been growing consistently in the 3-5% range per year. Filtration is the process
of separating one substance from another and there are many types of filter
systems depending upon the nature of the materials to be separated. These
methods include electrostatic precipitators, centrifuges, cyclones, scrubbers and
mechanical separation. Mechanical filtration, sometimes called barrier filtration,
refers to a category of filter systems that use a filter media to separate fluids,
either gaseous or liquid, from contaminants or other particle materials. This
handbook will focus on mechanical filtering systems and their need for filter
media. As shown in the Figure 1 opposite, there are many types of filter media.
Some are more or less reusable. Examples of reusable media are sand and
diatomaceous earth used to filter drinking water and swimming pools, or woven
media and cleanable needlepunched nonwovens used in air filtration. Reusable
media will be discussed in this handbook but will not be covered in detail. This
handbook will focus on what we term disposable media. Several technologies
dominate the disposable filter media market, which include paper, woven fabrics,
loose batting or hi-loft wadding and various nonwoven materials. More
specifically, this handbook will review filter media that is made of fibrous media,
which include paper, fiber glass, natural and synthetic fibers.
The disposable filter media market around the world has been growing 4-5%
per year. In North America, filter media is expected to maintain an annual growth
rate of about 6% per year. Driving the growth of fibrous media is the need to
replace filters on a regular basis as they become loaded with the contaminants
they are screening. The increasing industrial activity in North America and other
world regions have a direct impact on the rising consumption of filter media.
Also, the rising awareness of governments, environmental agencies, industry
and the general public for a cleaner, healthier environment is forcing the increased
use of filtration in many industrial processes. A further driving force is the growing
necessity of a clean air environment in many advanced technology industries,
such as electronics, medical, pharmaceuticals, biological research, nuclear energy
installations and others.
The filtration industry is extremely broad with many forms of filtering systems
and filtration media. Figure 1 on the opposite page is an illustrated overview of

iii

the mechanical filtration industry and the various media used while focussing
on nonwoven media. The terminology in Figure 1 will be explained later in the
handbook. Nonwovens currently have captured almost half of the disposable
filtration media market. The combination of good performance and economic
cost is increasing nonwovens share of the total fiber media market.

iv

WHERE FILTERS ARE USED

Automotive
Fuel
Engine lubricating oil
Interior (cabin)
Engine air intake
Brakes, power steering
Transmission fluids
Food & Beverages
Bottled water
Clarifying Wine, beer and
distilled beverages
Edible oils, cooking oils
Milk
Food flavors
Syrups: corn, maple and other
foodstuffs.
Holding tank vents, air intakes
Tea, coffee
Sugar refining
Processing grain products:
soybeans, corn
Power Generation Industry
Water intake
Effluent water
Steam generators
Demineralizers
Coolant water
Smoke stack emissions
Transportation Industry
Fuel, oil filters
Interior air handling systems
Air intakes

Home
Swimming pool
Furnace, air conditioning
Exhaust fan
Laundry
Vacuum cleaner
Electronic Industry
Water pre-filtration and post
filtration and deionization
Solvents
Acid, base solutions
Semi-conductor manufacturing
Clean room air filtration
Water Treatment Industry
Desalinization
Intake water
Chemical Industry
General process industries
Liquid detergents
Fabric coatings
Paper coatings
Paints, turpentine, varsol
Dye stuffs
Printing inks
Make-up water
Adhesives
Electroplating solutions
Coatings
Floppy disc coatings
Photographic film development
Nuclear Power Generation
Interior air supply and exhaust
Water intake and effluent
Lubricating oils

Toiletries and Cosmetic

Industry
Clarifying concentrates used in
products, such as fruit juices
Final filtering
Oils extraction
Mining and Mineral Processing
Intake water
Effluent
Cooling water
Cement/Asphalt Production
Exhaust air dust removal

vi

Pulp and Paper Industry

Large quantities of filtered
water are used in bleaching,
pulping and washing.
Pharmaceutical/Biological
Industries
Ophthalmics
Oral medications
Parental fluids
Make-up water
Cultures and growth media
Serum, serum fractions
Vaccines

WHAT IS FILTRATION?
Filtration is a mechanism or device for separating one substance from another.
Filtration may be used to separate contaminants from a fluid or separate valueadded materials, such as minerals, chemicals or foodstuffs in a process operation.
Separating materials can be broadly classified into four categories:

Solids - Gases Separation

Solids - Liquids Separation
Solids - Solids Separation
Liquids - Liquids Separation

SOLIDS-GASES SEPARATION
Solid-Gas is the separating of dust or other particles from a gaseous fluid. The
gas could be air in a room or building or exhaust fumes from a smoke stack. At
one time, outdoor air, with its dust, pollens, automotive exhaust pollution, smog
and other contaminants, was the major focus for improving air quality. Now
there is concern about the quality of inside air in commercial buildings, aircraft,
housing and the like. Building construction has become more airtight over the
past 20 or so years to save heating and air-conditioning energy costs, but at the
same time the quality of interior air has suffered. Air contaminants from building
materials, furniture, paints, animal hair, mites, carpeting, molds, bacteria, fumes
from various equipment and human occupation, can rise to uncomfortable levels.
For many people, this may cause nausea, headaches, irritated eyes, infections
and respiratory problems. Buildings so affected are referred to as sick buildings.
Newer buildings now have improved air filtration and treatment systems to
remove dust and other aerosols. Several industries, such as electronics and
pharmaceuticals, require their activities be conducted in a clean room which
is a controlled environment with extremely low air contaminants.

SOLIDS-LIQUIDS SEPARATION
A second broad category of barrier filtration is Solids-Liquids separation. This
category includes the separation of solid or semi-solid particles from a liquid.
Liquid filtration includes filtering bacteria, trace metal compounds, salts and
numerous other solids from drinking water, beverages, chemicals, lubricating
and cooling fluids and processes requiring clean water. The growing awareness
of ground water and waterways pollution from farms, industry, waste sewage

plants and the like is driving the growth of improved liquid filtration systems. It
should not be forgotten that filter media is used in tea bags and making fresh
coffee.
The following two separation categories, Solid-Solid and Liquid-Liquid separation,
require specialized equipment and processes that are beyond the scope of this
handbook. We will review these types of separation here briefly.

SOLIDS-SOLIDS SEPARATION
The filters required for a Solid-Solid separation are more restrictive in the type
of filtration processes and media that can be used. In many cases, Solids-Solids
separation is a fairly simple screening process, such as dividing sand from gravel
or separating large peas from small peas in food processing. Another example,
is the use of magnetic devices to separate ferromagnetic materials from other
materials during the processing of waste.

LIQUIDS-LIQUIDS SEPARATION
The separating or filtering of one liquid from another requires separating
processes that are even more specialized and often costly. Various methods
are available depending upon the physical properties of the two dispersed liquids.
One method of separating two liquids is to pass the mixed fluids through a special
media. This media attracts minute droplets of one of the liquids which gradually
join or coalesce into larger drops and gradually fall out and are drawn off. Another
method of separating liquid dispersions is the use of centrifugal systems. During
high speed spinning in a circular container, the heavier liquid is concentrated in
the outer area of the container and discharged. Liquid dispersions can also be
separated by distillation. By heating the solution, the lighter fluid is boiled off
first and condensed, thereby separating the two liquids. There are literally
hundreds of applications where liquid dispersions are separated. Examples of
typical Liquid-Liquid separations include:

separating oil from water

separating caustic solutions from refinery fuels
extracting vegetable oils, corn syrup, etc. from feed
separating cream from milk

CONTAMINANTS
Contaminants are usually found in all fluids. The term fluid refers to liquids
and gases. Contaminants can range from solid, semi-solids to liquid particles.
Airborne contaminants are referred to as aerosols.
Even small quantities of contaminants in machinery can build up and reduce or
entirely block the flow of fluids, such as a lubricating oil or cooling water which
could lead to machinery failure. Some particles are highly abrasive and their
presence in machinery and its lubricating oil causes excessive wear that leads
to machinery breakdowns or a loss of efficiency. Most people recognize air
contamination has an effect on their well being. Symptoms can be shortness of
breath, coughing, emphysema, eye infections, headaches and bacterial or viral
infections. In additionl, contaminated air can be corrosive to buildings and plant
life, a fire hazard and carry infectious bacteria and other microorganisms.
There are many types of air and liquid contaminants. Below are a few examples:
Dust particles are solids generated from many sources, including:
volcanic ash, sea salt, soil dust, pollen, spores
Engine fumes are solid and semi-solid particles generated by cars,
trucks and industrial engines
Smoke emitted from industrial processes
Fogs and mists are liquid particles formed by the condensation of
water vapor, paint spray, insecticide and the like
Bacteria and other microorganisms
Dissolved salts, chemicals and heavy metals in water
Yeast in wine or beer

MEASURING THE SIZE OF CONTAMINANTS

The size of the contamination is generally measured in microns, which is one
millionth of a meter or 1/25,400 inch. The abbreviation for micron is m. The
micron term is also referred to as micrometer. To provide perspective, the
human hair is roughly 120-150 microns in width. The following figure relates
the size of various contaminants to a human hair. The human eye is capable of
seeing a single particle down to the 40-60 micron range. A microscope is required
below the 40 m level.

Typical Particle Diameters

(m)

<

Source: INDA

Human Hair Width:

120-150 microns

>

40-60 m

Smallest Size Visible to Sight

10-30 m

Plant Spores, Molds,

Cement Dust

5-10 m

Paint Spray, Pollen

1- 5 m

Bacteria, Wood Smoke

<1

Tobacco Smoke, Viruses,

Oil Aerosols

TYPICAL CONTAMINANTS
The table below provides a range of various contaminants found in fluids.

Sizes of Typical Contaminants

HOW FILTERS TRAP

PARTICLES
Mechanical or barrier filtration refers to a filtering system that uses a filter media
to separate particles from a gaseous or liquid fluid. The mechanism is to pass a
contaminated fluid through a filter media to trap and retain the contaminants.
Besides screening particles too large to pass between fibers, there are three
principal mechanisms responsible for capturing and holding particle contaminants
in fluids.

DIRECT IMPACTION
When a contaminated fluid is passed through a filter media, the individual
particles flow with the fluid stream and pass around the filters fibers. Impaction,
also referred to as impingement, occurs when a particle, due to inertia, is unable
to navigate the erratic course around the tangled fibers and collides head-on
with a fiber to which it becomes attached.
Direct Impact

Particle

Flow of
Fluid

Source: INDA

INTERCEPTION
Interception, sometimes referred to as inertial impaction, is the mechanism
by which a particle follows the fluid stream around the filters fibers but is
attracted by the van der Waals forces, which is the mutual attraction between
molecules. The particle usually remains attached but could be removed from
the fiber if the attractive force between the particle and fiber is weaker than the
shearing force of the fluids flow to dislodge it.

Interception

Particle

Flow of
Fluid

Source: INDA

Diffusion

Particle
Flow of
Fluid

Source: INDA

DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the capture of much smaller particles or liquid droplets. Because of
their smaller size, the particles or droplets do not follow the fluid as they move
through the filter. The particles are bombarded by the fluids molecules causing
the particles to move in an erratic pattern. The random path of these small
particles, described as Brownian movement, increases the chances that the
particles will be captured and held by the filters fiber.

FILTER EFFECTIVENESS
The ability of a media to filter effectively and remove a fluids contaminant
depends upon factors such as the particle size, density or volume of the particles
to be removed, filter depth, properties of the filter media and the fluids velocity
through the filter. Obviously, the larger the particle, the greater the probability
that it will not be capable of navigating the filters media and become trapped.
A thicker filter with more depth or a filter media made with finer fibers will
increase the probability of capture.
In air filtration, the attractive forces between the filters fiber and the dust particle
are fairly weak. Air flow changes or a simple bumping of the filter can be enough
to dislodge and free some of the particles. An air filters effectiveness can be
improved by adding an adhesive or tackifier to coat the filters fibers or inducing
an electrostatic charge to the media to hold trapped particles.

FILTRATION SYSTEMS
SURFACE FILTERS
The most basic filter is surface filtration. In principle, a surface filter is almost
two-dimensional and operates mostly by trapping and holding contaminants
on the surface of the media. As a contaminated fluid is passed through a surface
filter, two effects occur:

Solid particles are caught in the various pores on the surface of the media,
which reduces the size of the filters pores. As a result, the filter actually
becomes more efficient in trapping finer particles. Semi- solid particles when
trapped will be distorted to some extent due to the force of the fluids flow
through the filter and also reduce the filters pore size. The distorting of semisolid particles tends to narrow the filters pore size, thereby resulting in an
even more efficient filter than that of solid particles. With further filtering,
semi-solid particles in a mass can form a gel that can completely plug a
filter.

Trapped solid particles begin to cake on the surface of the filter media. In
time, this cake itself becomes a filter and further increases the efficiency of
trapping finer particles.

The distinguishing feature of surface filters is that they must be capable of

retaining their shape while filtering the contaminated fluid or their filtration
capability might degrade. As a result, surface filters used for liquids are made
generally from high strength materials, such as fine metal screening, membranes
and flattened scintered powdered metals and polymers. A small number of
thin nonwovens and resin coated papers are also used in these applications. Air
filtration surface media can be made of woven metals, fiberglass and synthetic
fibers. Nonwovens can be engineered to perform well in both liquid and gaseous
environments.

DEPTH FILTERS
Depth filters are the second type of barrier filter. As the name suggests, depth
filter media are thick, relative to surface filter media. Larger particles are caught
on the filters surface and finer particles are trapped on the medias fibers within.
Depth filtration is categorized into three types: fibrous, cake-like and porous.
The latter two are not the subject of this handbook and will be discussed here
only briefly.

10

Fibrous media is used to filter both gases and liquids. It is a three-dimensional

mix of fibers that form a structure in which there are many channels and pores.
The random construction of fibers traps particles, by the three mechanisms
previously discussed, as the contaminated fluid is passed through. Fibers used
to produce fibrous media include wood pulp (for paper), fiberglass, wool, cotton
and numerous synthetic fibers. A medias efficiency is improved by a combination
of using more fibers, finer denier fiber, media depth and filter density. Fibrous
filter media includes wovens, nonwovens, paper and loose or hi-loft fibers, which
are discussed in the following section of this handbook.
An advantage of fibrous depth filters is they can be constructed with varying
density with the fibers relatively loose on the medias surface but more compact
in the exit side. As a result, a fluids contaminant is distributed throughout the
filter, improving the filters life.

Depth Filter
Flow of Fluid
>
>

Source: INDA.

Cake-like media refers to filters such as sand, diatomaceous earth, fibers and
several other loose materials employed in bed type filtration systems. These
types of filtering systems treat the removal of solid and semi-solid materials in
large volumes of liquid. The major end-uses for this type of media are water
filtration plants, swimming pool filtration and air filtration using mats or beds of
loose fibers to trap particles. Cake-like media are reusable, as they can be
flushed clean of contaminants by back-washing them with the filtered fluid.

11

Porous media are three-dimensional solid filters that have many pores and
channels for a fluid to pass through and capture particles. These filters are solid
and made from a variety of materials which include ceramics, powdered metals
and polymers. Porous media are used most often to filter liquids.

12

FIBROUS FILTER MEDIA

Mechanical filtration uses a broad variety of filter media. These include
membranes, microporous plastics, sand, diatomaceous earth, perlite, paper,
woven metal wire, woven and nonwoven media made of fibrous materials from
synthetic, glass and natural fibers. This is by no means the complete list. In
general, those filters made of fibrous media, including nonwovens of synthetic
fibers, fiberglass and paper are disposed of after they have finished their useful
life. Their useful life could last a few minutes, as in the case of a paper coffee
filter, or up to a year or more in some applications.

North American Disposable Filter Media

(Square Meters)

Other
Fiberglass

Paper
Nonwovens
Source: INDA

13

NONWOVEN MEDIA
The market for nonwoven filter fabrics continues to grow as they replace wovenfiberglass and paper media. Currently, about half of North Americas limited
use or disposable filter media is produced from various nonwoven technologies.
The more important disposable filter media are discussed below. In terms of
dollar sales, nonwoven filtration media is the fourth largest consumer of
nonwoven materials used in disposable applications. Nonwovens are textilelike fabrics that are produced directly from fibers or filaments, or from a web of
fibers, without going through the steps of yarn preparation. Nonwoven fabrics
are bonded together through various bonding techniques which impart certain
physical characteristics to the fabric. Most nonwoven media are made from
synthetic fibers, such as polyester or nylon. The wet laid nonwoven process is
similar to paper making and produces media with wood pulp blended with
synthetic fiber and/or fiberglass fibers to improve the medias strength and
filtering characteristics. (See the GLOSSARY for the distinction between a wet
laid nonwoven and paper.) Nonwoven fabrics have captured a large share of
disposable filtration media because of their good performance and economics.

PAPER MEDIA
Paper filters are fibrous materials generally made from wood pulp, but can
contain other short, natural and synthetic fibers. Usually most paper filter media
are chemically treated to improve strength as untreated paper will disintegrate
into loose pulp when wet. An advantage of paper media is its random fiber
structure which can be controlled to a large extent in its manufacture. Typical
applications for paper media are coffee filters, engine air filters, oil filters and
milk filters. Tackifiers are often applied to air filter media, such as those used in
engine air intakes, to improve the filters ability to retain trapped dust particles.

FIBERGLASS MEDIA
Micro-glass fiber is used to make media for liquid and air filtration media. Microglass blankets of loose glass and hi-loft fiberglass media are used widely in
commercial and domestic HVAC systems. The fibers fine diameters, in the 2535 micron range, allows them to be tightly packed in a filter thereby increasing
the probability of capturing contaminants. Finer grades of micro-glass, in the
sub micron range, are available for specialty filtration needs. Fiberglass air media
often have tackifiers added to improve the filters retention. Glass fiber media
is used extensively in HEPA and ULPA filters. Micro-glass fiber is also woven
into reusable filter media.

14

OTHER MEDIA
Woven fabrics are found mostly in large volume liquid filtration, air and high
temperature gas filtration situations. The fibers used in their construction may
be of synthetic or natural fibers, such as cotton and wool. The use of woven filter
media is declining as nonwoven materials continue to make an inroad into woven
fiberglass markets. Small amounts of woven cotton are used in some
applications, such as disposable face masks.

15

FIBER PROPERTIES
Many types of fibrous materials are used to make filter media. The choice is
dependent upon:

cost effectiveness or cost/use ratio

the nature and conditions of the fluid to be filtered
separation efficiency
service life
fiber chemistry

The types of fibers used include synthetic, mineral and natural.

SYNTHETIC FIBERS
A variety of fibers of different chemistry are used to produce fibrous filter media.
Additionally, their general properties may be enhanced with the addition of a
synthetic finish or some treatment. Filter media can be expensive and it is
important for the user to specify a media that is correct for the fluid being filtered.
There is little gained in purchasing a more costly media made from exotic higher
cost fibers, if a less expensive type can perform just as effectively. In choosing
an appropriate filter media, the user must understand the types of heat, pressure,
fluid chemistry and a host of other factors the filter will be subjected to during
its performance.
Synthetic fibers, such as polyester, nylon, polypropylene, PVC, PTFE and others,
are used in many filter applications due to their broad range of properties.
Synthetic fibers are attractive to the filter industry due to their corrosion
resistance to a range of chemicals and solvents, uniformity and flexibility, and
they are economical in relation to many alternative fibers. Synthetic fibers can
be molded and thermally or electrically welded, which is an advantage in
converting fabric to filters in some cases. These fibers, in either monofilament
or staple form, are converted into wovens, batting or nonwoven filter media.
Polyester is the leading synthetic accounting for more than 90% of the total
synthetic fibers consumed by filtration. The other synthetics are used in
applications where the media are subjected to extreme conditions of high heat
or corrosive chemicals that they can withstand. Media made from monofilament
fibers are often used in liquid filtration, which includes air demisters, water,
chemical and food processing. The major end markets for media made of staple
fiber are air and hot gas filtration, such as steel and other metal production,
cement plants, sand blasting, paint spray operations and air handling systems.

16

GLASS FIBERS
Glass fibers are used in air and liquid filtration requirements. They are produced
by passing a primary glass filament in front of a gas burner which melts and
draws the filament into a fine fiber. The process is referred to as flame
attenuation. The fibers are collected on a conveyor and a binder is added to
provide cohesion. Even with the addition of a binder, fiberglass webs have low
cohesion and have a scrim or backing added for some applications to provide
strength. In comparison to several synthetic fibers, fiberglass media have the
advantage of a higher operating temperature range and good chemical resistance
to many corrosive chemicals. In general, fiberglass media is economical relative
to other media and is available in low deniers suitable for fine, high efficiency
filtering. A major disadvantage of fiberglass is its intolerance to flexing, poor
abrasion resistance and employee handling discomfort. This has led to fiberglass
being replaced by melt blown nonwoven media in some areas, such as filtering
beverages where microscopic glass splinters could contaminate the final product.
In some cases, melt blown media are installed downstream of the fiberglass
filter to collect any loose microscopic particles of fiberglass.

OTHER FIBERS
Several natural fibers are used to make filter media. These natural fibers include
cellulosic fibers, such as cotton and abaca (hemp), as well as sheeps wool. Cotton
fibers are used as media in some disposable face masks and low efficiency
HVAC pleated filters. Some string-wound liquid depth filters still use cotton string
as the filters media. Wool fiber, developed for use in respirators by the military
in World War I, is still used today in some applications. An electrostatic charge
is developed by the media during production which gives the media a high
efficiency for filtering aerosols. This, combined with a low breathing resistance,
makes wool highly competitive with recent synthetic fibers. Cotton and woolbased media competes directly with synthetic fibers.
The production of tea bags in North America and Europe annually consumes
several thousand tonnes of tea bag media produced from a blend of abaca
(hemp), wood pulp and synthetic fibers. Abacas fibers, longer than wood pulp,
have the properties of high wet strength and elasticity. A growing market for
this type of media is premeasured coffee bags.

17

18

Physical Characteristics of Selected Fibers

Cotton

Pulp

Specific Gravity

1.52

NA

2.1

1.38

Elongation at break (%)

5-7

NA

2-4

11-14

85-90

70-80

90

85

320

140

90-100

120

Strong Acids

Strong Alkalis

Solvents

Oxidizing Agents

Resistance to Moist Heat

Maximum Continuous
Service Temperature (C)
Maximum Service
Temperature (C)

Glass Polyester Polypropylene

Nylon

Aramid

PTFE

PVC

.91

1.14

1.38

2.1

1.35

35

18-20

18-20

15

35-40

240-260

80-90

260

280

90-100

Courlene
Merkalon

Perlon
Rilsan

Teflon
Fluon

Saran
Harlan
Rovyl
Leavil

280-300 130-135

80-90

100-110 200-220

Chemical Resistance:

Selected Trade Names

Dacron
Terylene
Fiberglass Trevira
Veratex Tergal

Key: E = Excellent

Nomex
Kevlar

G = Good

F = Fair

X = Dissolved

Source: Reprinted in part from Filters and Filtration Handbook, Page 87, Copyright 1997, with permission from Elsevier Science and Precision Textiles, Inc.

NONWOVEN FILTER MEDIA

The world market for nonwoven filter media is valued close to US$2.0 billion
per year. During the year 2000, North American (U.S. and Canada) filter
converters are estimated to consume slightly more than one billion square
meters of nonwoven filter fabrics with a value of approximately $400 million.
At projected growth rates, North American consumption of nonwoven filter media
will increase to about 1.1 billion square meters, equivalent to almost US$500
million by 2005.
There are several types of nonwoven materials used in filter media. Each media
has features which make it attractive to particular end-uses. The figure below
provides the volume of various nonwoven materials used in filtration. These
estimates do not include paper type media.

Media Consumption by Technology

(lbs.)

Needlepunched

Wet Laid

Carded/
Other

Spunbonded

Melt Blown

Source: International Nonwovens Consulting, Inc.

19

NEEDLEPUNCHED
Needlepunched media is three-dimensional (length, width, depth) filter media
and is attractive for filtering as particles are trapped on the surface and the
interior. The needlepunched technology mechanically entangles fibers to
strengthen the web, but in doing so produces a media with a torturous path for
particles to travel thereby increasing the probability of capture. Some
needlepunched media is designed for applications where it is desirable to build
a filter cake on the medias surface. In this type of media, the needlepunched
surface is singed, calendered or laminated with a membrane to act as a cake
build and release surface in reusable media applications.
Needlepunched media is used widely in both gas and liquid filtration needs. In
air filtration, major end-uses are bag filters used to filter exhaust air in steel
and metal production, cement production, smokestacks on coal fired electricity
generation stations, dust removers at cement production plants, paint spraying
systems, sand blasting, hot gas filtration and generally where large volumes of
air or gasses are treated. Needlepunched fabrics in liquid filtration are used for
cleaning intake water, sewage effluent, mining effluent, paints and other liquids
where large volumes are filtered.

Wet Laid
Wet laid nonwovens are materials manufactured on highly modified paper
making machines. These machines are capable of processing fibers more than
twice as long as standard wood pulp. These machines can handle both natural
and synthetic fiber in any proportions. While similar to papers in some respects
because of the technology and use of wood pulp or other natural fiber, wet laid
nonwovens are quite different as they can have synthetic fibers and/or micro
fiberglass and a resin binder added in their construction. Wet laid nonwovens,
in terms of square meters, are a significant part of the liquid filtration market
and account for almost two thirds of all liquid filtration media. Wet laid media
have the advantages of a random fiber structure, good consistency and relatively
low cost. Important wet laid filter media markets includes coffee filters,
swimming pool filters, edible oil and coolant oil filters. The largest wet laid air
filtration market is disposable vacuum cleaner bag media. Efficient HEPA filters
are generally constructed from wet laid media.

MELT BLOWN
Melt blown filter media are used in both air and liquid filtration applications.
The melt blown technology produces relatively uniform, micro porous webs from

20

fine denier filaments. Due to these physical properties, melt blown media is
capable of filtering fine particles. The media is found extensively in respirators
and face masks used to protect users from dangerous particulate, such as smoke,
silica, lead dust, asbestos and many other airborne contaminants. In many air
filtration markets, melt blown competes directly with wet laid microfiberglass.
A growing market for melt blown media is the filter liner in disposable vacuum
cleaner bags. Melt blowns function is to catch the fine dust particles not screened
out by the bags paper or wet laid media. Further markets of growing importance
are the medias use in domestic HVAC systems and automotive cabin air filters.
Melt blown media is used in three types of barrier liquid filters: depth cartridge
filters, micron rated bags and pleated cartridges. In the important depth cartridge
filter market, melt blown media have captured at least two thirds of the market.
Its advantage over competitive products, such as cotton string, is that the density
of the webs filter structure can be controlled. The first layers of the melt blown
web contains coarse fibers, but the fibers decrease in denier and increase in
density further into the depths of the filter. As a result, particles are filtered at
various levels in the filter, thereby improving the filters efficiency and life. One
manufacturer of micron-rated filter bags has lined the bags with multiple layers
of melt blown media. The most inner layers of the bags are made with higher
density melt blown materials to mimic a depth filters characteristics.

SPUNBONDED
Spunbonded polyester, polypropylene and nylon are utilized in air and liquid
filter media. Spunbonded filter media have the advantages of synthetic resins
and can be molded, crimped and thermally or electronically welded in producing
a filter. Heavier weights of spunbonded materials are generally found in cartridge
filters where they are crimped by heat into a zig zag form to increase the
media face area and strength. These types of filters are generally used in air
filtration needs. Lighter weights of spunbonded materials are often laminated
to other media to provide strength and support.

CARDED AND OTHER

This category captures carded nonwovens, either resin bonded or thermal
bonded, air laid pulp and small amounts of spunlaced media. These media
compete in several markets, the larger of which include face mask media, milk
filters, coolant oil filters and cooking oil filters. In general, consumption of carded
media is being displaced by other nonwovens.

21

AIR AND LIQUID NONWOVEN

MEDIA MARKETS
Air filtration represents about 60% of the total nonwoven filter media consumed
in North America as shown in the figure below. Nonwoven air filter media is
forecast to increase almost 6% per year and reach 775 million square meters
by 2005 from its level of approximately 640 million square meters in 2000.
Nonwoven liquid filtration media is forecast to grow at a faster pace. Volume is
expected to rise to over 600 million square meters by 2005.
Nonwovens Used in Filtration
(millions of square meters)

Air

1000
800

Air

Liquid

Liquid

600
400
200
1

2000

Source: International Nonwovens Consulting, Inc.

22

2005

SUCCESS STORY

LIQUID BAG FILTERS

Bag filters are used to
filter moderate
volumes of liquids and
air. Liquid bag filters
can be made of staple
or monofilament
fibers, which are
converted into woven
or nonwoven
materials. Bag filters
are excellent at
removing particles in
the processing of a
wide array of liquids,
such as oil and water
coolants, paints, inks,
petroleum and its
derivatives,
beverages, cosmetics,
resins and foodstuffs.
To operate, the
contaminated liquid is
forced under pressure
into the bags inside
which is held in
various forms of
enclosed containers.
After passing through the media, the liquid usually exits through a drain in the
containers bottom. Some liquid filter bags are constructed with multiple internal
layers of melt blown materials with varying density. Working like a depth filter,
the initial layers of the bag filter trap the largest particles and all smaller
contaminants are captured in subsequent denser layers.

23

SUCCESS STORY

VACUUM CLEANER BAGS

Most domestic vacuum
cleaners and a growing
number of commercial
machines are using
disposable vacuum
cleaner bags. The bags
media must be porous
to permit air to pass
through, strong to resist
breaking and efficient
enough to trap and hold
dust particles.
Disposable vacuum
bags are made from
either a special paper
or wet laid nonwoven.
Wet laid nonwovens are
considered superior to
paper because of their
higher strength. Higher
strength reduces the
possibility of tearing or
bursting when the bag
nears its capacity. A
new innovation is the
addition of a melt blown
nonwoven layer to the
bags interior. The melt
blown layers function is to screen out the finer dust particles and other aerosols
too small to be caught and retained by the paper or wet laid media. In only a
few years, the inclusion of melt blown media in disposable vacuum cleaner bags
has risen to about half of the disposable bags market. It is expected that within
an equally short time most disposable vacuum bags will be constructed with
the melt blown layer.

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SUCCESS STORY

AUTOMOTIVE CABIN AIR

FILTRATION

Picture of dashboard with AC vents -to be photographed

People in cars are exposed to a broad range of air contaminants including exhaust
fumes, dust, odors, volatiles released from interior components (carpeting, plastic
moldings, etc.) and other aerosols. Consumers and auto manufacturers are
increasingly aware of air quality and the car is no exception. This has led to the
development of air filters which are a component of the vehicles HVAC system.
These filters, referred to as cabin filters, increase the occupants comfort by
improving the air quality and at the same time protecting the vehicles HVAC
systems components from dust, corrosive contaminants, etc. While the concept
of cabin filters is not new, it is only recently that auto manufacturers in North

25

America have made strides to include interior air filtration in the cars HVAC
systems. Currently, more than a third of all North American built cars and SUVs
contain cabin filters. Automotive manufacturers have plans to include cabin
filtration in most models as new automotive designs are introduced. Cabin filters
are already standard equipment in most European and many Japanese designed
cars. The filters are designed to be replaced when the car is in for a normal
servicing of oil, lube and engine filter change. Nonwoven filtration media
commonly consumed are melt blown or nonwoven composite materials that
have an electrostatic charge added to improve the filters ability to capture and
hold air contaminants. These filters may contain activated carbon to remove
gaseous aerosols.

26

SUCCESS STORY

INDOOR AIR FILTRATION

In the early 1970s, the energy crisis focussed the publics attention on means to
reduce energy demands in heating and air-conditioning buildings. Insulation,
caulking and vapor barriers were added to make commercial and residential
buildings more air tight. Buildings became more leak proof and energy efficient,
but this led to a situation referred to as the sick building syndrome (SBS) as
occupants health was being affected by aerosols trapped and circulated by the
HVAC system. Contaminants come from many sources such as paints, carpeting,
furniture finishes, building construction materials, mold spores, chemicals,

27

cooking fumes, cigarette smoke, bacteria and viruses. Now considerable effort
is put into designing HVAC systems for commercial buildings and homes by adding
increasingly efficient filters capable of filtering out these contaminants. Large
commercial HVAC installations use fiberglass matting in bag filters that are often
supported by nonwoven materials. Bag filters are also made of nonwovens
exclusively, but to a lesser extent.
To improve their homes air environments, many homeowners are purchasing
more efficient electrostatically charged disposable furnace filters which retail in
the $10-15 range, bypassing less efficient but inexpensive versions selling in
the $1-4 per unit range. Inexpensive filters are not really designed to improve
air quality but rather are intended to protect the HVACs motor, heat exchange
component and air ducts from dust build-up.

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RATING FILTERS
Filter media are rated on their ability to screen particles from a fluid. This is a
complex area as there are many measuring systems used to quantify a medias
performance. We will provide here only an overview of how filters are rated for
their effectiveness.
The Absolute Rating of a filter refers to the largest particle, expressed in microns,
that will pass through the filter media. Filter media with exact, consistent
openings or pore sizes can theoretically have an absolute rating. This type of
rating system does not generally apply to nonwoven or other fibrous media as
the medias pore sizes cannot be controlled.
The Nominal Rating is an efficiency value determined by the filter producer. It
provides, in percentage terms, the mass of a given contaminant that will be
trapped by a media. For example, the manufacturers test will reveal that a 5
m media is efficient at removing a certain percentage of 5 m particles. At
98% efficiency, the filter is capable of trapping and retaining 98% of 5 m
particles. At 99%, the 5 m filter is capable of removing 99% .... and so on. This
system of rating a filter media is still used widely by manufacturers even though
it is difficult to compare efficiency values from one manufacturer to another.
Commonly used is the Beta () ratio which provides the filter producer and user
a comparison amongst the various media. It is established by a multi-pass test
which determines a ratio derived from counting the number (N) of particles larger
than a certain size prior to entering the filter to the number of same size particles
downstream of the filter. It is expressed in the formula:
=

Nu (upstream)
______________
Nd (downstream)

Obviously, the higher the ratio value, the more particles are retained by the
filter, which equates to a higher filter efficiency. From this formula, efficiency
tables can be derived for a filters effectiveness at removing particles of a given
size from fluid.
The standard method of establishing a filters rating or efficiency is to use particles
of a known and uniform size, such as sodium chloride, glass beads and other
materials. The contaminant of a predetermined size is fed into the fluid and
then passed through the test filter. The fluid is measured to determine the number
of particles travelling before the filter and the number travelling after the filter.

29

It should be mentioned here that a given medias efficiency level will quite often
be higher in actual use than that specified by the manufacturer. As discussed in
the Filtration Systems section of this handbook, particles will build up within a
media during filtering thereby raising the filters efficiency level. Obviously this
situation cannot continue forever as the media will ultimately block and the
fluids pressure will increase excessively to the point of filter failure.
In addition to rating filter efficiency at removing contaminants, media are also
rated on other characteristics. Below are some examples which are self
explanatory:

pressure drop resistance

fatigue test
dirt holding capacity
microbial test
fire resistance

HEPA AND ULPA AIR FILTERS

Air cleanliness for some workplaces, such as medical and electronics, are so
critical that air filters and their performance must be guaranteed. HEPA and
ULPA filters are capable of meeting the high efficiencies required. HEPA and
ULPA filters are tested following the DOP Efficiency Test. This test heats the
DOP (dioctylphthalate) to an aerosol state and its presence is then measured in
the air after passing through a filter. Based upon the DOP test method, filters
with efficiency of 99.999% for 0.3 micron particles or better are classified as
ULPA (Ultra Low Penetration Air) filters. HEPA (High Efficiency Particulate Air)
media has an efficiency of 99.97% for trapping 0.3 microns in the DOP test.

ASHRAE TEST METHODS

ASHRAE is the acronym for American Society for Heating, Refrigeration and Air
Conditioning Engineers. This societys test methods and procedures are
recognized worldwide and used by most filter producers and users. Using
equipment devised by ASHRAE, tests can determine dust-holding capacity,
resistance, efficiency as well as several other properties of a filter media.

30

GLOSSARY
Absorption: The process by which a liquid or a gas is absorbed into a porous
substance and retained.
Activated carbon: A form of carbon capable of removing certain gases from
the air.
Adsorbate: The gas which is removed from the airstream by contact with the
adsorbent.
Adsorbent: It is the material to which a molecule is attached and retained.
Adsorption: The attraction and adhesion of gaseous or liquid molecules to the
surface of a solid. The strength of the bond depends on the van der Waal forces
between the two molecules.
Aerosol: Small particles, solid, semi-solid or liquid suspended in the air. The
diameter of the particles may vary from 100 microns down to 0.02 microns.
Examples are dust, smoke and fog.
Air filter: A device for removing contaminants from an airstream.
ASHRAE: The acronym for American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air
Conditioning Engineers. The ASHRAE test methods are used by most air and
liquid filter manufacturers in the United States. Filter producers and consumers
in many countries around the world follow the ASHRAE procedures.
Brownian movement: The random movement of small particles or aerosols
suspended in a fluid caused by molecular bombardment and fluctuations about
the particle.
Carding: A process for making fibrous webs in which the fibers are aligned
essentially parallel to each other in the direction that the card machine produces
the web.
Cartridge Filter: A disposable filter media which is generally long and cylindrical
which is placed in a sealed filtration receptacle. The contaminated fluid flows
from the outer edge of the filter to the inner hollow core on exiting but leaves its
particles in the cartridge media.
Clean room: An enclosed space or room with a ventilating system that cleans
the air and reduces the concentration and size of airborne particles to certain
levels.

31

Coalescence: In a liquid - liquid dispersion, it is the joining together (or coalescing)

of liquid particles to form larger drops.
Composite: A structure joining two or more different fabrics or materials
together which could include impregnating a nonwoven fabric with resins.
Condensation: Liquid or droplets which form when a gas or vapor is cooled
below its dew point.
Contaminant: Any solid, liquid or gas which can adversely affect machinery, a
system or person.
Dehumidify: To remove water vapor from an airstream or from air in a space.
Denier: The measure of a weight per unit length of a fiber. Denier is numerically
equal to the weight in grams of 9,000 meters of the material. Low numbers
indicate fine fiber sizes and high numbers indicate coarse fiber sizes. The tex
system is used in countries outside the United States. A tex is numerically equal
to the weight in grams of one kilometer of fiber. It can be calculated by dividing
the denier by nine.
Depth filter: A filter medium which is thick and captures particles within the
media.
Diatomaceous earth: A filter media made from diatoms, which are fossils
that collect at the bottom of sea beds in prehistoric seas. Also known as
kieselguhr, the material is characterized by pores and cavities capable of
capturing and retaining contaminants.
DIN: Deutches Institut fur Normung or The German Institute for Standardization,
which establishes standards for classifying and testing filters.
DOP: Dioctylphthalate (diethyhexyphospate) is a viscous liquid that is heated
into an aerosol in the critical particle range to challenge a filter. The aerosols
presence upstream of the filter and downstream are measured to determine
the medias efficiency. DOP is used to measure HEPA and ULPA media
performance.
Draw-through: An air circulating fan located downstream of the heating or
cooling coils, humidifiers and filters in an HVAC system.
Dry-scrubbing: The process of removing heavy concentrations of gaseous
contaminants from an airstream by the use of some specially designed adsorbers
or chemisorbers.
Efficiency: The ability of a filter device or media to remove particulate or

32

gaseous material from a liquid or gaseous fluid by measuring the concentration

of the particles upstream and downstream of the device or media.
Electret: A microfiber filter media in which the fibers have more or less
permanent electrostatic charge to attract and retain airborne dust particles.
Electret filters can be reusable or disposable.
Electronic air cleaners: These air cleaners electrostatically charge airborne
dust particles as they enter the first stage of the device and then captures them
as they pass through the second stage of the filter, carrying the opposite electrical
charge.
Exhaust air: Air removed from a space and not reused.
Fabric: A sheet structure made from fibers, filaments or yarns.
Face area: The area of a media used in air or liquid filters.
Fan: A device using blades for moving or producing artificial currents of air.
Filter media: Material that makes up the filter element. Media can be made of
a variety of materials, woven metal, sand, fiber, ceramics, etc.
Fog: An aerosol of fine liquid or semi-solid droplets in a gas.
FPM: Feet per minute.
Gas: A fluid having extreme molecular mobility and no fixed dimensions. It
diffuses and expands rapidly to occupy the space in which it is contained. It is
the vapor or gaseous state of a substance.
HEPA filter: The acronym for High Efficiency Particulate Air. These filters are
designed for filtering gases, normally air, to an efficiency of 99.97% by trapping
particles down to 0.3 microns in the DOP test.
HVAC: The name applies to Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning systems
that service air in an enclosed space, i.e., buildings, airplanes, cars, etc.
Impingement: The process in which particles are removed from an airstream
because of the inertia. As an air containing particle flows toward a filter fiber or
other collecting surface, the particle does not follow the air streamlines because
of its inertia. Instead it moves in a straight line, colliding with the filter fiber or
surface to which it may become attached.
Inertia: Any physical body persists in its present state of rest or moving in a
straight line motion unless acted upon by some external force.

33

Isotropic: Having the same physical properties in every direction in the plane
of a fabric. It is related to random distribution of fibers in a fabric.
Kieselguhr: See diatomaceous earth.
Media area: The total area of media used in the production of a filter. Net
effective: The measure of usable media in a filter.
Medium: Medium is synonymous with filter material. Media is the plural of
medium. It is common today to use media as the singular and medias as
the plural.
Melt blown: A nonwoven web forming process that extrudes a molten resin
and draws the resin with hot, high velocity air to form fine filaments onto a
collecting screen. In some ways the process is similar to spunbonded, but the
fibers are much finer.
Membrane filter: A permeable or semi-permeable membrane made of metal,
polymer or other materials. These filters are capable of separating micron and
sub-micron size particles from liquids and gases.
Meter (metre): An SI linear measurement equal to 39.37 inches. Metre is the
preferred spelling in many world regions.
Micron: One millionth of a meter or 1/25,400 of an inch. A micron is more
correctly known as a micrometer. The abbreviated form for micron is mm.
Mist: An aggregate of fine droplets of a liquid suspended in the air or a cloud of
particles forming a haze.
Mold: A variety of fungus growths commonly found on the surface of damp
decaying organic matter or in warm moist places. It is characterized by a woolly
or furry texture.
Molecule: The smallest part of an element or compound that can exist
separately without losing its chemical properties.
Needlepunched: Mechanically binding a web to form a fabric by penetrating
the web with an array of barbed needles that carry the webs own fibers in a
vertical direction through the web.
Nonwoven fabric: A fabric made directly from fibers or filaments or from a
web of fibers, without the yarn preparation needed for weaving or knitting.
Organic: Compound molecules that contain one or more carbon atoms.
Ozone: Ozone is a gaseous, unstable form of oxygen that is composed of three

34

atoms rather than two. Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent and is toxic even at
low levels. It is a component of smog.
Particle: A minute piece, part or portion of matter. It may be solid, semi-solid
or liquid.
Particle count: The quantity of particles in a given volume of fluid.
Penetration: A measure, in percent, of particles of a given size that pass through
a filter. If no particles pass through then 100% were trapped. If 97% of particles
are trapped, then penetration is 3% (100%-97% = 3%) and the filter is 97%
efficient. Penetration is used to measure the performance of very high efficiency
filters.
ppm: An abbreviation that refers to parts per million. It may be expressed by
volume as ppm(v) or by mass as ppm(m).
Polymer: A liquid or solid substance made by chemically linking macromolecules
together in chains in a process known as polymerization. High polymer denotes
substances made from very long chains. Cross linked polymer describes a
substance in which there are molecular links between polymer chains.
Polymerization: The process of changing the molecular arrangement of a
compound so as to form new compounds having the same percentage
composition as the original, but of greater molecular weight and different physical
properties.
Pressure drop: The pressure drop is the resistance to a fluid passing through a
filter media at various flow rates.
Pulp: Short cellulose fibers made from wood or cotton.
Rated filter capacity: The specific quantity of fluid that a filter manufacturer
recommends can be handled by the filter.
Resin: Any of a group of solid or semi-solid materials made by chemical
synthesis. The materials are often used in plastics or production of synthetic
fibers. (see Polymer).
Smog: A mixture of gases and aerosols generated from a variety of sources,
such as automobiles exhausts, burning coat for electricity generation and
discharges from many industrial processes. Smog can contain noxious substances
and acids that have a damaging effect to the environment and respiratory organs.
Smoke: An aerosol of particles usually solid formed from combustion of organic
materials, such as wood, coal, oil, etc. It usually refers to the soot or carbon

35

particles less than 0.1 mm, which results from incomplete combustion.
Spunbonded fabric: A fabric formed from filaments that have been extruded,
drawn, laid on a continuous belt and bonded.
Spunlaced fabric: A fabric formed by entangling the fibers about each other in
a repeating pattern using high velocity streams of water.
Sterilizing filter: A filter that uses a media of sufficient fineness to remove
bacteria. These are usually membrane or depth filters.
Surface filter: A thin filter material that retains contaminants on the surface.
Tackifier: A viscous substance; usually oil, pressure sensitive resins or solvents,
which are applied to the surface or throughout a filter media to increase the
retention of dust.
ULPA: The acronym for Ultra Low Penetration Air (filter). Air filters made to
ULPA standards have filtration efficiencies of 99.999% on 0.3 micron DOP
particles.
Van der Waals forces: The forces of attraction and repulsion between
molecules caused by the electric fields of the electrons (negative) and the nuclei
(positive). The forces of molecular attraction explain why particles adhere to a
filters fiber.
Vapors: A substance in the gaseous state which is usually in a liquid or solid
state.
Virus: A semi-living, generally inert microscopic particle chiefly protein in
composition. They replicate by entering a living cell and direct the cell to
reproduce more viruses. The cell is usually destroyed as the new viruses are
released to the surrounding environment.
Web: A sheet made by laying down and assembling fibers or by creating holes
or cracks in a plastic film.

36

Wet laid nonwovens: Wet laid nonwovens are produced in a process similar
to paper making. They can be produced from a wide variety of natural and
synthetic fibers. Many wet laid nonwovens are made with wood pulp blended
with synthetic fibers or fiberglass. To distinguish nonwovens from papers, a
material will be defined a nonwoven if:
a. More than 50%, by mass, of its fibrous content is made up of fibers
(excluding chemically digested vegetable fibers) with a length to diameter
ratio greater than 300:
or
b. More than 30%, by mass, of its fibrous content is made of fibers in a
above and meet one or both of the following criteria
1. Length to diameter ratio of more than 600.
2. The density of the fabric is less than 0.4 g/cc.
Wet strength: The resistance of a fabric to being torn when it is wet. The fabrics
wet strength is usually compared to its strength when dry.
Yarn: A continuous strand of fibers or filaments that are twisted together, to
enable its conversion into a woven, knitted or braided fabric.

37