Principles of Communication

EEC-502

Unit-I
Introduction of Communication System

Amplitude Modulation

Elements of a Communication System

Source

Transmitter

Receiver

Recipient

Description of Communication Elements

Source: Analogue or digital like video, text or speech.
Input Transducer: e.g. microphone that converts audio signal
into electrical signal.
Transmitter: Transducer, amplifier, modulator, oscillator,
power amp., antenna. It modulates and transmits source data.
Channel: Coaxial cable, optical fiber, free space etc.
Receiver: Antenna, amplifier, demodulator, oscillator, power
amplifier, transducer. It demodulates the original signal from
modulated signal.
Output Transducer: e.g. loudspeaker that converts electrical
signal into sound signal.
Recipient: Person, speaker, computer etc.

Communication Channels
Telephone channels
Optical Fiber

Mobile radio channel

Communication Channels
Satellite channel

Modulation
Modulation is the process of impressing information onto a
high-frequency carrier for transmission.

Reasons for modulation:

to prevent mutual interference between stations

to reduce the size of the antenna required
Common processing
Narrowbanding

Frequency Bands

Baseband Signals
The message signal generated from the information source is
known as baseband signal.
Analog baseband Signal

Digital baseband Signal

Band pass Signals

Baseband signal is impressed upon a carrier, modulated signal is
produced. This signal has fixed band of frequencies around
carrier frequency so known as bandpass type.
Analog band pass Signal

Digital band pass Signal

Information and Bandwidth

Bandwidth required by a modulated signal depends on the
baseband frequency range (or data rate) and the modulation
scheme.

Hartleys Law: I = k t B
where I = amount of information; k = system constant; t = time
available; B = channel bandwidth

Shannons Formula: I = B log2 (1+ S/N) in bps

where S/N = signal-to-noise power ratio

Transmission Modes
Simplex (SX) One direction only, e.g. TV
Half Duplex (HDX) Both directions but not at the same
time, e.g. CB radio
Full Duplex (FDX) Transmit and receive
simultaneously between two stations, e.g. standard
telephone system
Full/Full Duplex (F/FDX) - Transmit and receive
simultaneously but not necessarily just between two
stations, e.g. data communications circuits

Basic Analog Communications System

Baseband signal
(electrical signal)

Input
transducer

Transmitter

EM waves (modulated
signal)

Transmission
Channel

Modulator

EM waves (modulated
signal)

Carrier
Baseband signal
(electrical signal)

Output
transducer

Receiver
Demodulator

Time and Frequency Domains

Time domain: An oscilloscope displays the amplitude
versus time.
Frequency domain: A spectrum analyzer displays the
amplitude or power versus frequency.
Frequency-domain display provides information on
bandwidth and harmonic components of a signal.

Non-sinusoidal Waveform
Any well-behaved periodic waveform can be
represented as a series of sine and/or cosine waves plus
(sometimes) a dc offset:
e(t)=Co+SAn cos nw t + SBn sin nw t (Fourier series)

Amplitude Modulation

Waveforms of Amplitude Modulation

Analysis of Amplitude Modulated Carrier Wave

Let vc = Vc Sin wct
vm = Vm Sin wmt

The amplitude modulated wave is given by the equation

A = Vc + vm = Vc + Vm Sin wmt = Vc [1+ (Vm/Vc Sin wmt)]
= Vc (1 + mSin wmt)

m Modulation Index. The ratio is Vm/Vc.

v = A Sin wct = Vc (1 + m Sin wmt) Sin wct
= Vc Sin wct + mVc (Sin wmt Sin wct)
v = Vc Sin wct + [mVc/2 Cos (wc-wm)t mVc/2 Cos (wc + wm)t]

Frequency Spectrum of AM
Lower side frequency (wc wm)/2
Upper side frequency (wc +wm)/2

Modulation Index
The ratio between the amplitude change of carrier wave to the
amplitude of the normal carrier wave is called modulation index.

Modulation Index
m

Em
Em ax Em in
or
Ec
Em ax Em in

where, Emax = Ec + Em; Emin = Ec - Em (all peak values)

When Em = Ec , m =1 or 100% modulation.
Over-modulation, i.e. Em>Ec , should be avoided
because it will create distortions and splatter.

Effects of Modulation Index

Effect of Over Modulation

AM in Frequency Domain
The expression for the AM signal:
es = (Ec + em) sin wct
es = Ec sin wct + mEc[cos (wc-wm)t-cos (wc+wm)t]

The expanded expression shows that the AM

signal consists of the original carrier, a lower side
frequency, flsf = fc - fm, and an upper side
frequency, fusf = fc + fm.

AM Spectrum
Ec

mEc/2

mEc/2
fm

flsf

fm
fc

fusf

fusf = fc + fm ; flsf = fc - fm ; Esf = mEc/2

Bandwidth, B = 2fm

AM Power
Ptotal = Pcarrier + PLSB + PUSB
Considering additional resistance like antenna resistance R.

Pcarrier = [(Vc/2)/R]2 = V2C/2R

Each side band has a value of m/2 Vc and r.m.s value of mVc/22.
Hence power in LSB and USB can be written as
PLSB = PUSB = (mVc/22)2/R = m2/4*V2C/2R = m2/4 Pcarrier

Ptotal = V2C/2R + [m2/4*V2C/2R] + [m2/4*V2C/2R]

= V2C/2R (1 + m2/2) = Pcarrier (1 + m2/2)

PT

Pc (1

m2
)
2

AM Current
The modulation index for an AM station can be measured
by using an RF ammeter and the following equation:

Io

m2
1
2

where I is the current with modulation and

Io is the current without modulation.

Complex AM Waveforms
For complex AM signals with many frequency components,
all the formulas encountered before remain the same, except
that m is replaced by mT. For example:
2

PT

mT
PC (1
); I
2

mT
Io 1
2

Limitations of Amplitude Modulation

Low Efficiency
Limited Operating Range
Noisy Reception
Poor Audio Quality

Block Diagram of AM TX

Transmitter Stages
Crystal oscillator generates a very stable sinewave
carrier. Where variable frequency operation is
required, a frequency synthesizer is used.
Buffer isolates the crystal oscillator from any load
changes in the modulator stage.
Frequency multiplier is required only if HF or
higher frequencies is required.

Transmitter Stages (contd)

RF voltage amplifier boosts the voltage level of the
carrier. It could double as a modulator if low-level
modulation is used.
RF driver supplies input power to later RF stages.

RF Power amplifier is where modulation is applied for

most high power AM TX. This is known as high-level
modulation.

Transmitter Stages (contd)

High-level modulation is efficient since all previous RF
stages can be operated class C.
Microphone is where the modulating signal is being
applied.

AF amplifier boosts the weak input modulating signal.

AF driver and power amplifier would not be required
for low-level modulation.

Linear AM Modulator Circuits

Square Law Diode Modulator

Trapezoidal Pattern
Instead of using the envelope display to look at AM
signals, an alternative is to use the trapezoidal pattern
display. This is obtained by connecting the modulating
signal to the x input of the scope and the modulated
AM signal to the y input.
Any distortion, over modulation, or non-linearity is
easier to observe with this method.

Trapezoidal Pattern (contd)

m<1

m=1

Vm ax Vm in
Vm ax Vm in

m>1
Improper
-Vp>+Vp
phase

Amplitude Demodulators
Demodulators, or detectors, are circuits that
accept modulated signals and recover the original
modulating information.

Diode Detector

Waveforms of Diode Detector

Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier(DSB-SC)

In this information is contained in two sidebands only and carrier is
suppressed.

Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier(DSB-SC)

Balanced Modulator

Balanced Modulator
A balanced modulator is a circuit that generates a
DSB signal, suppressing the carrier and leaving only
the sum and difference frequencies at the output.
The output of a balanced modulator can be further
processed by filters or phase-shifting circuitry to
eliminate one of the sidebands, resulting in a SSB
signal.

Waveforms for Balanced Modulator

V2, fm

Vo

V1, fc

fc-fm fc+fm

Mathematical Analysis of Balanced Modulator

V1 = A1sin ct; V2 = A2sin mt
Vo = V1V2 = A1A2sin ct sin mt
= A1A2{cos( c- m)t cos( c+ m)t}
The equation above shows that the output of the
balanced modulator consists of a lower side-frequency
( c - m) and an upper side-frequency ( c+ m)

Suppressed-Carrier AM Systems
Full-carrier AM is simple but not efficient in terms of
transmitted power, bandwidth, and SNR.
Using single-sideband suppressed-carrier (SSBSC or
SSB) signals, since Psf = m2Pc/4, and Pt=Pc(1+m2/2 ),
then at m=1, Pt= 6 Psf .
SSB also has a bandwidth reduction of half, which in
turn reduces noise by half.

Generating SSB - Filtering Method

The simplest method of generating an SSB signal is to
generate a double-sideband suppressed-carrier (DSB-SC)
signal first and then removing one of the sidebands.

Balanced
Modulator DSB-SC

USB
BPF

AF
Input

Carrier
Oscillator

or

LSB

Filter for SSB

Filters with high Q are needed for suppressing the
unwanted sideband.

fa = f c - f2
fb = fc - f1
fd = fc + f1
fe = f c + f 2
Q

f c anti log( X dB / 20) where X = attenuation of

4 f
sideband, and f = fd - fb

Typical SSB TX using Filter Method

SSB Waveform

Generating SSB - Phasing Method

Phasing vs Filtering Method

Advantages of phasing method :

No high Q filters are required.
Therefore, lower fm can be used.
SSB at any carrier frequency can be generated
in a single step.
Disadvantage:
Difficult to achieve accurate 90o phase shift across
the whole audio range.

Peak Envelope Power

SSB transmitters are usually rated by the peak envelope
power (PEP) rather than the carrier power. With voice
modulation, the PEP is about 3 to 4 times the average or
rms power.

PEP

Vp

2 RL
where Vp = peak signal voltage
and RL = load resistance

Non-coherent SSB BFO RX

Coherent SSB BFO Receiver

RF SSBRC

RF
input
signal

RF amplifier
and
preselector

IF SSBRC
IF amp. &
RF mixer
bandpass
filter
RF LO
Carrier recovery
and frequency
synthesizer

IF
mixer

BFO

Demod.
info

Explanation of SSB Receivers

The input SSB signal is first mixed with the LO signal
(low-side injection is used here).
The filter removes the sum frequency components and
the IF signal is amplified.
Mixing the IF signal with a reinserted carrier from a
beat frequency oscillator (BFO) and low-pass filtering
recovers the audio information.

SSB Receivers (contd)

The product detector is often just a balanced modulator
operated in reverse.
Frequency accuracy and stability of the BFO is critical.
An error of a little more than 100 Hz could render the
received signal unintelligible.
In coherent or synchronous detection, a pilot carrier is
transmitted with the SSB signal to synchronize the RF
local oscillator and BFO.

Vestigial Side Band

Vestigial Side Band

Quadrature Amplitude Modulator

AM Receivers

Basic requirements for receivers:

Ability to tune to a specific signal
Amplify the signal that is picked up
Extract the information by demodulation
Amplify the demodulated signal
Two important receiver specifications:
sensitivity and selectivity

Tuned-Radio-Frequency (TRF) Receiver

The TRF receiver is the simplest receiver that
meets all the basic requirements.

Drawbacks of TRF Receivers

Difficulty in tuning all the stages to exactly the same
frequency simultaneously.
Very high Q for the tuning coils are required for good
selectivity BW=fo/Q.
Selectivity is not constant for a wide range of frequencies
due to skin effect which causes the BW to vary with fo.

Superheterodyne Receiver
Block diagram of basic superhetrodyne receiver:

Antenna and Front End

The antenna consists of an inductor in the form of a
large number of turns of wire around a ferrite rod. The
inductance forms part of the input tuning circuit.
Low-cost receivers sometimes omit the RF amplifier.
Main advantages of having RF amplifier: improves
sensitivity and image frequency rejection.

Mixers
A mixer is a nonlinear circuit that combines two signals
in such a way as to produce the sum and difference of
the two input frequencies at the output.
A square-law mixer is the simplest type of mixer and is
easily approximated by using a diode, or a transistor
(bipolar, JFET, or MOSFET).

Dual-Gate MOSFET Mixer

Good dynamic range and fewer unwanted o/p frequencies.

Balanced Mixers
A balanced mixer is one in which the input frequencies
do not appear at the output.
Ideally, the only
frequencies that are produced are the sum and
difference of the input frequencies.
Circuit symbol:

f1

f1+ f2
f2

Equations for Balanced Mixer

Let the inputs be v1 = sin w1t and v2 = sin w2t.
A balanced mixer acts like a multiplier.
Thus its output, vo = Av1v2 = A sin w1t sin w2t.
Since sin X sin Y = 1/2[cos(X-Y) - cos(X+Y)]
Therefore, vo = A/2[cos(w1-w2)t-cos(w1+w2)t].
The last equation shows that the output of the balanced
mixer consists of the sum and difference of the input
frequencies.

Balanced Ring Diode Mixer

Balanced mixers are also called balanced modulators.

Waveforms for Frequency Multipliers

Mixer and Local Oscillator

The mixer and LO frequency convert the input
frequency, fc, to a fixed fIF:

High-side injection: fLO = fc + fIF

Autodyne Converter
Sometimes called a self-excited mixer, the autodyne converter
combines the mixer and LO into a single circuit:

IF Amplifier, Detector, & AGC

IF Amplifier and AGC

Most receivers have two or more IF stages to provide
the bulk of their gain (i.e. sensitivity) and their
selectivity.
Automatic gain control (AGC) is obtained from the
detector stage to adjusts the gain of the IF (and
sometimes the RF) stages inversely to the input signal
level. This enables the receiver to cope with large
variations in input signal.

Sensitivity and Selectivity

Sensitivity is expressed as the minimum input signal
required to produce a specified output level for a given
(S+N)/N ratio.
Selectivity is the ability of the receiver to reject
unwanted or interfering signals. It may be defined by
the shape factor of the IF filter or by the amount of
adjacent channel rejection.

Shape Factor

SF

B 60 dB
B 6 dB

Image Frequency
One of the problems with the superhet receiver is that
an image frequency signal could interfere with the
reception of the desired signal. The image frequency is
given by: fimage = fsig + 2fIF
where
fsig = desired signal
An image signal must be rejected by tuning circuits
prior to mixing.

Image-Frequency Rejection Ratio

For a tuned circuit with a quality factor of Q, its imagefrequency rejection ratio is:

IFRR
x

1 Q x

f image

f sig

f sig

f image

where,

In dB, IFRR(dB) = 20 log IFRR

IF Transformers
The transformers used in the IF stages can be either
single-tuned or double-tuned.

Single-tuned

Double-tuned

Loose and Tight Couplings

For single-tuned transformers, tighter coupling means
more gain but broader bandwidth:

Under, Over, & Critical Coupling

Double-tuned transformers can be over, under,
critically, or optimally coupled:

Coupling Factors
Critical coupling factor kc is given by:

kc

1
Q pQs

where Qp, Qs = prim. & sec. Q, respectively.

IF transformers often use the optimum coupling
factor, kopt = 1.5kc , to obtain a steep skirt and
flat passband. The bandwidth for a double-tuned
IF amplifier with k = kopt is given by B = kfo.
Overcoupling means k>kc; undercoupling, k< kc