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FeelingGoodandDoingBetter:

HowSpecificPositiveEmotionsInfluenceConsumerBehaviorandWellbeing

by
LisaAnnCavanaugh
DepartmentofBusinessAdministration
DukeUniversity

Date:_______________________

Approved:

___________________________
JamesR.Bettman,Cochair

___________________________
MaryFrancesLuce,Cochair

___________________________
GavanJ.Fitzsimons

___________________________
BarbaraL.Fredrickson

Dissertationsubmittedinpartialfulfillmentof
therequirementsforthedegreeofDoctorofPhilosophyin
theDepartmentofBusinessAdministrationinthe
GraduateSchoolofDukeUniversity

2009

UMI Number: 3352313


Copyright 2009 by
Cavanaugh, Lisa Ann
All rights reserved

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ABSTRACT

FeelingGoodandDoingBetter:

HowSpecificPositiveEmotionsInfluenceConsumerBehaviorandWellbeing

by
LisaAnnCavanaugh
DepartmentofBusinessAdministration
DukeUniversity

Date:_______________________

Approved:

___________________________
JamesR.Bettman,Cochair

___________________________
MaryFrancesLuce,Cochair

___________________________
GavanJ.Fitzsimons

___________________________
BarbaraL.Fredrickson

Anabstractofadissertationsubmittedinpartialfulfillmentof
therequirementsforthedegreeofDoctorofPhilosophyin
theDepartmentofBusinessAdministrationinthe
GraduateSchoolofDukeUniversity

2009

Copyrightby
LisaAnnCavanaugh
2009

ABSTRACT

Marketersseektocreateandconsumersseektocultivateavarietyof

positiveemotionalexperiences.Despitetheirimportancetoconsumerbehavior,
researchershavelackedaclearunderstandingofthedistinctbehavioral
consequencesofspecificpositiveemotions.Mydissertationexamineshow
differentpositiveemotions(e.g.,hope,love,andpride)candifferentiallyaffect
consumersdecisionsandbehaviors.Ifindthatpositiveemotionscannotonlybe
differentiatedbutalsothatspecificpositiveemotionsleadtodistinctlydifferent
patternsofconsumptionbehavior,suchasconsideringmoreoptions,donatingin
differentways,engaginginmoreeffortfulactions,orperformingmoresocially
consciousconsumptionbehaviorsbenefitingdistantothers.Ifindimportant
differencesbothwithmomentaryemotionalexperiencesanddownstream
consequencesofchronicemotionalexperiences.

Positiveemotionsdifferreliablyinthedegreetowhichtheycreatealens

ofproblemsolving,socialconnection,andperceivedcontrol.Forexample,Ifind
thatpositiveemotionscharacterizedbyasocialconnectionlens(e.g.,loveand
gratitude)leadtoincreasesinsociallyconsciousbehaviorsbenefitingdistant
others.Thetendencytoperceiveonesenvironmentthroughaproblemsolving

iv

lens(whichcharacterizeshopeandinterestbutnotloveandgratitude)leadsto
largerconsiderationsetsandengagementinmoreeffortfulenvironmental
actions.Ialsoexaminehowpositiveemotionscharacterizedbydifferentlenses,
suchasperceivedcontrol(e.g.,pride)andsocialconnection(e.g.,love),produce
distinctbehaviorswithinthesameconsumptioncontext(e.g.,givingindifferent
waysinresponsetoafundraisingappeal).Fivestudiesdemonstratethatpositive
emotionscanbecharacterizedinwaysthatallowpredictionofdistinctformsof
broadeningandspecificconsumptionbehaviors.

Dedication

Iameternallygratefultotheincrediblepeoplewhohavehelpedmein

thisjourneytowardearningmyPh.D.andbecomingauniversityprofessor.To
myhusband,Taymon,youhavebeenmyrockasourceofmental,emotional,
andphysicalstrength,comedy,andunwaveringsupportsinceourfirstyearat
DukeUniversitydespitethestressesofbasketballandyourownintense
medicalschoolprogram.Fromlisteningtopracticetalksafterafulldayatthe
hospitaltohelpingmebuildmyinlabgrocerystoreonweekends,Icannotthank
youenoughforallofyourlove,support,andconfidenceinme.Youaremy
inspiration.

Tomymomanddad,youhavebeenmycheerleadersfromdayone.

Whetherattendingschoolperformances,athleticcontests,oracademicawards
banquets,youhavealwaysbeenmytwobiggestfans(untila610Taymon
enteredthescene)andcheeredmeontheloudest.Tomysister,Laura,thankyou
foralwayskeepingmepluggedintothenewsworthyworldaroundme,being
upforlatenightchats,andsharinglotsoftheheartfeltsisterlylaughteroverthe
years.Thankyouforeverything.

Tomyfabulousdissertationcommitteefourtalentedscholarswhohave

inspiredmeandhelpedmetogrowasanacademician.Tomyawesomeco

vi

chairsandacademicsuperheroes,JimandMaryFran,thankyouforchallenging
meandshepherdingmyintellectualgrowth.Ihavelearnedsomuchfromyou
andfeelincrediblyprivilegedtocallmyselfyourstudent.ToBarb,thankyoufor
kindlingmypassionforpositiveemotionsandbringingme,aDukeinterloper,in
asamemberofyourPEPlabatUNC.ToGavan,thankyouforyourgenerous
adviceandconfidenceinmyresearchideas.AsIembarkonmynewadventure
asafacultymemberattheUniversityofSouthernCalifornia,ItrulyfeellikeIam
surfingontheshouldersofgiants.

TotheDukemarketingfacultyandmymentorsatDukeduringmy

undergraduateyears,thankyouforalwayschallengingmetoasktough
questions,tousemycreativitytoseekoutthoughtfulanswers,andtoblazemy
owntrail.Iamespeciallygratefultomymentoranddearfriend,KayLemon,
whofirstinspiredandencouragedmetopursuethispath.

TomykindredspiritsofSolterraKim&Tom,Susan&Doug,Emilie&

Ericyouarethebestfriendsandadoptedfamilyanysentientbeingcouldever
askfor.Thankyouforallthenourishingmealsandconversations,laughterfilled
musicandgamenights,andyourwonderfulexpressionsofloveandsupport.

TomyfellowPh.D.studentfriendsandPEPlabpeeps,whohavetraveled

thispathwithmethankyouforyourfriendship,humor,andmoralsupport.A

vii

specialthankstomydearcollaboratorsandfriends,Rosie,Hillary,Sarah,
Eugenia,Keisha,Stephen,Isilay,Kimberly,Tanya,Sara,Erika,MarieJoelle,and
Janetforbeingsomeofthebesttravelcompanions(bothliterallyand
figuratively)adoctoralstudentcouldeverhave.Ithasbeenasinceretreatforme
tosharethisjourneywithyou.

Finally,tomyincrediblydedicatedandaffectionatecaninecompanion,

Lucky,whohasspentcountlesshourscurledupbeneathmydeskandrestingin
mylapasIworkandwrite.Yourunconditionalloveandplayfulspirithas
helpedmeperseverethroughsomeofthetoughestandcelebratethemostjoyous
momentsofmyPh.D.lifethankyouforbeingwithmeeverystepoftheway.

viii

TableofContents

ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... iv
GENERALINTRODUCTION.........................................................................................1
OVERVIEWOFRELEVANTRESEARCH ....................................................................7
PositiveEmotions..........................................................................................................7
AppraisalTendencyApproaches ...............................................................................9
BroadenandBuildTheoryofPositiveEmotions ..................................................12
KeyAppraisalDimensionsImportanttoConsumptionBehavior ......................14
ANINTEGRATEDAPPROACHTOCONSUMERSPOSITIVEEMOTIONS
ANDBROADENING .....................................................................................................20
Study1:PositiveEmotionsMoreEmotions&NewDimensions ........................25
Method..........................................................................................................................26
Results...........................................................................................................................27
EFFECTSOFAPPRAISALSONCONSUMPTIONBEHAVIORS...........................30
Study2:DifferentPositiveEmotionsLeadtoDifferentPatternsofSocially
ConsciousBehaviors.......................................................................................................35
Method..........................................................................................................................36
Procedure .....................................................................................................................36
Results...........................................................................................................................39
Discussion ....................................................................................................................42
Study3:DifferentPositiveEmotionsBroadenInDifferentWaysWithinthe
SameConsumptionContext..........................................................................................43
Method..........................................................................................................................46
Procedure .....................................................................................................................46
Results...........................................................................................................................50

ix

Discussion ....................................................................................................................54
Study4:DifferentPositiveEmotionDispositionsInfluenceDifferent
ConsumptionBehaviors.................................................................................................57
Method..........................................................................................................................60
Procedure .....................................................................................................................60
Results...........................................................................................................................64
Discussion ....................................................................................................................67
Study5:TelevisionCommercialsActivateAppraisalsandInfluence
EnvironmentalBehaviors ..............................................................................................69
Method..........................................................................................................................71
Procedure .....................................................................................................................71
Results...........................................................................................................................74
Discussion ....................................................................................................................76
GENERALDISCUSSION...............................................................................................77
SummaryofResults....................................................................................................77
TheoreticalContributions ..........................................................................................80
MarketingImplications ..............................................................................................82
FutureResearch...........................................................................................................88
TECHNICALAPPENDIXTOSTUDY1......................................................................90
TABLES.............................................................................................................................92
FIGURES.........................................................................................................................100
REFERENCES................................................................................................................105
BIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................118

GENERALINTRODUCTION

Consumptiondecisionsareoftendrivenbyadesiretocultivatepositive

emotionalexperiencesforourselvesandforothers.Wegivegiftstofriends,plan
romanticeveningsforspouses,watchmovies,goonvacations,andprayor
meditatetocultivateawiderangeofspecificpositiveemotionshappiness,
gratitude,love,amusement,pride,interest,hopeandcontentment,among
others.Marketers,likewise,gotogreatlengthstoengineerpositiveemotional
environmentsandexperiencesforconsumers.Advertisingagenciescreate
commercials,retailersplaymusic,andsalespeoplestrikeupconversationswith
consumerstoelicitpositivefeelingstowardproductsandbrands.Intheprocess,
consumerscommitvastamountsoftimeandresourcestothosepeople,places
andactivitiesthatmakethemfeelgood.However,notallpeople,places,and
activitiesmakeconsumersfeelthesamepositiveemotions;thesedifferences
makeitimportanttounderstandthedistinctionsacrosspositiveemotions.
Despitetheimportanceofpositiveemotionstoconsumerbehavior,researchers
lackaclearunderstandingofthedistinctbehavioralconsequencesofdifferent
positiveemotions.Infact,therelativelyscantresearchexaminingtheeffectsof
specificconsumeremotionshasgenerallyfocusedonnegativeemotions(Cryderet

al.2008;Garg,Inman,andMittal2005;Lerneretal.2003;Lerner,Small,and
Loewenstein2004;RaghunathanandPham1999).

Researchershavelookedatpositiveemotionasamotivatorof

consumptionbehavior(HirschmanandHolbrook1982;Holbrookand
Hirschman1982)andhavefocusedonunderstandingconsumerphenomena
relatedtotheexperienceofpositiveemotionssuchashopeinproductchoice(De
Mello,MacInnis,andStewart2007;MacInnisanddeMello2005),loveingift
giving(BelkandCoon1993),warmversusupbeatfeelingsinadvertising(Burke
andEdell1989),anddesireforparticulargoods,experiences(Belk,Ger,and
Askegaard2003),andselfrewards(MickandDeMoss1990).However,thereis
nooverallframeworkforsystematicallycharacterizingthepropertiesofdifferent
positiveemotionsthatmaydifferentiallyinfluenceconsumerbehaviors.
Theoreticaldevelopmenthasfocusedontheinfluenceofpositivemoodsand
positivitymoregenerally.Mostofwhatisknownaboutpositiveemotions
derivesfromthestudyofthelowestcommondenominatorgeneralized
positiveaffect.Inaddition,themajorityofempiricalworkontheeffectsof
positiveemotionsdrawsfromvalencebasedtestscontrastingagenerally
positiveversusnegativemoodoremotionalstate.

Insum,priorworkdoesnotprovideanintegratedapproachtoexamining

thedifferentialeffectsofspecificpositiveemotions.InthepresentresearchI
buildfromtwoinfluentialtheorieswithintheemotionliteratureappraisaltheory
andthebroadenandbuildtheoryofpositiveemotionstopredicthowspecific
positiveemotionsmaydifferentiallyaffectandsystematicallyinfluence
consumptionbehavior.

Appraisaltheoriessuggestthatemotionscanbecharacterizedbyavariety

ofunderlyingdimensions.Appraisaldimensionshaveprovenusefulfor
understandingdifferencesbetweendifferentnegativeemotions,forexample
angerandfear(LernerandKeltner2000,2001)orsadnessandanxiety
(RaghunathanandPham1999).However,relativelylittleisknownaboutthe
appraisaldimensionscharacterizinganddifferentiatingpositiveemotions(see
EllsworthandSmith(1988b)andTong(2007)fortwoattemptsusingdifferent
methods).Todateresearchhasfocusedonasmallnumberofspecificappraisal
dimensionsthataccountformostofthevarianceinnegativeemotion.Examining
abroaderrangeofappraisaldimensionsspecifictopositiveemotionswillnot
onlyhelptodifferentiatepositiveemotionsbutalsoadvancepredictionsof
consumptionbehaviorslinkedtospecificpositiveemotions.

Thebroadenandbuildtheoryofpositiveemotionsuggeststhatunlikenegative

emotions,whichnarrowactiontendencies,positiveemotionsfunctionto
broadenmomentarythoughtactionrepertoiresandbuildenduringpersonal
resources(Fredrickson1998;Fredrickson2001).Althoughthebroadenandbuild
theorysuggeststhatallpositiveemotionsbroadenthoughtactionrepertoires
similarly,Iarguethatspecificpositiveemotionsmaybroadenindistinctly
differentways.

Inparticular,althoughappraisalsofcontrolandcertaintyhaveproven

usefulfordistinguishingamongnegativeemotions,additionalappraisalsmaybe
neededtounderstandimportantlinksbetweenpositiveemotionsand
consumptionbehavior.Forexample,mightsomepositiveemotionschangethe
degreetowhichapersonfeelsconnectedtootherindividuals,whileother
positiveemotionsalterthefocusofattentiononthepresentversusthefuture,
andstillothersinfluencetheamountofeffortputintoadecisionmakingtask?
Researchhasshownthatdifferencesinselfconstrual(Singelis1994,e.g.,see
AgrawalandMaheswaran2005),temporalconstrual(TropeandLiberman2003,
e.g.,seeChandranandMenon2004),andneedforcognition(CacioppoandPetty
1982,e.g.,seeInman,McAlisterandHoyer1990)areconstructsthathave
predictedimportantdifferencesinconsumptionbehaviors.Thus,different

specificpositiveemotionalexperiencesarelikelytodifferentiallyinfluence
consumerbehavior.

Thisdissertationexploreshowbothmomentarilyandchronically

experiencedpositiveemotionsinfluenceconsumersdecisions,behaviors,and
wellbeing.ThroughaseriesofstudiesIwillshowthat:1)differentpositive
emotionscanbereliablydistinguishedbyunderlyingappraisaldimensions
(LernerandKeltner2000,2001;RaghunathanandPham1999;Smithand
Ellsworth1985),2)differentpositiveemotions(momentaryanddispositional)
predictdistinctandenduringpatternsofconsumptionbehavior(e.g.,certain
positiveemotionsbroadenaconsumerssenseofselfwhileothersbroadenthe
consumerseffortandconsiderationset),and3)distinctpatternsofemotional
appraisalcanbeactivatedbyviewingtelevisioncommercialsandimpact
subsequentbehavior.

Thus,inthisdissertationIaddresshowspecificpositiveemotionsand

specifictypesofpositiveemotionsinfluenceconsumptionbehaviorsand
consumerwellbeing,focusingparticularlyontheappraisaldimensionsofsocial
connection,temporalfocus,problemsolving,andperceivedcontrol,whichIwill
describeindetailintheresearchoverview.Thisdissertationresearchis
importantforavarietyofreasons.First,itintegratestwoimportantemotion

theoriesappraisaltheoryandthebroadenandbuildtheoryofpositive
emotionstogeneratepredictionsthatdifferentiateamongalargeclassof
emotionsvitallyimportanttoconsumerbehavioryettodatelargelyregardedas
undifferentiated.Second,itdemonstratesthattheappraisaldimensionsthat
explaindifferencesamongpositiveemotionsaredistinctfromthosefocusedon
fornegativeemotions.Third,itprovidesanexplanatorylinkbetween
momentaryandchronicexperiencesofspecificpositiveemotionsanddistinct
consumptiontendencies.Finally,itprovidesthefirstempiricaldemonstrationof
differentialbroadening,showingthatspecificpositiveemotionsbroadenin
differentways.
Inthenextsection,Ireviewtherelevantliterature,offeramoredetailed
descriptionofmyapproach,andhighlightappraisaldimensionsthatmaybe
particularlyimportantforexaminingtheinfluenceofdifferentpositiveemotions
onconsumptionbehaviors.Ithendescribefivecompletedstudiestoprovide
evidencethatspecificpositiveemotionsfunctiontodirectconsumptionbehavior
indifferentways.

OVERVIEWOFRELEVANTRESEARCH

Themajorityofempiricalworkonpositiveemotionsmakesgeneral

statementsabouthowsimilarlyvalencedemotionsinfluencebehavior.Findings
indicatethatnegativeemotionsnarrowwhilepositiveemotionsbroadenthought
andactiontendencies(Fredrickson2001).Infact,positiveaffectandpositive
emotionalstateshavebeenshowntohaveamultitudeoffacilitativeeffects(e.g.,
increasedcreativityandimprovedproblemsolving),buttheseeffectshavenot,
todate,beentiedtospecificcharacteristicsofpositiveemotions.Moreover,while
mostconclusionsaremadeaboutpositiveemotionsasawhole,itisunclear
whetherallpositiveemotionssimilarlyproducethedemonstratedeffectsandto
thesamedegree.Inowturntotheliteratureonpositiveemotionsandappraisal
tendencyapproachestospecifywhatisknownabouthowpositiveemotion
influencesbehavior.

PositiveEmotions

Positiveemotionsfacilitateapproachbehavior(Cacioppo,Priester,and

Berntson1993)andcontinuedaction(CarverandScheier1990).Potentialtargets
ofapproachandpotentialactionsvarywidely,yetmostofwhatisknownabout
positiveemotionsderivesfromthestudyofgeneralizedpositiveaffect.

PositiveAffect.Positiveaffecthasbeendefinedasapleasantfeelingstate

orgoodmood(Estrada,Isen,andYoung1994),withamultitudeofbeneficial
effectsonthinkingandbehavior.Isenandcolleaguesarguethatpositiveaffect
enlargesthecognitivecontext(Isen1987,p.222)andshowthatpositiveaffect
leadstobroaderthinkingandcategorization(IsenandDaubman1984;Isen,
Daubman,andNowicki1987;KahnandIsen1993);increasedmentalfocus(Kuhl
andKazen1999);betterproblemsolving(Estrada,Isen,andYoung1997);less
biasedprocessingofhealthriskinformation(ReedandAspinwall1998);and
increasedhelping,generosity,andinterpersonalunderstandinginthecontextof
socialinteraction(Isen2001;Isen,Clark,andSchwartz1976).However,different
positiveemotionsmayfosterthesetendenciestodifferentdegrees.

SpecificPositiveEmotions.Whilemostpriorworkhasfocusedon

generalizedpositiveaffect,somerecentworkdemonstratesdifferenteffectsof
positiveemotions.Empiricalfindingssuggestthatincidentalgratitudebutnot
amusementincreaseseffortincostlyprosocialbehaviors(BartlettandDeSteno
2006);elevationbutnotamusementoradmirationmotivateskindnesstoward
others(AlgoeandHaidt2009);happinessbutnotpeacefulnessincreases
processingofselfreferenthealthappeals(Agrawal,Menon,andAaker2007);
prideandempathyappealsdifferentiallyaffectpersuasionofindividualistsand

collectivists(AakerandWilliams1998);pridegeneratesmoreselfcontrolthan
happiness(EyalandFishbach2006);andprideincreaseslikingbyinteraction
partners(WilliamsandDeStenoforthcoming).Whilethisrecentworkmakesit
clearthatspecificpositiveemotionscanhavedifferentialeffects,these
researchersoftendrawfromdisparatetheoriestoarriveattheirconclusions.I
believeconsumerresearcherswillbebetterabletopredictandexplainthe
impactofspecificpositiveemotionsiftheseemotionsarerelatedtooneanother
withinanoverarchingtaxonomyofappraisaldimensions.
Insum,priorworkdoesnotprovideanintegratedapproachtoexamining
thedifferentialeffectsofspecificpositiveemotions.Icombinetheappraisal
tendencyapproachwithFredricksons(2001)broadenandbuildtheoryof
positiveemotionstoprovideanintegratedapproach.

AppraisalTendencyApproaches

Numerousappraisaltheoristshavesoughttocharacterizeandcapturethe

underlyingstructureofemotion(Arnold1960;Frijda1986;Lazarus1991a;
Ortony,Clore,andCollins1988;Roseman1991;Roseman,Spindel,andJose1990;
SmithandEllsworth1985;Weiner1985).Appraisaltheoriesdifferconsiderably
intermsoftheparticularfacetsofemotionalexperiencetheycapture;however,

theysharecertaincharacteristics.Appraisaltheoriesassumethatemotionsare
mentalstatesgeneratedbycognitiveappraisalsreflectingwhataneventor
situationmeanstoanindividual(Lazarus1991b).Eachemotionischaracterized
byadistinctivepatternofappraisal.Forexample,angerisassociatedwitha
heightenedsenseofcertaintyandcontrol(SmithandEllsworth1985).Virtually
allappraisaltheoriesincludethedimensionofvalence(i.e.,positivevs.negative)
butdiffermarkedlyinthenumberandidentityofspecificappraisalsincluded.
Forthepurposesofthepresentresearch,IdrawonSmithandEllsworth(1985)
becausetheyprovidebothacommonlyreferencedappraisalframework(e.g.,
LernerandKeltner2000,2001)andanaccessibleempiricalmethodfor
investigatingdimensionsofemotionalexperience.SeeScherer,Schorr,and
Johnstone(2001)foramorecompletereviewofappraisaltheories.

SmithandEllsworths(1985)empiricalworkhasbeenparticularly

generativeinunderstandingappraisaldimensions(i.e.,themeaningsassociated
withaneventorsituation).Theyshowthatsixappraisaldimensionsattention,
pleasantness,certainty,anticipatedeffortorobstacle,agency,andsituational
controlreliablydiscriminate15differentemotions,ninenegative(sadness,
anger,boredom,fear,contempt,disgust,frustration,shame,andguilt)andsix
positive(happiness,challenge,hope,interest,surprise,andpride).Notethatthis

10

setofsixpositiveemotionslargelyneglectspositiveemotionscharacterizedby
lowerarousallevels,suchascontentment,andsocialemotions,suchasgratitude
andlove.

SmithandEllsworthandotherresearchersgenerallyhaveconcludedthat

positiveemotionsarerelativelyundifferentiatedintheirappraisalandaction
tendencies(EllsworthandSmith1988a,b;Shaveretal.1987;SmithandEllsworth
1985;Taylor1991).However,certainappraisalsmaybeespeciallyimportantor
centralforsomeemotionsbutnotothers(SmithandEllsworth1985).Thus,I
contendthatthesetofemotionsconsideredintheearlierappraisalworkmay
haveledtoaprematureconclusionduetothespecificsetofappraisal
dimensionsconsidered.Inotherwords,capturingdifferencesinpositive
emotionsmayrequireextendingthesetofappraisaldimensionstypically
examinedtomorefullycapturetheuniquefunctionpositiveemotionsserve.

Notonlyaredifferentemotionscharacterizedbydifferentpatternsof

appraisal,buttheseappraisalshavebeenshowntoaffectjudgments.Lernerand
colleagueshavesuggestedthatemotioncreatesaperceptuallens(Lernerand
Keltner2000),whichshapesthewaypeopleviewtheirenvironment.Researchers
havefoundthatdistinctemotionsofthesamevalence(e.g.,angerandfear)but
differinginappraisals(e.g.,highvs.lowcertaintyandcontrol)havedifferent

11

effectsonjudgmentsanddecisions.Forexample,angrypeoplemakemore
optimisticjudgmentsoffutureeventsthanfearfulpeople(LernerandKeltner
2000);sadindividualspreferhighrisk/highrewardoptionsmorethananxious
people(RaghunathanandPham1999);andsadnessanddisgustdifferentially
influencesellingandchoiceprices(Lerneretal.2004).However,withthe
exceptionoftheinclusionofhappiness 1 inonestudytocontrolforvalencein
makingthefocalfear/angerdistinction(LernerandKeltner2001),pastempirical
workhasfocusedprimarilyondifferentiatingnegativeemotions.

BroadenandBuildTheoryofPositiveEmotions

Fredricksonarguesthatunlikenegativeemotions,whichnarrowactionto

specifictendenciescharacteristicoftheparticularnegativeemotion(e.g.,anger
producesatendencytofightandfearproducesatendencytoflee),positive
emotionsservetobroadenmomentarythoughtactionrepertoiresandbuild
enduringpersonalresources(Fredrickson1998,2001).Broadenedthoughtaction
tendenciestoplay,toexplore,tosavorandtointegraterepresentwaysthat
positiveemotionsextendhabitualmodesofthinkingoracting.Thisbroadening
buildsanarrayofenduringpersonalresources,includingphysical,social,

According to Ellsworth and Smith (1988b), happiness is the least distinguishable of all the positive
emotions, characterized almost solely by valence.

12

psychologicalandintellectual(Fredrickson1998,2001),ultimatelybuilding
positiveupwardspiralsforwellbeing(FredricksonandJoiner2002).
Fredricksonandothersdemonstratethatpositiveemotionsbroadenthe
scopeofattention,thought,andaction(FredricksonandBranigan2005),reduce
ownracebias(JohnsonandFredrickson2005),andfacilitateintuitivecoherent
judgments(Bolte,Goschke,andKuhl2003).Althoughthetheoryaddresses
positiveemotionsmoregenerally,Fredricksonsempiricalworkhasfocusedon
joy,contentment,andamusement(comparedtoaneutralstateandnegative
emotionssuchassadness,anger,andanxiety).Iarguethatalthoughpositive
emotionsmayservetheoverarchingfunctionofbroadening,specificpositive
emotionsmayfacilitatedifferenttypesofbroadeningthatdifferentiallyaffect
thoughtandaction.Thatis,differentpositiveemotionsmayfacilitatedistinct
broadeningtendenciesassociatedwitheachemotionsappraisaltendencies(e.g.,
hopesassociationwithanappraisalofhighproblemsolvingmightincrease
considerationofoptionsindecisionmakingormoreeffortfulbehavior).

Insummary,mostappraisaltendencyworkfocusesonnegativeemotions.

Mostofwhatisknownaboutpositiveemotionisvalencebased,stemmingfrom
workcontrastingpositiveandnegativeemotionsormoodsandneglecting
appraisaldimensionsotherthanvalence(i.e.,pleasantness).Greaterattentionto

13

appraisalsimportanttopositiveemotionsandexaminationoftheappraisal
dimensionscharacterizingabroaderrangeofpositiveemotionsmayhelpto
provideanapproachforbetterunderstandingtheeffectsofdifferentpositive
emotions.Oneroutetogainingaricherunderstandingoftheeffectsofdifferent
positiveemotionsistoexaminenewappraisaldimensionsspecificallytailoredto
awiderrangeofpositiveemotions.

KeyAppraisalDimensionsImportanttoConsumptionBehavior

Positiveemotionisacriticalmotivatorofconsumptionbehavior

(HirschmanandHolbrook1982;HolbrookandHirschman1982).Whilethe
emotionliteraturesuggestsavarietyoffunctionsthatemotionscanserve,the
particularbehaviorsmotivatedbydifferentpositiveemotionshavebeenlargely
unexplored.Theconsumerbehaviorliteratureofferssomeinsightintothetypes
ofbehaviorsoftenmotivatedbypositiveemotionalexperiences.Further
examinationoftheseconsumptionexperiencesandtendenciesmayhelpto
elucidatethedimensionsofemotionalexperiencethatdifferentiallydrive
consumptionbehaviors.Inaddition,considerationofestablishedindividual
differencesmayfurtherinformthispursuit,asindividualdifferencesessentially
formchroniclensessimilartothewaythatdifferentemotionscreatemomentary

14

lenses.InthepresentresearchIfocusonfourfocaldimensionsparticularly
relevanttoconsumptionbehavior:socialconnection,temporalfocus,problem
solvingandperceivedcontrol.

SocialConnection.Positiveemotionsserveanimportantsocialfunctionin

regulatingrelationshipsandmaintainingsocialbonds(KeltnerandHaidt1999;
Shiotaetal.2004).Inpursuitofpositiveemotionalexperiencesandsocialbonds,
consumersengageinfancommunities(Kozinets2001),brandrelationships
(Fournier1998),brandcommunities(MunizandOGuinn2001;MunizandSchau
2005),anddonationbehaviors(StrahilevitzandMyers1998)andview
possessionsasextensionsofself(Belk1988).Althoughthespecificdomainsof
consumptionvary,akeythemeacrossthisworkisthatconsumersoftenseeka
senseofconnection.Consumersachieveandperpetuatethissenseofconnection
andexpandedsenseofselfthroughtheirconsumption.Theconstructofself
construalalsosuggeststhatindividualsvaryintermsofhowtheydefine
themselves(e.g.,personalself(I)versussocialself(we);Ellemers,Spears,
andDoosje2002)aswellashowtheyrelatetoothers(e.g.,independentvs.
interdependent;MarkusandKitayama1991).Basedonthisliterature,an
importantquestioniswhetherdifferentpositiveemotionsmayengenderthis
tendencytowardsocialconnectiontodifferingdegrees.Specifically,might

15

certainpositiveemotionscauseconsumerstodefinethemselvesmorebroadlyin
termsoftheirconnectiontoothersormorereadilyexperienceanexpandedsense
ofselfand,indoingso,changetheirconsumptionbehavior(e.g.,willingnessto
engageinsociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviorsbenefitingdistantothersor
makedonationstointernationalreliefefforts)?

TemporalFocus.Consumerbehaviorresearchershavesuggestedthat

differenttemporalorientationsmayinducedifferentmotivations,differentplans,
andconsumptionofdifferenttypesofproducts(Bergadaa1990).Findingsshow
thattemporalorientationaffectsresponsestoadvertising(MeyersLevyand
Maheswaran1992),consumptionimpatience(Li2008),susceptibilitytocontext
effects(Malkoc,Zauberman,andUlu2005),andperceptionsofrisk(Chandran
andMenon2004).Temporalconstrualtheorysuggeststhatdistantfuture
situationsareconstruedonahigherlevelthannearfuturesituations,and
findingsshowthatdesirabilityhasalargereffectthanfeasibilityformoredistant
futureoutcomes(LibermanandTrope1998).Thus,anotherimportantquestionis
whetherdifferentpositiveemotionsmayproducedifferenttemporal
orientations,whichmaythenshapeconsumersdecisionsandbehaviors.
Specifically,mightcertainpositiveemotionscauseconsumerstoplacegreater

16

emphasisonthepresentversusthefutureand,indoingso,changetheir
consumptiondecisions(e.g.,likelihoodofmakinganimpulsivepurchase)?

Problemsolving.Consumerbehaviorresearchershavelongbeeninterested

inunderstandinghowemotioninfluencescognitionanddecisionmaking.There
existsasubstantialliteraturecontrastingtheeffectsofpositiveandnegative
affectandmoodsonrelateddecisionprocesses,suchascategorization,depthof
processing,reasoningability,andriskperceptions(seeCohen,Pham,and
Andrade2008forareview).Findingssuggestthatpositiveaffectandpositive
moodenhancereasoningandproblemsolving(seeIsen2001;Isen2008for
reviews);however,thereexistsomenotableexceptions.Forexample,other
studiesshowthatpositiveaffectandpositivemoodreducebreadthofattention
anddecreasethedepthwithwhichconsumersprocesssubstantiveinformation
(BatraandStayman1990;Blessetal.1990;Bless,Mackie,andSchwarz1992;
Bodenhausen,Kramer,andSuesser1994;GableandHarmonJones2008;Mackie
andWorth1989;WorthandMackie1987).Thedepthofprocessingthatan
individualengagesinisalsorelatedtotheconstructofneedforcognition,which
suggeststhatindividualsvaryintheextenttowhichtheyengageinandenjoy
(derivepositivefeelingsfrom)effortfulcognitiveactivities(e.g.,payingcloser
attentiontotherelevanceofargumentspresented;CacioppoandPetty1982).

17

Mightdifferentpositiveemotionsfacilitatedifferenttypesofprocessingand
tendenciestowardproblemsolving?Specifically,mightsomepositiveemotions
causeconsumerstoengageinmoreeffortfulprocessingthanothers,and,inturn,
changetheirconsumptionbehavior(e.g.,sizeofconsiderationsetordepthof
productsearch)?
PerceivedControl.Appraisaltheoristsandemotionresearchershavelong
regardedcontroloragencyasanimportantdimensionofappraisal.Previous
studieshavefoundthatcontrolexplainssignificantvarianceamongemotions,
particularlynegativeemotions(SmithandEllsworth1985).Negativeemotions
characterizedashighincontrol(e.g.,anger)versuslow(e.g.,fear)predictmore
optimisticriskpreferences(LernerandKeltner2001).Researchershaveshown
thatperceivedcontrolproducesanimplementationorientedmindset(Chandran
andMorwitz2005);increasessatisfactionandinvolvement(WardandBarnes
2001);andexplainsreactionstoconsumerdensity(HuiandBateson1991)in
retailandserviceenvironments.Thus,specificpositiveemotionsmayalso
differentiallyincreaseordecreaseconsumersperceivedsenseofcontrol,and,in
turn,changetheirconsumptiondecisions.Asawellestablisheddimensionof
appraisal,perceivedcontroloffersanimportantpointofcomparisonforthe
otherkeyappraisaldimensionsoutlinedabove.

18

Totheextentthatspecificpositiveemotionsdifferalongdimensionssuch

associalconnection,temporalfocus,problemsolving,andperceivedcontrol,
importantdifferencesinconsumptionbehaviormayresultdependingupon
whichspecificemotionisactive.Ratherthanmerevalencedirectingbehavior,
goalsandassociationsrelatedtospecificpositiveemotionsarelikelyto
differentiallydrivebehavior.Bygaininganincreasedunderstandingofthe
appraisaldimensionsunderlyingspecificpositiveemotions,Iamabletomake
nuancedpredictionsabouthowspecificpositiveemotionswillinfluence
consumptionbehavior.Next,Ipresentfivestudiesexamininghowdifferent
positiveemotionsleadtospecifictypesofbroadeningbehaviorsbasedon
underlyingappraisaltendencies.

19

ANINTEGRATEDAPPROACHTOCONSUMERSPOSITIVE
EMOTIONSANDBROADENING

Iproposeanintegratedapproachdrawingonappraisaltheoryandthe
broadenandbuildtheoryofpositiveemotions.Iproposethatdifferentpositive
emotionsareassociatedwithdifferentappraisals,ultimatelyleadingtodifferent
formsofbroadening.Iconsideranextendedrangeofpositiveemotions,andI
proposenewappraisaldimensionstodistinguishamongtheseemotions.Iargue
thatthesedifferentappraisaltendencies(e.g.,socialconnectionandproblem
solving)leadtodifferentformsofbroadening,withimplicationsfortheprocess
ofchoosing(e.g.,constructinglargerconsiderationsetsoroptingformore
effortfulconsumptionbehaviors)andsocietalconsequencesofconsumption(e.g.,
charitablegiving,environmentalactions,andsociallyconsciousconsumption
behaviors).

AdditionalEmotions.Asnotedabove,existingresearchdoesnotcapturethe

fullrangeofpositiveemotionalexperiencerelevanttoconsumptionbehavior.
Thus,Iexamineabroaderrangeofpositiveemotionsbyincludinglowarousal
andsocialemotions(contentment,gratitude,andlove 1 )alongwithfour

A few appraisal theorists have included liking/love and gratitude in their theoretical frameworks
(Arnold 1960; Ortony, Clore, and Collins 1988); however, the dimensions upon which these emotions were

20

consideredbySmithandEllsworth(1985;happiness,pride,hopeandinterest)to
understanddifferencesintheappraisalsunderlyingpositiveemotions.
NewDimensionsofAppraisal.Mostappraisaltheoriesplaceapriorityon
explainingvarianceinnegativeemotions;thus,sourcesofvarianceparticularly
relevanttopositiveemotionsmayhavebeenoverlooked(Cavanaughetal.2007).
SmithandEllsworth(1985)suggestthatthreeappraisaldimensionsseemtobe
particularlyimportanttodifferentiatingamongpositiveemotions:certainty,
agency/responsibility/control,andanticipatedeffort.However,Iarguethat
someappraisaldimensionsimportanttodistinguishingvariouspositive
emotionsfromoneanotherhavenotbeenexplored.Inparticular,Iproposeand
demonstratethattheinclusionoftwoadditionalappraisals,socialconnectionand
temporalfocus,willhelptofurtherdifferentiatepositiveemotions.Thethird
appraisalpresented,problemsolving,canbecapturedthroughexaminationof
existingdimensionsofappraisal(i.e.,effortandgoalpathobstacle).

Iproposethatpositiveemotionsdifferintermsofwhetheroutcomesare

sharedwithorreflectiveofconnectiontoothers.Socialconnectioncaptures
appraisalsofanindividualssenseofconnectiontoothers.Positiveemotions

compared, e.g., beneficial/harmful, present/absent, difficulty (Arnold 1960) or attraction (Ortony, Clore,
and Collins 1988) do not capture the dimension of social connection, which I believe to be critical for
differentiating these emotions.

21

serveawiderangeofimportantsocialfunctions,suchasformingrelationships,
maintainingsocialbonds,andcoordinatingsuccessfulcollectiveaction(Keltner
andHaidt1999;Shiotaetal.2004).Differentpeopleseethemselvesasmore
separateorconnectedtoothers(BrewerandGardner1996;Markusand
Kitayama1991)andincludeothersintheselftovaryingdegrees(Aronetal.
1991;Belk1988).Theseselfconstrualscanvarybothchronicallyandsituationally
(Gardner,Gabriel,andLee1999).

Theseideas,however,arenotcapturedbypriorappraisaltendency

approaches.Forinstance,eventhoughpride,gratitude,andloveareall
importanttotheregulationofsocialrelationships(Shiotaetal.2004),these
emotionsvaryinthedegreeandtypeofconnectiontoothersandhenceintheir
implicationsforsocialregulation(Oveis,Horberg,andKeltner2007).Prideisa
selfconscious(Tangney,Dalgleish,andPower1999)andsociallydisengaging
emotion(Kitayama,Mesquita,andKarasawa2006),andthedegreeofpridean
individualexperiencesislinkeddirectlytoonessenseofpersonal
accomplishment.Thusprideislikelytobelowerinsocialconnection.Incontrast,
individualsexperiencinggratitudeshowincreasedtrust(DunnandSchweitzer
2005);improvedrelationshipswithothers(Algoe,Haidt,andGable2008);and
greaterwillingnesstoengageinprosocialbehavior,evenwhensucheffortsare

22

costlyortherecipientisastranger(BartlettandDeSteno2006;McCulloughetal.
2001).Similarly,loveisasociallyengagingemotion(Kitayamaetal.2006)that
servesacommitmentrelatedfunctioncriticaltobondformation(Insel2000;
Light,Grewen,andAmico2005);increasessocialsupport(Fredricksonetal.
2008);andencouragestheextensionoftheself(BelkandCoon1993).Socially
engagingemotionsderivefromandaffirmtheinterdependenceofself(Kitayama
etal.2006).Thus,bothgratitudeandlovemaybeassociatedwithhighersocial
connection.Suchhighsocialconnectionemotionsarelikelytobeimportantto
consumersdecisionstoengageinbrandrelationships(Fournier1998),
participateinbrandcommunities(MunizandOGuinn2001),andengagein
sociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviors.
Inaddition,thetemporalfocusofemotionsisimportanttodistinguishing
amongpositiveemotions.Thecausalagentsandeffectsofemotionsmayoccupy
differentplacesintemporalspace.Forexample,researchershavenotedan
importantdistinctionbetweenthepositiveemotionassociatedwithanticipating
somethingversusthepleasureassociatedwithactuallyconsumingsomething
(BerridgeandRobinson1995).Inaddition,researchershavedistinguished
positiveexperiencesintermsofwhetherpeoplewerelookingforwardto,
enjoyingtheactualexperienceof,orlookingbackattheexperience(Bryant2003;

23

BryantandVeroff2007).Thus,temporalfocusmayberelevanttodistinguishing
positivefeelingsassociatedwithpastevents(prideorgratitude)fromthose
associatedwithfutureevents(hope),orpresentevents(happinessor
contentment).Ifocusontheimplicationsofsocialconnection,problemsolving,
andperceivedcontrolinthecurrentpaperandconsiderfutureresearchon
temporalfocusappraisalsintheGeneralDiscussion.
OverviewofStudies15.Iarguethatthedifferentiationamongpositive
emotionswillbebetterunderstoodifIaddressnewappraisaldimensionsand
additionalemotions.Inanextensivepilotstudy(study1),Iusefactoranalysisto
developataxonomyofpositiveemotionsthatincludesspecificemotionsand
newappraisaldimensionsnotincludedinpriorwork.Instudies2and3,I
manipulatespecificpositiveemotions.Instudy2,Imanipulatehopeandloveto
examinetheirinfluenceonsociallyconsciousbehaviorsbenefitingdistantversus
closeothers.Instudy3,Imanipulateloveandpridetoexaminewhethertwo
differentpositiveemotionsinfluencehowconsumersgiveandtowhomthey
giveinresponsetoafundraisingappeal.Instudies4and5,Iexaminehow
multiplepositiveemotionsinfluencebehaviorbasedontheirunderlying

24

appraisals. 2 Instudy4,Iutilizeanewapproachtocapturetheappraisal
dispositionsortendenciesassociatedwithaconstellationofdispositional
positiveemotions.Specifically,Iusetherevealedappraisaldimensionsfrom
study1inconcertwithmeasuresofconsumersdispositionalpositiveemotions
todevelopappraisaldispositionscoresthatarethenusedtopredictdifferences
intwodifferenttypesofconsumptionbehaviors.Instudy5,Imanipulatespecific
typesofpositiveemotionalappraisals(e.g.,socialconnectionvs.problem
solving)usingtelevisioncommercialstoexaminetheimpactoneffortful
environmentalactions(e.g.,regularlycheckingtirepressure,bringingreusable
bagstothegrocerystore).

Study1:PositiveEmotionsMoreEmotions&NewDimensions

Inanextensivepilotstudy,Icharacterizearangeofpositiveemotionsin

termsofbothpreviouslyestablishedandnewlyproposedappraisaldimensions
usingaproceduresimilartothatofSmithandEllsworth(1985).Inafullywithin
subjectsdesign,participantswereaskedtorecallpastpositiveemotional
experiencesandratetheirassociatedappraisals.Iincludedawiderrangeof

Appraisals and appraisal tendencies are used interchangeably as overarching terms throughout this
document. Appraisal dispositions are a particular instantiation of this concept based on original work
presented in the following pages.

25

positiveemotionsandnewappraisaldimensionsthathadnotbeenincludedin
theoriginalSmithandEllsworth(1985)study.Thisbroadermethodology
allowedforuniquepatternsofappraisalrelevanttoconsumptionbehavior(e.g.,
socialconnectionandproblemsolving)toemerge.

Method

ExperimentalOverview.Participants(N=27)recalledemotionalexperiences

associatedwithsevendifferentpositiveemotions.Foreachemotionalexperience,
participantsrespondedoutloudtoaseriesofquestionsdesignedtoencourage
themtodescribetheexperienceinasmuchdetailaspossible.Aftereach
description,participantsfilledoutaquestionnaireratingtheemotional
experiencealongthehypothesizedcognitiveappraisaldimensions.The
questionnaireconsistedof22items(seetable1),whichwererandomizedand
measuredonan11pointscale.Aftereachemotion,theexperimenterplayeda
selectionofneutralmusicfromoneoftwoChopinWaltzes(Greenetal.2003)as
apalatecleansingexercisebeforeparticipantsdescribedthenextemotional
experience.Theorderinwhicheachemotionalexperiencewasdescribedwas
randomizedacrossparticipants.

26

PositiveEmotions.Participantsdescribedsevenpositiveemotions:

contentment,gratitude,happiness,hope,interest,love,andpride.Iselectedthese
emotionsforanumberofreasons.Iincludedpositiveemotions(contentment,
love,andgratitude)thathadnotbeenincludedintheoriginalSmithand
Ellsworth(1985)study(whichusedhappiness,interest,hope,andpride)butthat
Ibelievedwouldbothshowuniquepatternsofappraisaldimensionsandbe
relevanttoavarietyofconsumptionbehaviors.

AppraisalDimensions.Imeasuredemotionsintermsofnineappraisal

dimensions.SevenofthesewerepreviouslyestablishedbytheSmithand
Ellsworth(1985)study:pleasantness,attentionalactivity,control,certainty,goal
pathobstacle,responsibility,andanticipatedeffort.Inordertoextendtheability
topredictdifferentialeffectsofspecificpositiveemotions,Ialsoincludedthetwo
newlyproposedappraisaldimensions,socialconnectionandtemporalfocus(see
table1).Iexpectedthesenewappraisaldimensionstoexplainasignificant
amountofvarianceamongstthedifferentpositiveemotionsconsidered.

Results

FollowingtheanalysisplansuggestedbySmithandEllsworth(1985),I

identifiedtheappraisaldimensionsthatexplainedthemostvarianceamongthe

27

emotionsusingfactoranalysiswithvarimaxrotation. 3 Theresultsshowthat
positiveemotionscanbereliablydistinguishedalongmultipleappraisal
dimensions,includingtwonewlyproposeddimensions:socialconnection(sense
ofconnectiontoothers)andtemporalfocus(focusonpast,present,future);see
technicalappendixfordetails.Therecovereddimensionssharedsomesimilarity
withpreviousresearch(EllsworthandSmith1988b;SmithandEllsworth1985),
buttherewerealsoimportantdifferences.Notably,thedimensionsthatexplainthe
greatestamountofvarianceamongthesepositiveemotionsaredifferentfromthe
dimensionsusedpreviouslytounderstandimportantdifferencesamongnegative
emotions.Ifindthatproblemsolving(senseofanticipatedeffortandgoalpursuit)
andsocialconnectionbestdistinguishamongthepositiveemotionsconsidered. 4
Table2summarizesthewayappraisalsdifferacrossthevariouspositiveemotions
bylistingthemeanscoresforeachemotionalongtherevealeddimensions(see
table6inSmithandEllsworth1985,p.829).Below,Ifocusonemotions
characterizedbyproblemsolvingandsocialconnection,comparingthese
dimensionstoeachotherandtotheestablisheddimensionofperceivedcontrol.

Additional analyses were run using an oblique rotation, allowing factors to be correlated. The structure,
however, remained largely unchanged.
4
The factor pattern revealed the following dimensions in decreasing order of variance explained: problemsolving, social connection, attention/pleasantness, control, certainty, temporal focus, and situational control.

28

Buildingfromtheseappraisaldimensions,Iofferaseriesofhypotheseslinking
specificpositiveemotionstoconsumersbroadeningindistinctlydifferentways.

29

EFFECTSOFAPPRAISALSONCONSUMPTIONBEHAVIORS

Study1suggeststhatproblemsolvingandsocialconnectionare
importantappraisalsdistinguishingamongthepositiveemotionsIconsidered.
Mygeneralframeworkproposesthatappraisaldimensionsprovideinsightinto
linksbetweenspecificpositiveemotionsandconsumptionbehavior.For
instance,SmithandEllsworth(1988a)arguethatcertainappraisalsseemtobe
centralandhighlyconsistentwiththecopingfunctionsofemotions.Ipropose
thatdifferentcopingfunctionsassociatedwithdifferentappraisalscan
differentiateamongbroadeningmechanisms.Thus,problemsolvingandsocial
connectionappraisalsarelikelytocauseconsumerstobroadenindistinctly
differentways.Below,Icastmyhypothesesintermsofappraisaltendencies,
asIuseappraisalsasthetheoreticalbasisforspecificpredictionsregarding
differenttypesofbroadeningbehaviors.

Totheextentthatconsumersconsistentlyexperienceemotionsthatare

highinsocialconnection(e.g.,love),theywillbemorelikelytoengagein
consumptionactivitiesthatreflectthisfeelingofconnectiontoothers(e.g.,
sociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviors).Whereasallconsumersmaybe
willingtohelpcloseothers,thatispeoplemoresimilartothem(e.g.,friendsand

30

localcommunitymembers),highersocialconnectionmayparticularlybroaden
howfarapersonextendshisorherboundaryofcaringordefinitionofextended
self.Thus,socialconnectionmaydifferentiateconsumersintermsoftheirability
tofeelclosenesstodistantothers,resultinginincreasedhelpingfordistantor
dissimilarothers(e.g.,refugeefamiliesorinternationalgroups).Iexpecttodetect
effectsofsocialconnectionparticularlyforbehaviorsbenefitingdistantothers.I
expecttheeffecttobedampenedoreliminatedforcloseothersbecausea
broadenedcircleofconcernislessrelevantinthecontextofcloseothers.I
hypothesize:
H1:Positiveemotionswithhighsocialconnectionappraisaltendencies
willleadtomoresociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviors
benefitingdistantothersthanthosewithlowsocialconnection
appraisaltendencies;thisdifferencewillbedampenedoreliminated
forbehaviorsbenefitingcloseothers.

Althoughsocialconnectionbasedbroadeninginfluencesthebeneficiaries
ofconsumption,othertypesofbroadeningmayinfluencetheprocessof
consumption.Asmentionedpreviously,thereareimportantinconsistencies
regardingtheinfluenceofpositiveemotiononprocessing.Mostfindingssuggest
thatpositivemoodsandemotionsencouragemoreheuristicprocessing,butthere
aresomenotableexceptions.Iconjecturethatappraisalsofproblemsolvingmay

31

resolvethediscrepancies.Study1showsthatproblemsolving(encompassing
anticipatedeffortandgoalpathpursuit)isimportanttodistinguishingamong
positiveemotions.Thus,problemsolvingappraisaltendenciesmayhelpto
distinguishwhichpositiveemotions(e.g.,hope)arelikelytoleadtomore
consumptionactivitiesthatfacilitatesolvingconsumerpurchaseproblems(e.g.,
seekingmoreinformation,consideringmoreoptions,engaginginmoreeffortful
behavior).Moreformally,Ihypothesize:

H2:Positiveemotionswithhighproblemsolvingappraisaltendencies
willleadtoconsiderationofmoreoptionsthanthosewithlow
problemsolvingappraisaltendencies.

Ihypothesizethattherewillbeadoubledissociationintheeffectof

appraisaltendenciesontypesofbroadening.Thatis,Ihypothesizethatsocial
connectionbutnotproblemsolvingwillpredictthelikelihoodofsocially
consciousconsumptionbehaviorsbenefitingdistantothersandthatproblem
solvingbutnotsocialconnectionwillpredictalargernumberofoptions
considered.Specifically:
H3:Differentappraisaltendencieswillleadtodifferenttypesof
broadening.

H3a:Socialconnectionbutnotproblemsolvingwillleadtomore
sociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviorsbenefitingdistantothers.

32

H3b:Problemsolvingbutnotsocialconnectionwillleadto
seekingmoreinformationandconsideringmoreoptions.

Itisnotonlynewdimensionsthatmaypredictthesedifferentbroadening

tendencies.Jointconsiderationofbothnewandpreviouslyestablishedappraisal
tendencies(e.g.,perceivedcontrol)mayenablepredictionofdifferent
broadeningbehaviorswithinthesameconsumptioncontext(e.g.,charitable
giving)aswell.Previousfindingssuggestthatpositiveaffectuniversally
increasesprosocialbehaviorandcharitablegiving(Isen2001).Ipredictthat
specificpositiveemotions(e.g.,loveandpride)willshowdifferentpatternsof
givingbasedontheirdistinctappraisaltendenciesandthenatureofthe
fundraisingappeal.Forinstance,fundraisingappealsfrequentlyallowdonorsto
decidehowtodirecttheirmonetarygiftsintermsofthedonationtype(e.g.,
restrictedvs.unrestrictedgifts)andbeneficiary(e.g.,domesticvs.international
relieffunds).Socialconnectionappraisaltendencies(e.g.,love)arelikelyto
reflectincreasedtrustinotherstomakegooddecisionsabouthowtouse
donatedfunds.Perceivedcontrolappraisaltendencies(e.g.,pride)arelikelyto
motivateadesireforgreaterinfluenceoverhowdonatedfundsareused.In
addition,highsocialconnectionemotions(e.g.,love)whichbroadenan
individualscircleofconcernarelikelytoencouragesupportofinternational

33

relieffunds,whereashighperceivedcontrolemotions(e.g.,pride)whichincrease
senseofcontrolarelikelytoencouragesupportofeffortsclosertohome,thatis,
domesticrelieffunds.Moreformally,Ihypothesize:

H3c:Positiveemotionswithhighsocialconnectionappraisal
tendencieswillleadtomoreunrestrictedgiftsandpositive
emotionswithhighperceivedcontrolappraisaltendencieswilllead
tomorerestrictedgifts.

H3d:Positiveemotionswithhighsocialconnectionappraisal
tendencieswillleadindividualstogivemoretointernationalrelief
fundsandpositiveemotionswithhighperceivedcontrolappraisal
tendencieswillleadindividualstogivemoretodomesticrelief
funds.

Finally,itisimportanttoaddresstheregularoccurrenceofpositive

emotionblends(EllsworthandSmith1988a).Namely,advertisingandmarketing
effortsoftencauseconsumerstofeelmorethanonepositiveemotion(e.g.,both
loveandgratitude)inresponsetoatelevisioncommercialormarketingappeal.I
hypothesizethatappraisalbasedemotionblends(e.g.,experiencingmultiple
socialconnectionemotionsvs.problemsolvingemotions)willsimilarlyimpact
behavior.Specifically:
H4:Problemsolvingemotionblendsbutnotsocialconnection
emotionblendswillleadtomoreeffortfulenvironmentalactions.

34

Iexaminetheeffectsofspecificpositiveemotionsinstudy2(loveand

hope)andstudy3(loveandpride),andtheeffectsofappraisaldispositionsfor
socialconnectionandproblemsolvinginstudy4.(Thedefinitionofappraisal
dispositionsisdiscussedindetailwhenstudy4ispresented).Instudy5,I
examinetheeffectsofpositiveemotionappraisaltendencies(socialconnection
andproblemsolving)throughpositiveemotionblendsexperiencedinresponse
toviewingtelevisioncommercials.Itesthypothesis1usingbothmanipulated
specificemotionsanddispositionalappraisaltendencies,hypotheses3c,3d,and
4usingtheformer,andhypotheses2,3a,and3busingthelatter.

Study2:DifferentPositiveEmotionsLeadtoDifferentPatterns
ofSociallyConsciousBehaviors

Leveragingtheappraisalfindingsfromstudy1,Idesignedstudy2totest

thehypothesisthatpositiveemotionscharacterizedbydifferentlevelsofsocial
connectionwouldleadtodifferentpatternsofsociallyconsciousconsumption
behaviors.Specifically,study2wasdesignedtotestthedifferentialeffectsoflove
andhopeonintentionstoperformsociallyconsciousbehaviorsbenefitingdistant
others.

35

Method

ParticipantsandSetup.Eightyfiveuniversitystudentsparticipatedina25

minutestudyonfeelingsandconsumerchoice.Thesampleconsistedof51males
and34femalesranginginagefrom18to30.Todissociatetheemotionprocedure
fromthedependentmeasuresofinterest,participantsweretoldthattheywould
becompletingamultipartstudy.Theyweretoldthatpartoneconsistedofa
writingexerciseonemotionalexperience,parttwoconsistedofaconsumer
choicesurvey,andpartthreeconsistedofmeasuresoftheirbeliefsandopinions.

Procedure

Studytwoconsistedofa3emotion(between:hope/love/neutral)x2

socialdistanceofbeneficiary(within:close/distant)mixeddesign.Participants
wererandomlyassignedtooneofthethreeemotionconditions.

EmotionInduction.Followinganestablishedemotioninductionprocedure

similartoLernerandKeltner(2001),Iaskedparticipantstoanswertwo
computerbasedquestions.Thefirstquestionaskedparticipantstodescribethree
tofivesituationsthatmadethemfeelthefocalemotion.Participantswereasked
towritetwotothreesentencesabouteachsituation.Thesecondquestionasked
participantstodescribeinmoredetailtheonesituationthatmadethemfeelthe

36

mostofthefocalemotion.Participantswereinstructedtowritethedescriptionso
thatapersonreadingitmightevenfeeltheemotionjustfromlearningaboutthe
situation.Thoseintheneutralconditionwereaskedtodescribeeveryday
activitiesinaformatdesignedtomatchthedetailandlengthoftheemotion
induction.

SociallyConsciousConsumptionBehaviorMeasures.Immediatelyafterthe

emotioninduction,participantscompletedapaperandpencilconsumerchoice
survey.Participantsweretoldthatresearcherswereinterestedinthelikelihood
thattheywouldengageinvariousconsumptionbehaviorsoverthecomingyear.
Theywereaskedtoreadalistof24itemsandtoindicatetheirresponsesona7
pointscale,where1=extremelyunlikelyand7=extremelylikely.Thelist
consistedofeightfocalsociallyconsciousconsumptionitemsaswellasfiller
items(e.g.,seeaforeignfilmandattendalivemusicconcert).Thesocially
consciousconsumptionitemsincludedweredesignedtotaptwotypesof
beneficiariescloseordistantothers.Asetoffouritems(=.60)comprisedthe
closeothermeasure(e.g.,Buylocallygrownproduce;donateuseditems/
clothingtoacharitableorganizationtohelplocalfamiliesinneed);anotherfour
items(=.70)comprisedthedistantothermeasure(e.g.,Refusetobuya
productifitismadeusingchildorsweatshoplaborinforeigncountries;donate

37

moneytoacharitableorganization/causebenefitingrainforestconservationin
foreigncountries).Inaseparatepretest,students(N=31)fromthesame
populationratedeachitemona7pointscaleassessingwhowouldbenefitfrom
theaction(anchoredbycloseothersanddistantothers).Resultsconfirmed
thatthedistantothermeasureactionswereperceivedtobenefitmoredistant
others(Mdistant=5.3)thanthecloseothermeasureactions(Mclose=2.6;t(30)=15.82,
p<.0001).

AppraisalCheck.Aftercompletingthedependentmeasures,participants

wereaskedtoanswerquestionsmeasuringappraisalsfortheemotionstorythat
theyhadwrittenonthecomputeratthebeginningofthestudysession.Iasked
themtoindicatetheextenttowhichtheyfelteachofthestatementsdescribed
whattheywerefeelingwhilewritingtheirstoriesona9pointscale,where1=not
atalland9=extremely.Therewerefoursocialconnectionitems(e.g.,towhat
extentdidyoufeelmoreconnectedtoanotherindividualorgroup)andfive
problemsolvingitems(e.g.,howmucheffort(mentalorphysical)didyoufeelthis
situationrequiredyoutoexpend;towhatextentdidyoufeeltherewereproblems
thathadtobesolvedbeforeyoucouldgetwhatyouwanted).

38

Results

PreliminaryAnalyses.Initialanalysesrevealedasignificantmaineffectfor

ethnicity,whichdidnotinteractwitheitherofthemanipulations.Specifically,
ethnicminoritiesindicatedagreaterpropensitytoperformsociallyconscious
behaviorsregardlessofemotioncondition.Tocontrolfortheinfluenceof
ethnicity,itwasincludedasacovariateinthetestsofallhypotheses.

Basedonparticipantsresponsestothefiveproblemsolvingandfour

socialconnectionitems,Icreatedappraisalcheckscores(problemsolving=.85
andsocialconnection=.87)reflectingthefocalappraisalsdifferentiatinglove
versushopeinthisstudy.ANOVAtestsonselfreportedproblemsolving(F(2,
82)=11.34,p<.0001)andsocialconnection(F(2,82)=17.84,p<.0001)appraisals
revealedsignificantemotioninductioneffects.Participantsinthelovecondition
reportedexperiencingsignificantlygreatersocialconnectionappraisalsthan
thoseinthehopecondition(Mlove=7.7,Mhope=5.5,F(1,82)=15.79,p<.0002)or
theneutralcondition(Mneutral=4.4,F(1,82)=34.06,p<.001).Similarly,
participantsinthehopeconditionreportedexperiencingsignificantlygreater
problemsolvingappraisalsthanthoseinthelove(Mhope=7.4,Mlove=5.3,F(1,82)
=15.36,p<.0002)orneutralconditions(Mneutral=5.0,F(1,82)=18.32,p<.0001).

39

HypothesisTests.Hypothesis1predictedanemotionbydistance

interactionwithlovedifferentiallyincreasingsociallyconsciousbehaviors
benefitingdistantothersrelativetothosethatbenefitcloseothers.Inthemodel
predictingthereportedlikelihoodofengaginginsociallyconsciousconsumption
behaviors,Ifoundamarginallysignificanteffectforemotion(Mlove=4.7,Mhope=
4.3,Mneutral=4.2,F(2,81)=2.72,p<.07.Thewithinsubjecteffectforsocialdistance
wasasignificantpredictorofsociallyconsciousconsumptionbehavior(Mclose=
5.3andMdistant=3.5;F(1,82)=206.57,p<.0001),reflectinghigherlikelihoodfor
closerbeneficiaries.Mostimportantly,andasspecifiedinhypothesis1,social
distancesignificantlymoderatedtheeffectofemotiononlikelihoodtoperform
sociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviors(F(2,82)=5.61,p<.005).This
interaction(seetable3)suggeststhatindividualsexperiencingmomentarylove
(butnothope)aremorelikelytoengageinsociallyconsciousbehaviorsthat
benefitmoredistantothers.Therewasnodifferencebetweenhowmomentary
hopeandloveinfluencedthelikelihoodtoperformsociallyconscious
consumptionbehaviorsthatbenefitcloseothers.

Furtherexaminationoftheinteractionviaplannedcontrastsrevealedthat

thoseintheloveconditionexpressedsignificantlyhigherlikelihoodsof
performingsociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviorsbenefitingdistantothers

40

thanthoseinthehopecondition(Mlove=3.8,Mhope=3.1,F(1,144)=8.79,p<.004).
Anotherplannedcontrastrevealedthatboththoseinthelovecondition(F(1,144)
=4.67,p<.03)andthoseinthehopecondition(F(1,144)=4.99,p<.03)expressed
significantlyhigherlikelihoodsofperformingsociallyconsciousconsumption
behaviorsbenefitingcloseothersthanthoseintheneutralcondition(Mlove=5.5,
Mhope=5.5,Mneutral=4.9).Hence,withcloseothersthereappearstobean
undifferentiatedeffectofpositiveemotiononsociallyconsciousconsumption
behaviors.

Usingtherecommendedbootstrappingtechniquefortestingconditional

indirecteffects(Preacher,RuckerandHayes2007),theresultsconfirmed
evidenceofmoderatedmediation.Specifically,thepathfrombreadthofsocial
connectiontobehaviorismoderatedbythesocialdistanceofthebeneficiary.The
bootstrappingconfidenceintervalfortheconditionalindirecteffectwas
significantfordistant(z=2.35,p<.02)butnotcloseothers(z<1,NS),providing
evidencethatthemeditationalpathpredictingbehaviorisconditionedonthe
socialdistanceofthebeneficiary(seefigure1).

41

Discussion

Study2demonstratedthatdifferentpositiveemotionsinfluencesocially

consciousbehaviorsbenefitingcloseversusdistantothersindifferentways.
Usingthesocialconnectionappraisalfindingsfromstudy1,Ipredictedthat
individualswhofeltlovewouldexpressgreaterintentionsofengagingin
sociallyconsciousbehaviorsbenefitingmoredistantothersthanthosewhofelt
hope.Myresultssupportedhypothesis1;Ifoundanemotionbysocialdistance
interactiononlikelihoodofengaginginsociallyconsciousconsumption
behaviors,withspecificemotionsmatteringfordistantothersbutnotclose
others.Specifically,Ifoundthatmomentaryloveincreasedintentionstoengage
insociallyconsciousbehaviorsbenefitingdistantothersmorethanhope.In
addition,Ifoundevidencethatappraisalsofsocialconnectionmediatedthe
relationshipbetweenemotionandsociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviors
benefitingdistantothers.Incontrast,Ifoundthatloveandhopehavethesame
effectonintentionstoperformsociallyconsciousbehaviorsbenefitingclose
others.Inthelattercase,bothpositiveemotions(loveandhope)increased
reportedintentionsabovethelevelofthoseintheneutralcondition.This

42

undifferentiatedpatternforcloseothersechoesestablishedfindingsthatany
positiveemotionincreaseshelpingbehaviorforthoseinacloseotherscontext.

Study2demonstratesthatloveismorebeneficialthanhopeingenerating

animportantclassofsociallydesirablebehavior(i.e.,behaviorsthatbenefit
distantothers),basedonlovesspecificappraisalprofile.Mightlovegenerallybe
astronger,moremotivating,orsimplymorepositiveemotionthanhope?A
strongertestoftheappraisalapproachwouldbetodissociatetheimpactof
differentpositiveemotionswithinthesamecontext,showingthateachemotion
motivatesbehavior,butthebehaviorsmotivatedaredistinctfromeachother.

Study3:DifferentPositiveEmotionsBroadenInDifferentWays
WithintheSameConsumptionContext

Study2demonstratedthattwospecificpositiveemotions,loveandhope,

differentiallyinfluencedconsumerswillingnesstoengageinsociallyconscious
behaviorsthatbenefiteddistantothers.Specificallylovebutnothopeincreased
willingnesstoengageinbehaviorsthatbenefiteddistantothers.Buildingon
thesefindings,Idesignedstudy3totestadifferentpairofspecificpositive
emotionsinamarketingcontextknownforitsrelianceonconsumeremotion,i.e.
fundraisingappeals.Universityfundraisingappealsoftenentailemotional

43

remindersofanindividualsalmamater,includingfriendshipsforgedin
freshmandorms,professorswhoservedasimportantmentors,orchampionships
wonbyschoolathleticteams.Similarly,nonprofitappealsoftendescribewarm
momentssharedbetweenaidrecipientsandorganizersordepicttheproudfaces
ofvolunteerswhohaveworkedtobuildhomesandclinics.Dependingonthe
narrativeandimagescontainedintheseappeals,consumersmayexperience
differentemotions.Coulddifferentspecificpositiveemotionsdifferentially
influencehowaconsumergivestoauniversityornonprofitorganization?
Study3wasdesignedspecificallytotestthedifferentialeffectsofloveandpride
onpatternsofconsumergiving.

Instudy3,Iuseapairofpositiveemotionscharacterizedintermsofboth

anewappraisaldimension(socialconnection)andanestablisheddimension
(perceivedcontrol)todemonstratedifferencesinbroadeningwithinthesame
consumptioncontext.Priorworkindicatesthatpositivemoodsandemotions
encouragehelpingbehavior(BartlettandDeSteno2006;Isenetal.1976);
however,differentpositiveemotionsmaynotleadtohelpinginthesameway
(e.g.,restrictedvs.unrestrictedmonetarygifts)orgivingtothesametypeof
recipients(e.g.,domesticvs.internationalfunds).Aninterestingrelationship
existsbetweenloveandpride;loveishighinsocialconnectionbutlowin

44

perceivedcontrol,whereasprideislowinsocialconnectionandhighin
perceivedcontrol.Inaddition,bothloveandpridearerelativelymatchedinthe
dimensionsofproblemsolvingandattention/pleasantness.

Ipredictthatpositiveemotionshighinsocialconnectionappraisal

tendencies(e.g.,love)versusselfrelianceandperceivedcontrol(e.g.,pride)will
showdifferentpatternsofgiving.Thechoicetomakeanunrestrictedgiftimplies
alargertrustinotherstomakeagooddecisionabouthowtousethefunds(i.e.,
wherethestaffbelievesitisneededmost),whereasarestrictedgiftimpliesa
desireforgreaterpersonalcontrolorinfluenceoverhowthefundsareused.I
predictthatpridewillleadtohigherlevelsofrestrictedgivingandlovewilllead
tohigherlevelsofunrestrictedgiving.Thus,appealsaimedatraising
unrestrictedfundsmaybemoreeffectiveiftheyelicitloveratherthanpride.
Conversely,loveactuallymaybelesseffectivethanprideorneutralwhenused
inappealsencouragingmoreexclusiveorrestrictedgifts(e.g.,specificacademic
scholarshipfundorprogrammaticgiving)becausethebroadenedsenseof
inclusivenessandtrustinspiredbysocialconnectionmightactuallycausethe
decisionmakertoprefertomakeanunfetteredgift.Intheeventthatindividuals
mustchoosehowtodirectamonetarygift,Ipredictthatlove,anemotionhighin
socialconnectionandresponsibleforbroadeninganindividualssenseofself

45

andcircleofconcern,willincreasegivingtointernationalfunds.Incontrast,
pride,anemotionhighinperceivedcontrolandresponsibleforheighteningan
individualssenseofinfluenceandneedforcontrol,willincreasegivingto
domesticfunds.Thus,Iexpectbothemotionstomotivategivingbehaviorin
responsetoafundraisingappealinsuchawaythatthedonationsfavortargets
matchedtotheappraisalprofileoftheemotion.

Method

ParticipantsandSetup.Twohundredandeightuniversitystudents

participatedina25minutestudyonfeelingsandconsumerchoice.Thesample
consistedof128malesand80femalesranginginagefrom18to29.Todissociate
theemotionprocedurefromthedependentmeasuresofinterest,participants
weretoldthattheywouldbecompletingaseriesofshorterstudiesthathadbeen
bundled.Theyweretoldthatthestudysessionconsistedofthreeparts:1)a
writingexerciseonautobiographicalexperience,2)afundraisingappeal,and3)a
questionnaireaboutfeelingsandconsumptionbehaviors.

Procedure

Studythreeconsistedofa3emotion(between:love/pride/neutral)x2

(within:formofgiving/relieffunddesignation)mixeddesign.Participantswere

46

randomlyassignedtooneofthethreeemotionconditions.Aftercompletingthe
emotioninduction,allparticipantsviewedthesamefundraisingappealfromthe
AmericanRedCross.AdaptedfromactualAmericanRedCrossmaterials,the
fundraisingappealdescribedtheorganizationsactivitiesandwaysinwhich
peoplecouldgivetotheorganization.Participantswerethenaskedtomaketheir
donationdecisionsastheyreallywouldatthismomentandtoldthatthe
researcherswouldbeselecting1outofevery20participantsdecisionsand
actuallydonatetotheAmericanRedCrossastheyhavespecified.

EmotionInduction.Theemotioninductionprocedurewasidenticaltothat

describedinstudy2.

Restrictedvs.UnrestrictedFormofGivingDecision.Theappealindicatedthat

donorswereabletomakerestrictedorunrestricteddonationstoaidAmerican
RedCrossreliefeffortsanddescribedaccordingly.Inthecaseofrestricted
donations,youdecideandcontrolwhichofthereliefprogramsissupportedby
yourdonation.Inthecaseofunrestricteddonations,theAmericanRedCross
staffdecidesandcontrolswhichofthereliefprogramsissupportedbyyour
donation.Participantsweretoldthattheyhad$50todonatetotheAmerican
RedCrossandaskedhowtheywouldchoosetoallocatetheir$50(i.e.,howmuch
theywouldallocatetoarestricteddonationvs.unrestricteddonation).They

47

weretoldthattheymayallocatethe$50inanywaytheywishedandaskedto
enteranynumberbetween$0and$50inthespacesprovidedtoindicatetheir
decisionofhowmuchofthedonationwouldberestricted.Theformatofthis
dependentmeasureheldthetotaldollaramountdonatedconstantandmeasured
therelativeallocationofdollars.Italsoallowedacleartestofthehypothesisthat
prideshiftspreferencestowardsrestrictedformsofgivingwhilelovedoesthe
opposite.Thethreelevelrestrictedgivingdependentmeasurewasclassifiedas
follows:<$25,=$25,>$25.Asecondtwolevelrestrictedgivingmeasurefocusing
onthepredictedeffectofprideclassifiedparticipantsintothosewhomade
largelyrestricteddonations(>$25)andthosewhodidnot($25).

Domesticvs.InternationalReliefFundDesignationDecision.Next,

participantscompletedtherelieffunddesignationmeasure.Specifically,
participantswereaskedIfunrestrictedgivingwerenotanoption(i.e.,youhad
todecidehowtodirectthe$50donation),howwouldyouallocateyour$50
donation?Pleaseenteradollaramount($0$50)ineachofthespaces
provided.Thedonationformlisteddomesticandinternationalrelieffundsthat
respectivelyprovidepeopleacrossthecountryoraroundtheworldwith
immediaterelieffromsufferingandneededlongtermsupport.Theorderin
whichthesefundswerelistedwascounterbalancedacrossparticipants;noorder

48

effectswerefound.Again,thedependentmeasurewasfocusedonprioritization
oftherecipientrelieffundsratherthanonthemagnitudeofgiving.Theprimary
predictionhereisthatlovewillincreaseinternationalfundgiving.Hence,this
dependentmeasureclassifiedallocationsintermsofwhetheramajorityoffunds
weredirectedtointernationalrelief(>$25)ornot($25).

AmericanRedCrossDonationBeliefs.Participantswereaskedaseriesof

questionsabouttheirfamiliaritywith,importanceof,andbeliefsaboutthe
AmericanRedCrossorganizationona7pointscale,where1=notatalland7=
verymuch.Theseitemsneitherexplainedsignificantvariancenorqualifiedthe
findings,sotheywillnotbediscussedfurther.

EmotionsCheck.Aftercompletingthedependentandbeliefsmeasures,

participantswereaskedtoanswerquestionsabouttheemotionsthey
experiencedduringthestorywritingatthebeginningofthestudysession.For
theemotionscheck,participantswereaskedspecificallyaboutwhattheywere
feelingorexperiencingwhilewritingtheirstories.Theywereaskedtoindicate
theextenttowhichtheyfelthappy,love,loved,pride,proud,andneutralaswell
ashowmuchtheyfeltthefocalemotions(i.e.,howmuchlovedidyoufeel,how
muchpridedidyoufeel)ona7pointscale,where1=notatalland7=very
much.

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AppraisalsCheck.Fortheappraisals,participantswereaskedtorevisitthe

storythattheywroteearlierandrecallspecificallyhowtheywerefeeling.After
readingtheirstory,participantswereaskedtoindicatetheextenttowhicha
seriesofstatementsdescribedwhattheywerefeelingwhilewritingtheirstories
onan11pointscale,where1=notatalland11=extremely.Therewerethree
socialconnectionitemsandtwoperceivedcontrolitems.

Results

PreliminaryAnalyses.Initialanalysesrevealedasignificantmaineffectfor

genderandEnglishasafirstlanguage.Specifically,maleparticipantsindicateda
greaterpropensitytogiverestricteddonationsacrossallemotionconditions.
Genderwasalsofoundtointeractwithemotioncondition;thus,itwasincluded
asanadditionalfactorinthefollowinganalyses.ThoseforwhomEnglishwas
notafirstlanguageindicatedagreaterpropensitytogivetointernationalfunds
regardlessofemotioncondition.Tocontrolformagnitudeofpositiveemotionas
analternativeexplanation,ameasureofoverallpositivity(i.e.,anaverageofall
positiveemotionitems)wasincludedasacovariateintestingthehypotheses.

ManipulationChecks.Basedonparticipantsresponsestothefocalemotion

manipulationcheckitems,Icreatedthreeitememotioncheckscoresforlove

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(love,loved,howmuchlove,=.94)andpride(pride,proud,howmuchpride,
=.95).Testsonthelove(F(2,205)=45.85,p<.0001),pride(F(2,205)=28.39,p<
.0001),happy(F(2,205)=15.48,p<.0001),andneutral(F(2,205)=32.32,p<.0001)
emotionchecksrevealedsignificantemotioninductioneffects.Participantsinthe
loveconditionreportedfeelingsignificantlymorelovethanthoseinthepride
(Mlove=6.0,Mpride=4.1,F(1,205)=53.95,p<.0001)orneutralconditions(Mneutral=
3.6,F(1,205)=81.73,p<.0001).Similarlyparticipantsinthepridecondition
reportedfeelingsignificantlymorepridethanthoseinthelove(Mpride=5.9,Mlove
=5.1,F(1,205)=10.93,p<.001)orneutralconditions(Mneutral=4.1,F(1,205)=
56.66,p<.0001).Participantsintheloveandprideconditionsreportedfeeling
significantlymorehappy(Mlove=5.7,Mpride=5.4)thanthoseintheneutral
condition(Mneutral=4.5,F(1,205)=29.08,p<.0001)andsignificantlylessneutral
(Mlove=2.6,Mpride=2.9)thanthoseintheneutralcondition(Mneutral=4.6,F(1,205)
=63.92,p<.0001).

Basedonparticipantsresponsestotheappraisalcheckitems,Icreated

appraisalcheckscoresforthefocalappraisalsuponwhichloveandpridediffer
(socialconnection=.91,perceivedcontrol=.75).Testsonselfreportedsocial
connection(F(2,205)=43.89,p<.0001)andperceivedcontrolappraisals(F(2,205)
=8.99,p<.0002)revealedsignificantemotioninductioneffects.Participantsin

51

theloveconditionreportedfeelingsignificantlymoresocialconnectionthan
thoseinthepride(Mlove=9.2,Mpride=6.6,F(1,205)=39.16,p<.0001)orthe
neutralcondition(Mneutral=5.3,F(1,205)=84.54,p<.004).Similarlyparticipants
intheprideconditionreportedfeelingsignificantlymorecontrolthanthosein
thelovecondition(Mpride=8.2,Mlove=6.7,F(1,205)=17.09,p<.0001)butnotthe
neutralcondition(Mneutral=7.8,F(1,205)=1.34,p<.25).

HypothesisTests.Hypothesis3cpredictedthatpositiveemotionswithhigh

socialconnectionappraisaltendencies(e.g.,love)willleadindividualstofavor
unrestrictedgiftsandpositiveemotionswithhighperceivedcontrol(e.g.,pride)
willleadthemtofavorrestrictedgifts.Inthemodelpredictingthethreelevel
restrictedgivingmeasure(i.e.,<$25,=$25,>$25),Ifoundamaineffectforgender
(2=8.12,p<.02)andasignificantemotionbygenderinteraction(2=12.23,p<
.02).Inanefforttobetterunderstandthisinteraction,Ialsoranananalysisonthe
twolevelrestrictedgivingmeasure.Inamodelpredictingthepercentageof
participantschoosingtomakearestrictedgift,Ifoundasignificanteffectfor
gender(2=8.06,p<.004),amarginallysignificanteffectforemotion(2=4.95,p
<.08)andasignificantemotionbygenderinteraction,2=9.00,p<.01.
Significantlymoremenmaderestrictedgiftsthanwomen(men=57%,women=
37%).Plannedcontrastsrevealedthatthoseintheprideconditionmade

52

significantlymorerestrictedgiftsthanthoseinthelovecondition(pride=58%,
love=43%;2=4.33,p<.04)butnottheneutralcondition(47%;NS).When
experiencingpride,womenmadesignificantlymorerestrictedgifts(56%)than
whenexperiencinglove(14%;2=8.68,p<.003).Womenexperiencinglovemade
fewerrestrictedgiftsthanthoseintheneutralcondition(2=3.55,p<.06).No
differencewasfoundbetweenneutral(44%;NS)andpride.However,men
showedsimilarlevelsofrestrictedgivingregardlessofemotioncondition(pride
=59%,love=64%,andneutral=48%;all2=NS),seetable4.

Theseconddependentmeasure,domesticversusinternationalrelieffund

designation,enabledmetotesthypothesis3d,whichpredictsthatpositive
emotionshighinsocialconnectionwillleadindividualstoprioritizegivingto
internationalrelief.Ihypothesizedthatparticipantsexperiencinglovewould
givemoretotheAmericanRedCrossinternationalrelieffundsthanthose
experiencingpride(i.e.,participantsexperiencingpridewouldbemorelikelyto
prioritizedomesticrelieffundsthanthoseexperiencinglove).Inthemodel
predictingthepropensitytogivetotheinternationalrelieffund,Ifounda
significanteffectforemotion,2=6.14,p<.05.Individualsexperiencinglove
(love=47%)weremorelikelytogivetotheinternationalrelieffundthanthose
experiencingpride(pride=33%,2=3.79,p<.05)oraneutralemotionalstate

53

(neutral=28%,2=5.36,p<.02),seetable5.Therewasnoeffectforgenderor
interactionbetweengenderandtheemotioncondition(F<1).

Discussion

Study3demonstratedthatdifferentpositiveemotionsleadtogivingin

distinctlydifferentways(e.g.,restrictedvs.unrestrictedmonetarygifts)andto
differenttypesofrecipients(e.g.,domesticvs.internationalrelieffunds).Using
thesocialconnectionandperceivedcontrolappraisaldimensions,Ipredicted
thatindividualswhofeltlovewouldmakemoreunrestrictedgiftsandthosewho
feltpridewouldmakemorerestrictedgifts(hypothesis3c).Ifoundsupportfor
hypothesis3cparticularlyamongwomen.Ifindasignificantinteractionbetween
genderandemotionpredictingmorerestrictedmonetarygiftsgiveninresponse
toafundraisingappealfromtheAmericanRedCross.Specifically,Ifindthat
momentaryprideincreasedthenumberofrestrictedgiftsrelativetomomentary
love(i.e.,similarly,momentaryloveincreasedthenumberofunrestrictedgifts
relativetomomentarypride)amongwomen.Womenfeelinglovemade
significantlymoreunrestrictedgiftsthanthoseinboththeprideandneutral
conditions.Althoughtheinteractionwasunexpected,itraisesaninteresting
questionastowhenemotioneffectsarelikelytobemoreorlesspronounced

54

betweengenders(i.e.,withparticularemotionpairsorwithinparticular
consumptioncontexts).

Inatestofhypothesis3d,Ipredictedthatindividualsfeelinglovewould

bemorelikelytogivetointernationalrelief(i.e.,conversely,thoseexperiencing
pridewouldbemorelikeltytogivetodomesticrelief).Resultsfromstudy3
supportedthishypothesis;Ifindasignificanteffectofemotiononthelikelihood
ofdonatingtointernationalrelief.Specifically,individualsfeelinglovewere
morelikelytogivetointernationalreliefthanthoseexperiencingprideora
neutralemotionalstate.Recentfindingssuggestthatmenandwomenmay
responddifferentlytodonationrequestsinvolvingingroupsandoutgroups
(Winterich,Mittal,andRoss2009);however,Ifoundnogenderdifferencesinthe
likelihoodofgivingtodomesticversusinternationalrelieffunds.

Study3demonstratesthatspecificpositiveemotions,basedonthe

appraisalprofilescharacterizingthem,haveuniquebehavioraleffectswithinthe
sameconsumptioncontext.Thesefindingssuggestthattheemotionalstate
potentialdonorsareinnotonlyinfluenceswhethertheygivebuthowtheygive
(i.e.,restrictedvs.unrestrictedgifts)andtowhomtheygive(i.e.,domesticvs.
international).Thesefindingshaveimportantimplicationsforahostof

55

organizations,includinguniversitiesandnonprofits,whichregularlyallow
donorstodecidewhetherandhowtodirectmonetarygifts.

Studies2and3demonstratethatspecificpositiveemotions(hope,love,

andpride)influenceconsumptionbehaviorindistinctways.Thesefindings
underscoretheimportanceofcharacterizingpositiveemotionsbasedontheir
uniquepatternsofappraisaltopredictconsequentialconsumptionbehaviors.
Thesedistinctionshaverealimplicationsformarketingaswellaspublicpolicy.

Whilesomecontextsallowforaspecificpositiveemotiontobetriggered

inisolation,inothercontextsconsumersareregularlyinfluencedbymultiple
emotionsconcurrently.Thisisparticularlythecaseforpositiveemotions,for
whichgreateremotionalblendingoccurs(EllsworthandSmith1988).Since
positiveemotionblendsareabundant(e.g.,loveandgratitude),itisparticularly
importanttodeterminehowtheseblendsmayinfluencebehavior.Specifically,
consumersmayexperiencemultiplepositiveemotionschronically(e.g.,
dispositionalemotions)orinresponsetoparticularmarketingefforts(e.g.,
televisioncommercials).Theseexampleshighlighttheimportanceofconsidering
multipleemotionsinconcertbasedontheirunderlyingpatternsofappraisal.
Thus,thenexttwostudiesfocusonblendsofpositiveemotioncharacterizedby
theirunderlyingpatternsofappraisal.Study4examineshowthetypesof

56

positiveemotionchronicallyexperiencedbyconsumers(measured)influence
consumptionbehavior.Study5looksathowthetypesofpositiveemotion
momentarilyexperiencedwhileviewingtelevisioncommercials(manipulated)
influencesubsequentconsumptionbehavior.

Study4:DifferentPositiveEmotionDispositionsInfluence
DifferentConsumptionBehaviors

Study4isdesignedtoaddresshowmeasuredpositiveemotions(i.e.,

dispositionalemotions)influenceconsumptionbehavior.Muchresearchhas
focusedondispositionalpositiveaffect.Atraitlevelpropensitytoward
experiencinggeneralizedpositiveaffectpredictsmaritalsatisfaction,social
activity,andcompetence(HarkerandKeltner2001),success(Lyubomirsky,
King,andDiener2005),higherincomeandjobsatisfaction(Dieneretal.2002),
andlongevity(Danner,Snowdon,andFriesen2001).Further,Shiotaand
colleaguesfindthatdifferencesinspecificpositiveemotiondispositionsare
linkedtodifferencesinpersonalityprofilesandattachmentstyle(Shiota,Keltner,
andJohn2006).Forexample,dispositionalcontentmentandpridearepositively
associatedwithselfandpeerratedExtraversion,anddispositionalloveis
positivelyassociatedwithselfandpeerratedAgreeableness.However,this

57

workdoesnotrelatepositiveemotionstooneanotherintermsofunderlying
appraisalsandhenceislessusefulforexamininghowoverallconstellationsof
specificdispositionalemotionswillfunctiontodeterminebehavior.Iwillusethe
expandedappraisalframeworkfromstudy1tocharacterizetheeffectsof
constellationsofdispositionalemotions.

Onewaytotestthehypothesesregardingtheroleofappraisaldimensions

inconsumerchoiceistodeterminetheextenttowhichanindividualseesthe
environmentthroughaparticularperceptuallens(LernerandKeltner2000).To
theextentthatapersonexperiencesemotionsassociatedwithspecificpatternsof
appraisal,heorsheismorelikelytohaveatendencytoappraisesituationsina
mannerconsistentwiththoseappraisals.LernerandKeltner(2001)haveshown
thatsuchpatternsemergeforbothnaturallyoccurringdispositionalemotions
andexperimentallyinducedemotions.

Pastresearchhasemployeddispositionalmeasurestoexaminedifferences

betweentwospecificnegativeemotions(angerandfear)andtheirunderlying
appraisals(certaintyandcontrol;LernerandKeltner,2001).Oneresearch
challengethatariseswhenfocusingonspecificemotionsishowthedifferences
foundinthedependentmeasurecanbeattributedtotheappropriateappraisal
dimension.Sinceanygivensetofemotionshasmultiple,perhapsconflicting,

58

appraisaltendencies,itispotentiallydifficulttodiscernwhichappraisal
tendencyisdrivinganygivenresult.

Inthepresentresearch,Idevelopanewapproachthatcharacterizes

emotionaldispositionsattheappraisallevel.Iconsidermultiplenaturally
occurringemotionsandexaminethenetappraisalpatternexperiencedbya
givenindividualtoquantifythestrengthofthechroniclensforaparticular
individualonaspecificappraisaldimension.Specifically,Imeasuretheextentto
whichagivenindividualchronicallyexperiencesseveraldispositionalemotions
andthensummarizeappraisaltendenciesacrossthesedispositionalpositive
emotions,essentiallycalculatinganappraisaldisposition.Detailsofthiscalculation
areprovidedinthemethodsectionofthisstudy.Ibelievethatthisappraisal
dispositionmethodologydemonstratestheusefulnessoftheappraisalapproach
byallowingmetosummarizeacrossvarious,potentiallyconflicting,specific
emotiondispositionstopredictconsumptionbehaviors.

Instudy4,Itestthehypothesisthatdifferentappraisaldispositionswill

leadtodifferenttypesofbroadeningbehaviors.Specifically,Ipredictthat
individualswithahighersocialconnectionappraisaldispositionwillbemore
willingtoengageinsociallyconsciousbehaviorsbenefitingdistantothers
(hypothesis3a).Ialsopredictthatindividualswithahigherproblemsolving

59

appraisaldispositionwillconsidermoreoptions(hypothesis3b).Ifurther
predictadoubledissociationsuchthatasocialconnectionbutnotaproblem
solvingappraisaldispositionwillpredictmoresociallyconsciousbehaviors
benefitingdistantothers,andaproblemsolvingbutnotasocialconnection
appraisaldispositionwillpredictlargerconsiderationsets.

Method

ParticipantsandCoverStory.Eightytwouniversitystudentsparticipatedin

a30minutestudyonfeelingsandconsumerchoice.Mysampleconsistedof44
females,37males,andoneparticipantwholeftthegenderquestionunanswered,
ranginginagefrom18to41.Todisassociatetheaffectandemotionmeasures
fromtheconsumerbehaviormeasuresofinterest,participantsweretoldthat
differentresearchershadpooledtogethertheirrespectivequestionnairepackets
andthattheywouldbecompletingthreeseparatestudies.

Procedure

Instudy4,allparticipantscompletedthesamemeasures.Participantsfirst

completeddetailedemotionmeasuresthatenabledcalculationofsocial
connectionandproblemsolvingappraisaldispositions.Next,theycompletedthe

60

dependentmeasuresforsociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviorsbenefiting
closeanddistantothersaswellasaconsumerchoicetasktoprovidethemeasure
ofconsiderationsetsize.Theorderofthesemeasureswascounterbalanced.

BaselineEmotion.Sinceambientmoodisknowntoinfluencebehavior,the

PositiveandNegativeAffectScale(PANAS;Watson,Clark,andTellegen1988)
wasadministeredtoensurethatdifferencescouldbeattributedtothe
dispositionalmeasuresofinterestandnotparticipantspreexistingmoods.
ParticipantscompletedamodifiedversionofthePANAS,indicatingfelt
emotionsatthepresentmoment.Participantscompletedthe26item
questionnaireona5pointscale,rangingfrom1=veryslightlyornotatallto5=
extremely.

EmotionMeasures.Next,eachparticipantcompletedcomprehensive

measuresforaseriesofdispositionalpositiveemotionsbasedonestablished
scales,i.e.theDispositionalPositiveAffectScale(DPAS;Shiota2004)and
DispositionalPositiveEmotionScale(DPES;Shiotaetal.2006).The
questionnairecontained58items,towhichparticipantsrespondedona7point
scalerangingfrom1=stronglydisagreeto7=stronglyagree.Thequestionnaire
enabledmetocaptureeachindividualsdispositionalpropensitytoexperience

61

thesevenfocalpositiveemotions:happiness,contentment,interest,hope,pride,
love,andgratitude.

Aftercompletingthefeelingsandemotionquestionnaire,participants

receivedseparatelythesecondandthirdquestionnairepacketswiththe
dependentmeasures.Theorderofthetwoconsumersurveytasksasocially
consciousconsumptionbehaviorstaskandacamcorderselectiontaskwas
counterbalancedacrossparticipants.Participantswereaskedtocomplete
demographicmeasuresaftereachtasktoprovidefacevalidityforthecover
story.

SociallyConsciousConsumptionBehaviorMeasures.Thesociallyconscious

consumptionitemswereembeddedinalargerconsumerchoicesurvey,asin
study2.Participantsweretoldthatresearcherswereinterestedinthelikelihood
thattheywouldengageinvariousconsumptionbehaviorsoverthecomingyear.
Thealphasforthefouritemdependentmeasureswere=.65forcloseothers
and=.75fordistantothers.

ConsiderationSetMeasures.Thecamcorderselectiontaskwasmodeled

afteranexistingmeasureofconsiderationsetsize(DiehlandPoynor2007).
Participantswereaskedtoimaginethattheyhadtakenanewjobandthatoneof
theirfirsttaskswastobuyacamcorderforaproject.Participantswerepresented

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withdescriptionsof32possiblecamcorders,includinginformationonfour
attributes:weight,resolution,memory,andzoom.Theirtaskwastoindicate
whichofthe32possibleproductoptionstheywouldconsiderfurther,the
dependentmeasureofinterest.Finally,someadditionalscaleanddemographic
itemsweremeasured.

CalculationofAppraisalDispositions.Isoughttoleverageappraisaltheory

bydeterminingthechronicprominenceoffocalappraisaldimensions(i.e.,social
connectionandproblemsolving)foreachparticipant.Ididsobycharacterizing
eachparticipantsoverallarrayofreporteddispositionalpositiveemotions.
Specifically,foreachappraisaldispositionIweightedeachdispositionalemotion
(measuredbytherelevantDPESsubscale)byitslocationontherelevant
appraisaldimensionasmeasuredinstudy1andreportedintable2.Recallthat
theselocationscapturedthedegreetowhicheachemotionisassociatedwith,or
characterizedby,eachappraisal.Indoingso,Iwasabletocalculateaunique
scoreforeachparticipantsummarizingthearrayofhisorherpositiveemotions
intermsoftheunderlyingappraisals.Specifically,Icreatedscorescapturingthe
focalappraisaldispositionsforsocialconnectionandproblemsolving.Inthe
followingequations,theWvariablesrepresentastandardizedweightforthe

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focalappraisalfromstudy1.TheMvariablesrepresenttheparticipantsown
meanlevelofthefocaldispositionalemotion.

SocialConnectionAppraisalDispositionScore=[WSChappiness
(Mhappiness)+WSCcontentment(Mcontentment)+WSCinterest(Minterest)+WSChope
(Mhope)+WSCpride(Mpride)+WSClove(Mlove)+WSCgratitude(Mgratitude)]

ProblemSolvingAppraisalDispositionScore=[WPShappiness
(Mhappiness)+WPScontentment(Mcontentment)+WPSinterest(Minterest)+WPShope
(Mhope)+WPSpride(Mpride)+WPSlove(Mlove)+WPSgratitude(Mgratitude)]

Results

PreliminaryAnalyses.Varianceinbaselineaffectdidnotqualifyanyofthe

mainfindings,andsurveyorderhadnoeffect.Forconsistencyacrossstudies,
ethnicitywasincludedasacovariate;however,itseffectwasnonsignificantin
thisstudy.Thus,thesevariableswillnotbediscussedfurther.Preliminary
analysesonthedispositionalemotionmeasuresshowedthatthemeasured
emotionsubscaleswerereliable:happiness(=.76),contentment(=.85),
interest(=.80),hope(=.81),pride(=.74),love(=.80),andgratitude(=
.71).

HypothesisTests.Fourregressionmodelswererunusingthesocial

connectionandproblemsolvingappraisaldispositionscorestotesthypotheses

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1,2,3a,and3banddemonstratedissociationbetweenthedependentmeasuresof
interest.

Inthefirstregression,Itestedhypothesis1usingsocialconnection

appraisaldispositionastheindependentvariable.Ipredictedthata)individuals
highinsocialconnectionwouldbesignificantlymorelikelytoengageinsocially
consciousconsumptionbehaviorsbenefitingmoredistantothersrelativetothose
benefitingcloseothersthanindividualslowinsocialconnectionandb)
individualshighversuslowinsocialconnectionwouldshowlessofadifference
forbehaviorsbenefitingcloseothers.Inthemodelpredictingthereported
likelihoodofengaginginsociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviors,Ifindthat
socialconnectionispositivelyrelatedtosociallyconsciousconsumptionbehavior
(B=0.43;F(1,79)=7.78,p<.007).Ialsofindthatthewithinsubjecteffectfor
socialdistanceisasignificantpredictorofsociallyconsciousconsumption
behavior(Mclose=5.2andMdistant=3.2;F(1,80)=208.97,p<.0001).Most
importantly,socialdistancesignificantlymoderatedtheeffectofsocial
connectiononlikelihoodtoperformsociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviors,
F(1,80)=4.06,p<.05.Morespecifically,thecoefficientforsocialconnectionwas
significantforbehaviorsbenefitingdistantothers(Bdistant=0.63,F(1,80)=11.80,p
B

<.001)butnotcloseothers(Bclose=0.22,F(1,80)=1.46,NS).Thissignificant
B

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interaction(seefigure2)supportstheappraisaltendencydispositionprediction
thatindividualswithhighersocialconnectionappraisaldispositionscoresare
morelikelytoengageinsociallyconsciousbehaviorsbenefitingmoredistant
others.

Ialsotestedwhetherindividualswithhigherproblemsolvingappraisal

dispositionswouldconsidermoreoptionsinconsumerchoice(hypothesis2)by
regressingthetotalnumberofoptionsconsideredontheproblemsolvingscores.
Asexpected,Ifoundthatproblemsolvingwasasignificantpredictorof
considerationsetsize(B=0.97;F(1,79)=6.25,p<.01).

Hypotheses3aand3bspecifiedastrongertestoftheappraisaldisposition

approachbypredictingadissociationbetweentheeffectsofsocialconnection
andproblemsolvingappraisaldispositions.Totestthesehypotheses,I
simultaneouslyenteredboththesocialconnectionandproblemsolvingappraisal
dispositionscoresintoregressionequationsandusedTypeIIISumsofSquares
sothateacheffectwastestedcontrollingfortheother.Itestedhypothesis3a,the
likelihoodthatsocialconnectionbutnotproblemsolvingwasasignificant
predictorofthelikelihoodtoperformsociallyconsciousbehaviorsthatbenefit
moredistantothers,byregressingthedistantotherbehaviorsdependentvariable
onboththesocialconnectionandtheproblemsolvingscores.Theresults

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revealedthatsocialconnection(B=.65;F(1,78)=10.65,p<.002),butnot
problemsolving(B=.03;F(1,78)<1,NS),wasasignificantpredictorofthe
likelihoodtoperformsociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviorsthatbenefit
distantothers.Regressionlinespredictingintentionstoperformbehaviors
benefitingdistantothersbasedonstandardizedappraisaldispositionswere
plottedinfigure3.Thispatternofresultsalsoheldwhensocialconnectionhad
theopportunitytoexplainallofthevariance.

Finally,Itestedhypothesis3b,thelikelihoodthatproblemsolvingwould

beasignificantpredictorofconsiderationsetsize.Iregressedthetotalnumberof
productoptionsconsideredonboththesocialconnectionscoreandtheproblem
solvingscore.Theresultsrevealedthatproblemsolving(B=.84;F(1,78)=4.12,p
<.05),butnotsocialconnection(B=.54;F(1,78)<1,NS),wasasignificant
predictorofthenumberofoptionsconsidered.Regressionlinespredicting
numberofoptionsconsideredbasedonstandardizedappraisaldispositionswere
plottedinfigure4.

Discussion

Theseresultsdemonstratethatdifferentappraisaldispositionsleadto

differenttypesofbroadeningbehaviors.Instudy4,Iusedappraisalfindings

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fromstudy1inconjunctionwithindividualsdispositionalpositiveemotion
scorestocalculateappraisaldispositionsforsocialconnectionandproblem
solving.Usingtheseappraisaldispositions,Ilinkedspecificappraisaltendencies
withdifferenttypesofbroadeningimportanttoconsumptionbehavior.Ifind
thatsocialconnectionbutnotproblemsolvingpredictsanincreasedlikelihood
ofengaginginsociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviorsthatbenefitmore
distantothers.Ialsofindthatproblemsolvingbutnotsocialconnectionpredicts
largerconsiderationsetsizes.

Study4furtherdemonstratestheimportanceofcharacterizingpositive

emotionsbasedontheirunderlyingappraisals.Thisstudyshowsthatthetypes
ofpositiveemotionconsumerschronicallyexperiencepredictenduringpatterns
ofbehavior.Namely,theblendofpositiveemotionsexperiencedbyaconsumer
formsanappraisaldispositionwhichactsasanimportantlens.Aninteresting
questioniswhethermanipulatedblendsofmomentarilyexperiencedpositive
emotions(e.g.,hopeandinterest)cansimilarlyformthistypeofappraisalbased
lens(e.g.,problemsolving)whichpredictsbehavior.Instudy5,Iexaminehow
televisioncommercialsactivatespecificpositiveemotionblendscharacterizedby
particularpatternsofappraisalandshowhowtheyinfluencesubsequent
behavior.

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Study5:TelevisionCommercialsActivateAppraisalsand
InfluenceEnvironmentalBehaviors

Thegoalofstudy5wastodemonstratetheuniquebroadeningeffectsof

distincttypesofpositiveemotionblendswithinasingleconsumptioncontext
usingemotioninducingstimuliwhichoccurnaturallywithinconsumers
everydayenvironments.Leveragingtheappraisalfindingsfromstudies1and4,
Idesignedstudy5totestwhethertheappraisaltendencieswhichcharacterize
distincttypesofpositiveemotioncouldbetriggeredbybrieftelevision
commercialsandsubsequentlyinfluencebehaviorcompletelyunrelatedtothe
consumptioncontextorbrandsfeaturedinthecommercials.Asecondgoalof
study5wastodemonstratetheinfluenceofspecificpositiveemotionblends
withinthesamedomainofbehaviorsexaminedinmypreviousstudies(i.e.,
sociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviors).Studies24demonstratehow
positiveemotionshighinsocialconnectionincreasesociallyconsciousbehaviors
benefitingdistantothers.Inthesestudies,increasingthesebehaviorsreliesonan
individualsexpandedsenseofselforcircleofconcern.However,notallsocially
consciousbehaviorssharethischaracteristicnoraretheynecessarilybest
motivatedinthesameway.Specifically,sociallyconsciousbehaviorscanvary
notonlyintermsofwhethertheycreateasenseofconnectionbutalsointerms

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oftheamountofenergyoreffortrequired.Otherclassesofsociallyconscious
behaviors,particularlyenvironmentalactions,requireindividualstoexertmore
continuousenergyandeffort,thusmakingtheproblemsolvingappraisal
dimensionofpositiveemotionscrucial.

Instudy5,Itestthehypothesisthatatelevisioncommercialwhich

triggersproblemsolvingemotions(i.e.,hopeandinterest)willleadtomore
effortfulenvironmentalbehaviorsthanacommercialwhichtriggerssocial
connectionemotions(i.e.,loveandgratitude).InthepreviousstudiesIhave
shownthatsocialconnectionemotions(e.g.,love)increaseengagementin
sociallyconsciousbehaviorsthatbenefitmoredistantothers.Inthisstudy,I
showthatproblemsolvingemotions(e.g.,hopeandinterest)willincreasethe
numberofdifferenteffortfulenvironmentalactionsthatindividualsarewilling
totakewithinthedomainofsociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviors.Thus,
study5isdesignedtoshowthatspecifictypesofpositiveemotions(e.g.,social
connectionvs.problemsolving)domorethansimplymotivatebehaviorina
particularconsumptiondomain.Rather,specifictypesofpositiveemotioncan
actuallydifferentiallyincreasedistincttypesofsociallyconsciousbehavior(e.g.,
purchasingaproductthatbenefitsrefugeefamiliesvs.bringingreusablebagsto
thesupermarket).

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Method

ParticipantsandSetup.193universitystudentsparticipatedina10minute

studyonfeelingsandconsumerchoice.Thesampleconsistedof126malesand
80femalesranginginagefrom18to29.Participantsweretoldthattheywould
beviewingacommercial,reportingtheirfeelings,andthencompletingachoice
taskandbackgroundquestions.

Procedure

Study5consistedofa3positiveemotionblend/appraisaltype

commercial(problemsolving/socialconnection/control)betweensubjects
design.Participantswererandomlyassignedtooneofthethreeconditions.

EmotionBlend/AppraisalInduction.Eachparticipantviewedoneofthree

commercialclipsselectedtoinduceaspecificpositiveemotionappraisaltype.
Bothofthepretestedpositiveemotionblendcommercialsfeaturedasports
context.TheproblemsolvingcommercialconsistedofaNikecommercial
featuringaseriesofathletesworkingoutandtrainingfortheirrespectivesports
(e.g.,basketball,swimming,gymnastics,running,soccer).Thesocialconnection
commercialconsistedofaJohnson&JohnsoncommercialfromtheThanks
MomOlympicGamescampaignfeaturingswimmerCullenJonestalkingabout

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hismotherssupportbeingkeytohisopportunitytocompeteintheOlympics.
Thecontrolcommercialfeaturedanacceleratedtimelapsevideoofaplant
growingfromseedtoadultplant.

AppraisalsandEmotionCheck.Afterviewingthecommercialclip

participantswereaskedtoreportontheirthoughtsandfeelingsinresponseto
thecommercialsviewed.Theywereaskedtoreporttheextenttowhichthey
thoughtaboutorfeltthetwofocalappraisals(i.e.,problemsolvingandsocial
connection)whileviewingthecommercial.Boththeproblemsolving(needing
toexpendeffortorovercomeobstaclesbeforegettingsomethingimportant)and
thesocialconnection(beingcloserormoreconnectedtoanotherindividualora
group)itemswereansweredona9pointscale,where1=notatalland9=very
much.Asanemotioncheck,participantsalsoreportedontheextenttowhichthe
commercialmadethemfeelthefocalpositiveemotionblendstates.Theproblem
solvingcommercialwasfoundtobehighinhopeandinterestbutnotloveand
gratitude;thesocialconnectioncommercialwashighinloveandgratitudebut
nothopeandinterest,asexpected(seetable6).Anoverallpositivityscorewas
createdforeachparticipantbasedonanaverageofthepositiveemotionswhich
werereportedona9pointscale,where1=notatalland9=verymuch.

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EnvironmentalActions.Afterreportingtheirfeelingsinresponsetothe

commercialstask,participantswerepresentedwiththechoicetask.Theywere
providedwithalistof15environmentalconsumptionbehaviors,whichhad
beenpretestedfortheamountofeffortorenergytheyrequired.Sampleitems
include:Checkyourcarstirepressureregularlyandkeeptiresadequately
inflated;Unplugelectronicsandsmallhouseholdapplianceswhentheyarenot
inuse;Bringreusableclothbagstothegrocerymarket,asopposedtousing
plasticorpaperbags.Notethattheemphasisoftheseitemsisonmoreeffortful
behaviorrequiringenergyandactiononthepartoftheconsumer.Participants
wereaskedtoindicatewhichbehaviorsyouwillcommittodooverthecoming
year.Theseitemswerepretestedwithagroupofcollegestudents(N=28)who
ratedthemasmoreeffortfulbehaviorsthatsolvedenvironmentalproblems
relativetothefulllistofenvironmentalbehaviorsprovided.Participantsplaceda
checknexttoeachbehaviortheycommittedtodo,andthetotalnumberof
environmentalactionscheckedcomprisedthefinaldependentmeasure.This
measurecapturedtheextenttowhichindividualswerewillingtoengageina
widevarietyofeffortfulenvironmentalactions.

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Results

PreliminaryAnalyses.Asinstudy3,anoverallpositivityscorewascreated

foreachparticipantbasedontheaverageofallfivepositiveemotionitems(=
.93).Theinclusionofthisoverallpositivityscoreallowsforamorestringenttest
oftheeffectofappraisalsonbehavior.Initialanalysesrevealedasignificant
effectforage,gender,andoverallpositivity,noneofwhichinteractedwiththe
emotionblendmanipulation.Specifically,women,olderindividuals,andthose
whoreactedmorepositivelytothecommercialindicatedagreaterpropensityto
performenvironmentalactionsregardlessofemotionblendcondition.Allwere
includedascovariatesinthetestsofhypotheses.Toensurethatthemagnitudeof
positivitydidnotexplaindifferencesfoundbetweenconditions,itwasincluded
asacovariateinthemanipulationchecksaswell.

Testsonselfreportedappraisalsofproblemsolving(F(2,189)=15.85,p<

.0001)andsocialconnection(F(2,189)=13.97,p<.0001)inresponsetothe
commercialsrevealedsignificantemotion/appraisalinductioneffects.The
problemsolvingcommercialwasseenashigherinproblemsolvingappraisals
thanthesocialconnectioncommercial(Mproblemsolving=5.3,Msocialconnection=3.8,(F(1,
189)=16.19,p<.0001)andthecontrolcommercial(Mcontrol=3.2,(F(1,189)=21.80,

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p<.0001).Thesocialconnectioncommercialwasseenashigherinsocial
connectionappraisalsthantheproblemsolvingcommercial(Msocialconnection=5.7,
Mproblemsolving=4.1,(F(1,189)=23.42,p<.0001)andthecontrolcommercial(Mcontrol
=3.6,(F(1,189)=19.04,p<.0001).

HypothesisTests.Hypothesis4predictedthatproblemsolvingbutnot

socialconnectionwillleadtomoreeffortfulbehaviorinthesameconsumption
context,inthiscaseeffortfulenvironmentalactions.Inthemodelpredictingthe
totalnumberofdifferentenvironmentalactions,Ifoundasignificanteffectfor
commercialcondition,F(5,187)=3.65,p<.03.Aspredicted,thosewhovieweda
problemsolvingcommercialcommittedtosignificantlymoreenvironmental
actionsthanthosewhoviewedthesocialconnectioncommercial,(Mproblemsolving=
5.5,Msocialconnection=4.4,F(1,187)=4.92,p<.03).Nosignificantdifferencewas
foundbetweentheproblemsolvingandcontrolcommercial(Mcontrol=6.1,NS).

Amediationanalysiswasconductedusingtherecommended

bootstrappingtechniquefortestingindirecteffects(PreacherandHayes2004).
Thebootstrappedestimateoftheindirecteffectwassignificant(z=1.65,p<.05).
Thisevidencesuggeststhatappraisalsofproblemsolvingmediatethe
relationshipbetweenpositiveemotionblendtypeandenvironmentalbehaviors
(seefigure5).

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Discussion

Study5demonstratesthatdifferenttypesofpositiveemotionblends(e.g.,

socialconnectionemotionsvs.problemsolvingemotions)leadtodifferent
behaviors,particularlydifferenttypesofsociallyconsciousconsumption
behaviors.Thesefindingsshowthatmomentarypositiveemotionblends
experiencedwhileviewingatelevisioncommercialcanchangesubsequent
behaviorinaconsumptiondomainentirelyunrelatedtotheemotionelicitation.
Specificallystudy5showsthatapositiveproblemsolvingcommercialincreases
consumerengagementineffortfulenvironmentactionsmorethanapositive
socialconnectioncommercial.Inaddition,Ifindevidencethatproblemsolving
appraisalsmediatetherelationshipbetweenpositiveemotionblendtypeand
engagementinenvironmentalbehaviors.

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GENERALDISCUSSION

SummaryofResults

Togetherfivestudiesdemonstratethatpositiveemotionscanbe

characterizedinwaysthatallowpredictionofspecificconsumptionbehaviors.I
findthatdifferentpositiveemotionsleadtodistincttypesofbroadeningdueto
differencesinappraisaldimensions.Instudy1,inclusionofafullerrangeof
positiveemotions(e.g.,contentment,gratitude,andlove)andappraisal
dimensionsspecificallyimportanttopositiveemotions(e.g.,addingsocial
connectionandtemporalfocus)allowsbetterdifferentiationamongpositive
emotions.Study1showsthatpositiveemotionscanbereliablydistinguished
alongmultipledimensionsofappraisal,includingproblemsolvingandsocial
connection,whichexplainthemostvarianceamongthepositiveemotions
considered.

Studies25showthatbothmanipulatedandmeasuredpositiveemotions

characterizedbydifferentappraisaltendenciesleadtodifferentpatternsof
consumptionbehavior.Instudy2,Ifindthatloveandhopeinfluencesocially
consciousconsumptionbehaviorsbenefitingcloseanddistantothersindifferent

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ways.Study2demonstratesthatpositiveemotionshighinsocialconnection
(e.g.,love)leadtomoresociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviorsbenefiting
distantothersthanlowsocialconnectionpositiveemotions(e.g.,hope)butboth
hopeandlovesimilarlyincreasebehaviorsbenefitingcloseothers.Inaddition,I
findevidencethattherelationshipbetweenpositiveemotionsandbehaviors
benefitingdistantothersismediatedbybreadthofsocialconnection.Instudy3,I
findthatloveandprideleadtodistinctformsofgivinginresponseto
fundraisingappeals,particularlyintermsofthetypeofmonetarygiftgiven(i.e.,
restrictedvs.unrestricted)andtherecipientschosentoreceivethosegifts(i.e.,
domesticvs.internationalfunds).Study3showsthatpositiveemotionshighin
perceivedcontrol/lowinsocialconnection(e.g.,pride)leadtomorerestricted
givingthanlowperceivedcontrol/highsocialconnectionpositiveemotions(e.g.,
love)amongwomen.Inaddition,highsocialconnectionpositiveemotions(e.g.,
love)makegiftstointernationalrelieffundsmorelikelythanlowsocial
connectionpositiveemotions(e.g.,pride).

Studies4and5highlighttheimportanceofpositiveemotionblends

characterizedbytheirunderlyingpatternsofappraisal.Study4demonstrates
thataproblemsolvingbutnotsocialconnectionappraisaldispositionleadsto
largerconsiderationsetsizesandthatsocialconnectionbutnotaproblem

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solvingappraisaldispositionpredictsthelikelihoodofengaginginsocially
consciousconsumptionbehaviorsthatbenefitmoredistantothers.Study5
showsthataproblemsolvingcommercialbutnotasocialconnectioncommercial
leadstomoreeffortfulenvironmentalactions(e.g.,reducingenergyuseand
bringingreusablebagstothegrocerystore).Inaddition,Ifindevidencethatthe
relationshipbetweentypeofpositiveemotionblendandenvironmental
behaviorsismediatedbyproblemsolvingappraisals.Acrossstudies25,I
leveragethenotionofappraisalstodeveloptheoryandmeasurementlinking
positiveemotionstospecifictypesofbroadeningbehaviors.

Ialsointroduceanewmethodologyfortakingintoaccountmultiple

appraisaldimensionsunderlyingspecificemotionsandintroducetheconceptof
appraisaldispositions.Morespecifically,byaccountingfortheextenttowhicha
consumerregularlyexperiencesanarrayofemotions,Iamabletomeasure
whichappraisaldimensionsaremostlikelytobechronicallyactiveandserveas
alensaffectinghowindividualsperceiveandrespondtotheirsituationor
environment.Usingappraisaldispositionsandpositiveemotionblends,I
provideamorestringenttestoftheimportanceofconceptualizingpositive
emotionseffectsintermsofunderlyingappraisals.Thenewlyrevealedpatterns
ofappraisalunderlyingspecificpositiveemotionscanbeusednotonlytopredict

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responsestoasinglemomentaryemotionbutalsotopredictpatternsofbehavior
linkedtotheconstellationsofemotionsthataconsumerexperiencesregularlyor
tospecificpositiveemotionblendsinducedbyenvironmentalfactors.Thus,the
appraisaldispositionmethodologyanduseofmomentarypositiveemotion
blendsfurthervalidatetheorizingaboutthedifferencesbetweenspecificpositive
emotionsbycharacterizingthoseemotionsintermsofunderlyingappraisals.

TheoreticalContributions

Thisresearchoffersanintegratedapproachforunderstandingpositive

emotions.Ibringtogethertwoimportantemotiontheoriesappraisaltheoryand
thebroadenandbuildtheoryofpositiveemotionstoprovideamorenuanced
viewoftheeffectsofspecificpositiveemotionsanddifferentappraisal
tendencies.Iarguethatspecificpositiveemotionscanservetobroadenattention,
thought,andactionindifferentwaysandsuggestthatthesedifferentformsof
broadeningcanbeexplainedthroughthedifferentappraisaldimensions
characterizingdifferentpositiveemotions.

Ifindthatpositiveemotionscanbedistinguishedbasedonunderlying

appraisals.Ialsofindthattheappraisaldimensionsthatexplainthemost
varianceinpositiveemotionsaredistinctfromthosefoundtoexplainthemost

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varianceinnegativeemotions,e.g.,socialconnection,anappraisaldimensionnot
heretoforerecognizedasimportant,hasacriticalroleindistinguishingpositive
emotions.Specifically,appraisalsofcertaintyandcontrol,whichhavebeen
importanttounderstandingdifferencesinanger,fear,andsadness,areless
centraltoexplainingvarianceamongstpositiveemotions.Thesefindingsoffera
richerunderstandingoftheappraisaldimensionscentraltodifferentiating
positiveemotions.

Idemonstratethatspecificpositiveemotionspredictdifferentpatternsof

consumptionbehavior(e.g.,considerationofmoreoptionsoreffortfulbehaviors
vs.behaviorsbenefitingdistantothersordonationstointernationalrelief).I
showthatdifferentmomentarypositiveemotionsaswellasmomentarypositive
emotionblendsdifferentiallypredicttheseconsumptionbehaviors.Ialsoshow
thatchronicexperiencesofpositiveemotionspredictenduringpatternsof
behavior.Mytechniqueforcalculatingappraisaldispositionscoresallows
researcherstoassessmultipleappraisaldimensionsconcurrentlyanddetermine
whichappraisaldimensionismostpredictiveofobservedbehavior.Ishowthat
chronicappraisaldispositionsalsopredictdistinctbroadeningbehaviors.This
approachisbothaconceptualandamethodologicalcontributiontoappraisal
theoryandappraisaltendencyapproaches.

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Finally,Iprovidethefirstempiricaldemonstrationofdifferential

broadening,showingthatspecificpositiveemotionsbroadenindistinctlydifferent
ways.Ishowthatemotionscharacterizedashighinbreadthofsocialconnection
(e.g.,love)increasebehaviorsbenefitingdistantothers,whereasemotions
characterizedashighindegreeofproblemsolving(e.g.,hope)increase
considerationsetsizeandcommitmentstomoreeffortfulconsumption
behaviors.Thisdemonstrationofdifferentialbroadeningisacontributiontothe
broadenandbuildtheoryofpositiveemotions.

MarketingImplications

Specificpositiveemotionsandtheirassociatedappraisalshaveimportant

implicationsforconsumptionbehavior.Myresearchsuggeststhatthewaysin
whichconsumersregularlyappraisesituationshaveimportantdownstream
consequencesfortheextenttowhichtheya)engageinsociallyconscious
consumptionbehaviorsthatbenefitmoredistantothers,b)committoeffortful
environmentalactions,c)considermorechoiceoptions,andd)givedifferent
typesofmonetarygiftsinresponsetofundraisingappeals.Thisresearchalso
suggeststhatmarketersneedtobemorecognizantofthespecificpositive

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emotionsthattheirconsumersmaybeexperiencingbothmomentarilyand
chronically.

Marketershavemanytoolsattheirdisposaltoinfluencespecific

momentaryemotions,buttheyneedtobestrategicandidentifythespecific
positiveemotionsactivatedbytheirmarketingcommunicationsandstore
environments.Theyneedtoexaminewhichtypesofpositiveemotionmaybe
triggeredbythetext,imagery,music,andpersonnelthattheyselectfor
promotingtheirproductsandbrands.Ifmarketersusetherightpositive
emotions,theycouldbewellontheirwaytoachievingtheirstrategicobjectives.
If,however,theyusethewrongpositiveemotions,theycouldendup
underminingthosesameobjectives.

Itisnotthecasethatonepositiveemotionisuniversallybetterat

motivatingbehaviorthananother.Rather,theeffectivenessofeachpositive
emotiondependsonthegoalofthemanager,particularlywhattypeofbehavior
themanagerorpolicymakerwantstomotivate.Forexample,aretailercould
employemotionslikelytoincreasethenumberofproductsaconsumerconsiders
purchasingortheamountofeffortaconsumeriswillingtoexpend(e.g.,hope)or
emotionslikelytoincreaseaconsumerssenseofconnectiontostorepersonnel
orabrand(e.g.,love).Inthesocialmarketingcontext,apublichealthcampaign

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aimedatencouragingtheconsumertoconsideradditionalchoiceorbehavior
optionscouldusehope,whereasaconservationcampaignbenefitingdistant
otherscouldbemoreeffectiveusinglove.Forarelatedexamplefocusingonthe
effectsofselfandotherinhealthmessaging,seeAgrawaletal.(2007).Whileall
positiveemotionalthemeswillmakeconsumersfeelpositively,allpositive
emotionalthemeswillnotmotivatethesametypesofconsumptionbehavior.

Basedonmycharacterizations,marketingmanagersandpolicymakers

canstrategicallyusedifferentpalettesofspecificpositiveemotionstopromote
desiredbehaviors.Namely,multiplepositiveemotions(e.g.,hopeandinterest)
maybecharacterizedbythesameappraisaltendency(e.g.,problemsolving),but
eachofthoseemotionsisnotnecessarilysuitableorattainableforagivenbrand,
productcategory,orcontext.Theconceptofpalettesofpositiveemotionallows
marketerstostrategicallyselectfromagroupofemotionsonethatisappropriate
foragivensituation.

Thepositiveemotionpaletteconceptfurthersuggeststhatmarketers

cannotemployaonesizefitsallapproachinselectingemotionalthemes.
Specifically,marketersneedtobesensitivetocontextualcontingencies,suchas
theproductcategoryandparticularretailenvironment.Forexample,inproduct
categorieswheremultiplepurchasesarepossible(e.g.,apparel),usinga

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problemsolvingemotiontoincreasetheconsiderationsetandpotentiallythe
numberofproductsaconsumerseesaspurchaseworthyisprobablydesirable.
However,inproductcategorieswhereasinglepurchaseismoreprevalent(e.g.,a
digitalvideorecorder),usingthatsameemotionmaycausetheconsumerto
broadensearchbeyondtheretailersownbrandorstore,probablynotso
desirable.

Contextualcontingenciesareespeciallyimportantinretailenvironments.

Marketersmayneedtousedifferentcreativematerialstoevokeappropriate
emotionalthemesbasedontheenvironmentalcontextandthebrandsposition
inthemarketplace.Specifically,amarketerwouldberemisstousethesame
emotionaladvertisementordisplayinabrandsflagshipstoreandabigbox
storewherethebrandissold.Forexample,usingahopethemedNike
advertisement(thatbroadensconsiderationset)atNiketownmayincreaseNike
sales;however,usingthesameadvertisementatFootLockermayactually
decreasecategoryleader(Nike)sales,asconsumersmaybroadenbeyondthe
Nikebrandtoconsiderothercompetitivebrands(e.g.,Adidas,Asics)soldinthe
store.Converselyifthebrandisinafollowerposition,usingahopethemed
advertisementinabigboxstoremaybestrategicallyadvantageous.

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Marketerscanalsobemoresophisticatedintheiruseofmultipleemotions

andstrategicsequencingofemotions,particularlyincommunicationsovertime.
Forexample,itmaybeadvantageousforcompanieswhorelyonpersonalselling
(e.g.,Avon)toemployasociallyconnectedemotion(e.g.,love)earlytosecurea
consumerandthenuseaproblemsolvingemotion(e.g.,hopeorinterest)to
encourageaconsumertoconsiderabroaderrangeofproductsorservices.
Retailersandexperientialmarketerscouldalsoemploysequencesofemotionto
strategicallymoveconsumersthroughdifferentzonesofaretailspace.For
marketersofcitizenactioninitiatives,theremaybeinstancesinwhichasequence
ofemotionscouldbeemployedtoinfluenceconsumptiondecisionsandimprove
consumerwelfare.Forexample,apolicyinitiativeaimedatresource
conservationmaybemoreeffectiveifmarketerswereabletofirstactivate
heightenedsocialconnectionappraisals(vialove)followedbyproblemsolving
appraisals(viahopeorinterest).Specifically,policycommunicationsmayneed
tofirsthelpcitizensfeelmoresociallyconnectedtodistantotherswhomay
benefitfromtheiractionsandthenmotivatecitizenstobroadentheir
considerationofactionsthatcouldbetakentoachievethatgoalaswellasexert
efforttocarryoutthoseactions.

86

Similarly,socialconnectionappraisalsmightmoderatetheeffectsof

identifiableversusstatisticalvictimsoncharitablegiving(Smalland
Loewenstein2003).Inparticular,highersocialconnectionmightdecreasethe
normaldifferentialingivingbetweenidentifiableandstatisticalvictimsby
increasinggivingtostatisticalvictims(asopposedtodecreasinggivingto
identifiablevictims;Small,Loewenstein,andSlovic2007).Moregenerally,social
connectionappraisalsmaymoderateeffectsassociatedwithsocialdistanceforms
ofpsychologicaldistance(Trope,Liberman,andWakslak2007),withparticular
influenceonpsychologicallydistantconditions.Socialconnectionmayalsobe
importanttoconsumersdecisionstoengageinbrandrelationships(Fournier
1998)andparticipateinbrandcommunities(MunizandOGuinn2001).
Attentiontonotonlyconsumersmomentaryemotionalexperiencesbutalso
theirchronicemotionalexperiencesmayprovetobeparticularlyfruitfulinthese
contexts.

Inaddition,appraisaldispositionsofferapotentiallyusefultoolfor

segmentation.Namely,marketersknowthatpeoplevaryincognitivestylesand
haveusedthatinformationinconjunctionwithzipcodedatatotarget
consumers.Similarlythereisinterestingworkthatcouldbedonetyingappraisal
dispositionstokeydemographicandpsychographicvariables(e.g.,genderand

87

lifestage),inordertomoreeffectivelytailormarketingoffersandpolicyefforts
basedonknowledgeoftheemotionalprofilesofdifferentconsumersegments.

Theseinsightsontheappraisaldimensionscharacterizingpositive

emotionscouldleadtomoreeffectivecommunicationsstrategiesandmarketing
campaignsenablingmarketerstostrategicallymatchthecorrectpositiveemotion
toappropriatedomainsofdesiredbehavior.Thesefindingshaveimportant
implicationsforadvertising,personalselling,instoredesign,andmarketing
communications.

FutureResearch

Futureresearchshouldexaminethetemporalfocusdimensionrevealedin

study1,asithasimportantimplicationsforconsumerdecisionmaking.For
instance,whenexperiencinghappiness(presentfocused),anindividualmight
placegreaterweightonpresentbenefitsandlessweightonfuturecosts,whereas
anindividualexperiencinghope(futurefocused)mayplacelessweighton
presentcostsandmoreweightonfuturebenefitswhenmakingadecision.Tothe
extentthatdifferentpositiveemotionsarecharacterizedbyatemporalfocus
dimension,theymayengenderdifferenttemporalconstruals(Libermanand
Trope1998).Thus,differencesintemporalfocusmayhaveimplicationsfor

88

consumerpurchaseintentions,productsatisfaction,timingofproductfulfillment
decisions,aswellashealthpreventionandhealthriskbehaviors.

Consumerhopemaybeaparticularlyimportant,albeitcomplex,areafor

futureresearch.Researcherssuggestthatdifferinglevelsofinvolvementand
intensityofhopewillimpactattitudeformationprocessesandproductchoices
(MacInnisanddeMello2005).Empiricalfindingsshowthatthreatstohopelead
tomotivatedreasoningaboutproducts(DeMelloetal.2007).Whilemynew
appraisalfindingssuggestthathopemayfacilitateconsumerproblemsolving
tendencies,additionalresearchisneededtounderstandwhenconsumerhope
willbeanassetversusadetrimenttochoicequality.

Bothmarketersandconsumersneedtounderstandtheimportanceofhow

differentpositiveemotionsanddifferentappraisalsinfluenceconsumption
behaviorsindifferentways.Byunderstandinghowdifferentpositiveemotions
influenceconsumers,marketerscandomorethanjustmakeconsumersfeelgood,
theycanalsohelpconsumersdobetterforthemselvesandforothers.

89

TECHNICALAPPENDIXTOSTUDY1

90


Note:Forclaritythecomponentloadingmatrixhasbeenarranged
sothatthecolumnsappearindecreasingorderofvarianceexplainedby
components.Therowshavebeenarrangedsothatforeachsuccessive
component,greaterloadingsappearfirst.Loadingslessthan0.50have
beenomitted.

ThefactorpatternforthePCArevealeda7dimensionalsolution.
ThefirstPCAdimension,explainingthemostvarianceamongthepositive
emotions,wasahybriddimensionIlabelproblemsolving,whichreflects
anticipatedeffortandgoalpathitems(bothoriginaltotheSmithand
Ellsworthstudy).Thissuggeststhatcertainpositiveemotionsaremore
likelythanotherstobeassociatedwithappraisalsofrequiringactionor
needingtoexpendeffortinagoaldirectedway.ThesecondPCA
dimensionwasoneofmyproposeddimensions,socialconnection,which
representedtheextenttowhichanindividualfeelsconnectedtoothers.
ThethirdPCAdimensionwasanotherhybriddimensionconsistingof
attentionandpleasantnessitems(originaltotheSmithandEllsworth
study),suggestingthatcertainpositiveemotionsaremorelikelythan
otherstobeperceivedaspleasantandabsorbinginattention.Thefourth
andfifthPCAdimensionswerecontrolandcertainty,twoclassicSmith
andEllsworthdimensionsthathavehelpedemotionresearchersto
understandimportantdifferencesinnegativeemotions.ThesixthPCA
dimensionrepresentedmyothernewlyproposeddimension,temporal
focus,reflectingtheextenttowhichanindividualisfocusedonthe
presentversuspastorfuture.TheseventhandfinalPCAdimensionwas
situationalcontrol.

Tofurtherevaluatehowspecificpositiveemotionsdifferintheir
associatedcognitiveappraisals,componentscoreswerecomputedforthe
PCAsolution.Table2liststhemeanscores(standardizedforeach
dimension)foreachemotionalongthesevenPCAdimensionsand
summarizesthewayappraisalsdifferacrossthevariousemotions(see
table6inSmithandEllsworth1985,p.829).Forexample,hopeand
interestarehighinproblemsolving,whereashappiness,contentment,
andpridearelowinproblemsolving.Loveisahighsocialconnection
emotion,whereasinterest,hope,pride,andcontentmentarelowinsocial
connection.Happinessandcontentmentareverypresentcenteredintheir
temporalfocus,buthopeandgratitudearenot.

91

TABLES
Table1:AppraisalDimensionRatingsItems

Dimension

Item

Pleasantness

Pleasant

Enjoy

Attentional
activity

Attend

Control

Situational
Control

SelfControl

OtherControl

Certainty

Understand

Uncertain

Consider

ItemWording

Howpleasantorunpleasantwasittobeinthis
situation?
Howenjoyableorunenjoyablewasittobeinthis
situation?

Thinkaboutwhatwascausingyoutofeelhappyin
thissituation.Whileyouwerefeelinghappy,to
whatextentdidyoutrytoconsiderthisthing
further,ortowhatextentdidyoutrytoshutitout?
Thinkaboutwhatwascausingyoutofeelhappyin
thissituation.Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,to
whatextentdidyoutrytodevoteyourattentionto
thisthing,ordivertyourattentionfromit?

Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,towhatextentdid
youfeelthatcircumstancesbeyondanyonescontrol
werecontrollingwhatwashappeninginthis
situation?
Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,towhatextentdid
youfeelthatyouhadtheabilitytoinfluencewhat
washappeninginthissituation?
Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,towhatextentdid
youfeelthatsomeoneotherthanyourselfwas
controllingwhatwashappeninginthissituation?

Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,howwelldidyou
understandwhatwashappeningaroundyouinthis
situation?
Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,howuncertainwere

92

Predict

Goalpath
obstacle

Obstacle

Responsibility

Other
Responsibility

Anticipated
effort

Effort

Social
connection

Connected

Problem

Self
Responsibility

Exert

Close

youaboutwhatwashappeninginthissituation?
Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,howwellcouldyou
predictwhatwasgoingtohappeninthissituation?

Thinkaboutwhatyouwantedwhenyoufelthappy
inthissituation.Whileyouwerefeelinghappy,to
whatextentdidyoufeeltherewereproblemsthat
hadtobesolvedbeforeyoucouldgetwhatyou
wanted?
Thinkaboutwhatyouwantedwhenyoufelthappy
inthissituation.Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,to
whatextentdidyoufeeltherewereobstacles
standinginthepathbetweenyouandgettingwhat
youwanted?

Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,howresponsibledid
youfeelforhavingbroughtabouttheeventsthat
weremakingyoufeelhappyinthissituation?
Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,howresponsibledid
youthinksomeoneorsomethingotherthan
yourselfwasforhavingbroughtabouttheevents
thatweremakingyoufeelhappyinthissituation?

Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,towhatextentdid
youfeelthatyouneededtoexertyourselftodeal
withthissituation?
Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,howmucheffort
(mentalorphysical)didyoufeelthissituation
requiredyoutoexpend?

Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,towhatextentdid
youfeelcloseorclosertoanotherindividualor
group?
Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,towhatextentdid
youfeelmoreconnectedtoanotherindividualor
group?

93

Thought

Temporalfocus

Present

Past

Future

Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,towhatextentdidit
affectthewayyouthoughtaboutyourrelationship
withsomeindividualorgroup?

Atthetimeyouwerefeelinghappy,towhatextent
wereyoufocusedonthepresent?
Atthetimeyouwerefeelinghappy,towhatextent
wereyoufocusedonthepast?
Atthetimeyouwerefeelinghappy,towhatextent
wereyoufocusedonthefuture?

Note:Thetableuseshappinessasanexample.

94


Table2:EmotionLocationsforAppraisalDimensions

AppraisalDimension

Emotion

Happiness
Contentment
Hope
Love
Pride
Gratitude
Interest

Problem
Solving

Social
Connection

Attention/
Pleasant

0.51
0.48
0.85
0.32
0.48
0.10
0.76

0.36
0.27
0.33
0.73
0.30
0.21
0.37

0.52
0.40
0.41
0.26
0.29
0.46
0.19

0.28
0.56
0.34
0.21
0.87
0.62
0.55

Temporal
Focus

Situational
Control

0.27
0.14
0.48
0.15
0.19
0.04
0.24

0.65
0.38
0.91
0.11
0.14
0.35
0.01

0.12
0.01
0.02
0.21
0.29
0.07
0.06

Control Certainty

Note:Scoresstandardizedforeachappraisaldimension.

95


Table3:PatternofMeansforSociallyConsciousConsumptionBehaviors
BenefitingDistantOthersandCloseOthers

Emotion

DistantOthers

CloseOthers

3.1a

5.5c

4.9d

5.5c

Hope
Neutral

3.5a,b

Love

3.8b

Note:PlannedcontrastfordistantothersMlove=3.8vs.Mhope=3.1,F(1,144)
=8.79,p<.004;plannedcontrastsforcloseothersMlove=5.5vs.Mneutral=4.9,F(1,
144)=4.67,p<.03,andMhope=5.5vs.Mneutral=4.9,F(1,144)=4.99,p<.03.

96


Table4:PercentageofPeopleChoosingtoMakeRestrictedDonations

Gender

Love

Neutral

Pride

Men

64%(n=39)

49%(n=43)

59%(n=46)

Women

14%(n=28)

44%(n=25)

56%(n=27)

Note:Plannedcontrastformen=57%vs.women=37%,2=8.06,p<.004;
pride=58%vs.love=43%,2=4.33,p<.04;pridevs.neutral=47%,NS.Within
women,pride=56%vs.love=14%,2=8.68,p<.003;pridevs.neutral=44%,
NS.Withinwomen,love=14%vs.neutral=44%,2=3.55,p<.06.Withinmen,
pride=59%,love=64%,andneutral=48%;all2=NS.

97


Table5:PercentageofPeopleChoosingtoDonateaMajorityofFundsto
InternationalRelief

Love

Neutral

Pride

47%a

28%b

33%b

Note:Plannedcontrastforlove=47%vs.pride=28%,2=3.79,p<.05;
love=47%vs.neutral=28%,2=5.36,p<.02;neutral=28%vs.pride=33%,2<
1,NS.

98


Table6:SelfReportedFeelingsinResponsetoPositiveEmotionBlend
TelevisionCommercials

Emotion

Happiness
Hope
Interest
Love
Gratitude
Neutral

ProblemSolving
Commercial

5.9a
5.8a
6.3c
4.0d
3.8d
4.2d

SocialConnection
Commercial

5.8a
4.7b
4.8b
5.6a
5.0b
4.2d

Control

5.6a
5.6a
5.5a
4.5b
4.6b
5.3a

Note:Testsonselfreportedfeelingsofhope(F(2,189)=14.24,p<.0001),
interest(F(2,189)=23.16,p<.0001),love(F(2,189)=26.67,p<.0001),gratitude
(F(2,189)=15.26,p<.0001),andneutral(F(2,189)=2.13,p<.12)revealed
significantemotioninductioneffects.Nodifferencewasfoundforfeelingsof
happiness(Mproblemsolving=5.9,Msocialconnection=5.8,Mcontrol=5.6,F<1).Participants
intheproblemsolvingconditionreportedsignificantlyhigherfeelingsofhope
(Mproblemsolving=5.8,Msocialconnection=4.7,F(1,189)=28.44,p<.0001)andinterest
(Mproblemsolving=6.3,Msocialconnection=4.8,(F(1,189)=43.85,p<.0001)thanthosein
thesocialconnectioncondition.Problemsolvingconditionreportedsignificantly
higherlevelsofinterest(Mcontrol=5.5,(F(1,189)=8.26,p<.005)butnothope
(Mcontrol=5.6,NS)thanthecontrolcondition.Thesocialconnectioncondition
reportedsignificantlyhigherfeelingsoflove(Msocialconnection=5.6,Mproblemsolving=4.0,
(F(1,189)=53.11,p<.0001)andgratitude(Msocialconnection=5.0,Mproblemsolving=3.8,
(F(1,189=26.86,p<.0001)thanthoseintheproblemsolvingcondition.Social
connectionconditionalsoreportedsignificantlyhigherlevelsoflove(Mcontrol=
4.5,(F(1,189)=11.88,p<.0007)butnotgratitude(Mcontrol=4.6,(F(1,189)=1.24,p
<.27)thancontrolcondition.Controlconditionreportedsignificantlymore
neutralfeelings(Mcontrol=5.3)thanthoseintheproblemsolving(Mproblemsolving=
4.2)andsocialconnectionconditions(Msocialconnection=4.2,(F(1,189)=3.96,p<.05).

99


Figure1:SocialConnectionAppraisalsMediateRelationshipBetween
EmotionandBehaviorsBenefitingDistantOthers

Breadth of
Social Connection
1.03**

(.15)**
Behaviors
Benefiting
Distant Others

Emotion
Condition
.41** (.25)

Breadth of
Social Connection
1.03**

(.01)
Behaviors
Benefiting
Close Others

Emotion
Condition
.01 (.03)

Note:Coefficientswithoutparenthesesrepresentparameterestimatesfor
simplelinearregressionmodels.Coefficientsinparenthesesrepresentparameter
estimatesforaregressionmodelcontainingbothpredictors.Doubleasterisks
indicateparameterestimatesdifferentfromzeroatp<.01.Moderatedmediation
wastestedusingthebootstrappingtechnique;theconditionalindirecteffectwas
significantfordistant(z=2.35,p<.02)butnotcloseothers(z<1,NS).

100


Figure2:SocialConnectionAppraisalDispositionPredictsIntentionsto
PerformSociallyConsciousBehaviors

Note:Figure2depictsregressionlines.TheslopesareBdistant=.63,p<.001
andBclose=.22,NS.
B

101


Figure3:SocialConnectionandProblemSolvingAppraisalDispositions
PredictDifferentTypesofConsumptionBehaviors:LikelihoodofBehavior
BenefitingDistantOthers

Note:Figure3depictsregressionlines.ThereportedslopesareBsocial
connection=.65,p<.002andBproblemsolving=.03,NS.Standardizedappraisaldisposition
scoresareplottedabove:Bsocialconnection=.44,p<.002andBproblemsolving=.03,NS.
B

102


Figure4:SocialConnectionandProblemSolvingAppraisalDispositions
PredictDifferentTypesofConsumptionBehaviors:
NumberofOptionsConsidered

Note:Figure4depictsregressionlines.ThereportedslopesareBproblemsolving
=.84,p<.05andBsocialconnection=.54,NS.Standardizedappraisaldispositionscores
areplottedabove:Bproblemsolving=.83,p<.05andBsocialconnection=.37,NS.

103


Figure5:ProblemSolvingAppraisalsMediateRelationshipBetweenPositive
EmotionBlendTypeandEnvironmentalBehaviors

Appraisals of
Problem-Solving
1.59**

(.18)*

Positive
Emotion
Blend Type

Environmental
Behaviors
1.14** (.85)

Note:Coefficientswithoutparenthesesrepresentparameterestimatesfor
simplelinearregressionmodels.Coefficientsinparenthesesrepresentparameter
estimatesforaregressionmodelcontainingbothpredictors.Singleasterisk
indicatesparameterestimatemarginallydifferentfromzero;doubleasterisks
indicateparameterestimatesdifferentfromzeroatp<.05.Mediationwastested
usingthebootstrappingtechnique;theindirecteffectwassignificant(z=1.65,p<
.05).

104

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Biography

LisaCavanaughisanativeoftheGreatLakeStateofMichigan.Shewas
borninRochester,MichiganandgraduatedasValedictorianofRochesterHigh
School,whereshewasadecoratedfouryearvarsityletterwinner,honoredwith
aHighSchoolHeismanAwardandnamedTheDetroitNewsOutstandingHigh
SchoolGraduate.LisawentontoearnherBachelorofArtswithHonorsand
HighestDistinctionfromDukeUniversity,withanacademicconcentrationin
PublicPolicyandMarkets&ManagementStudies.

BeforepursuingherPh.D.atDukeUniversity,Lisaworkedin

Albuquerque,NMandWashington,DCforeconomicdevelopmentandhunger
relieforganizations.InWashington,DC,sheworkedastheManagerofNew
BusinessDevelopmentforoneofthenationsleadinghungerrelief
organizations,ShareOurStrength.Lisawaspartoftheteamleadingthelaunch
ofTheGreatAmericanBakeSale,whichfeaturedthefirstevercoverstoryonthe
issueofchildhoodhungerinPARADEMagazineandwasthefirsttointegratea
grassrootscampaignintoanABCTelevisionsitcom.

DuringherdoctoralstudiesLisahasbeenamemberoftheUnconscious

ConsumerLabatDukeandBarbFredricksonsPositiveEmotionand

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PsychophysiologyLabattheUniversityofNorthCarolina.Lisasresearch
interestscenteronhowemotionsinfluenceconsumptiondecisionswith
consequencesforindividualsandsociety.Morespecifically,sheexamineshow
momentaryemotions,chronicallyexperiencedemotions,andemotionalcuesin
naturalshoppingenvironmentsshapeconsumersperceptions,decisions,and
behaviors.LisasscholarlyworkhasbeenpublishedintheJournalofConsumer
PsychologyandtheJournalofBusinessResearch.

In2007,LisawasawardedtheuniversitywideDeansAwardfor

ExcellenceinTeachingatDukeUniversity.Lisahasalsobeenhonoredasoneof
NorthCarolinasStrongWomenOrganizingOutrageousProjects,forher
environmentalconservationandcommunityorganizingaccomplishments,and
honoredbytheYWCAasaWomanontheMove.Shehasservedonthe
Markets&ManagementAdvisoryBoardatDukeUniversityandtheBoardof
DirectorsforPeacecraft,anonprofitfairtradeorganizationdedicatedtohelping
cooperativesofartisansandfarmersindevelopingcommunities.Shecurrently
livesinanecofriendlycohousingcommunityinDurham,NorthCarolinawith
herhusband,TaymonDomzalski,andtheirtrustycaninecompanion,Lucky.

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