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Bimetal Thermometer
Two different metals with different coefficients of thermal expansion are bonded
together. As the temperature changes from the bonding temperature the unequal
expansion of the two metals will cause the bimetal strip to curl. If one end is fixed
the other end displaces in response to temperature changes.
Bimetal strips can be fabricated into coils, spirals, and disks.
Frequently used in on-off temperature control (thermostats)
Range of use:
-65 to 430 C
0.5 to 12C
Advantages:
Low cost
Negligible maintenance
Stable operation over time
Bimetal Thermometer
R = Radius of curvature
t=total thickness
m = ratio of thicknesses
Low/high expansion materials
1=lower coefficient of
thermal expansion, 1/C
2=higher coefficient of
thermal expansion, 1/C
T=Temperature, C
To=Initial bonding
temperature, C
Advantages/Disadvantages
Low cost
No remote readings
T=T1+kT(T1-T2)
T=correct temperature
T1=actual temperature reading
T2=ambient temperature surrounding emerged portion
T=see text for definition-correction related to exposed length.
K=differential expansion coefficient between liquid and glass
(mercury in glass, =0.00009 F scale and = 0.00016 C scale)
Advantages/Disadvantages
Low cost
Stable in operation
Widely used in industrial applications.
Remote readings are possible.
Transient response is a function of bulb size
and capillary tube length.
Liquid Crystals
Liquid crystals possess the mechanical properties of a liquid, but have the optical
properties of a single crystal. Temperature changes can affect the color of a liquid
crystal, which makes them useful for temperature measurement.
Disposable liquid crystal thermometers have been developed for home and
medical use.
Measurement Principles
Energy transmitted as electromagnetic waves or photons traveling at the
speed of light. Radiation striking a surface is partially reflected, absorbed,
and transmitted.
(refectivity) + (emissivity) + (transmissivity) = 1
Basic Components of IR
Thermometer
Infrared Cameras
Operating Temperature
5 to 122 F (-15 to 50 C)
Measuring Temperature
Accuracy
2% of range or 4 F ( 2 C)
Sensitivity
0.2 F (0.1 C)
Camera Weight
5 lbs.
Electronics
Engines/Compressors
100.6F
100
Building/Structures
106.4F
100
95
80
92.2F
73.5F
Facility maintenance
Utilities and electrical inspection
Medical industry
HVAC/R maintenance and inspection
Food safety
Automotive and diesel maintenance
Asphalt, cement, and construction materials.
Material Emmisivity
Material emissivity is subject to a great amount of uncertainty
because it depends on surface finish, color, oxidation, aging,
and several other factors.
How do determine emissivity?
Use published values as a good start.
Example
The energy emitted from a piece of metal is measured, and the
temperature is determined to be 1050 C, assuming an emissivity of 0.82.
It is later found that the true emissivity is 0.75. What is the error in the
temperature determination?
q / A = T 4
and
q/A = T 4
where
T = 1050C = 1323K
T = ???
= 0.82
= 0.75
and
(0.82)(1323)4 = (0.75)(T ) 4
solve
T = 1352 K
Unpowered
Low cost
Non-invasive
They can be installed on conventional thermocouple
controllers.
IR Thermocouples
Even though the overall governing
equations are non-linear, the
infrared thermocouples output is
linear over a small enough range
Uses:
Summarize IR Thermometer
Advantages
IR thermometers can measure objects that move, rotate, or
vibrate.
They can measure temperatures > 1500 C
They do not damage or contaminate the surface of the object
of interest (food, painted surfaces)
Response time is in the millisecond range.
Contact Sensors
RTDs
Thermistorss
Thermocouples
Resistance Temperature
Thermometers
Resistance Temperature
Thermometers
Sensitivity=dR/d
T
L
R=
A
L=metal wire length
A=cross-sectional area
T = o [1 + a(T To )]
R = R o 1 a (T To ) + b(T To )
where
R o = reference resistance measured at T o (To is typically 0 C)
T = measured temperature
a and b = calibration constants
simple linear verson is often used over smaller temperature interval
R = R o [1 a (T To )]
RTDs
Low resistance
100 (most common) to 1000
RTD Disadvantages/Issues
Lead wire resistance can be significant.
2-wire is well suited for applications where there
are no lead wires.
3-wire provides sufficient accuracy in accounting
for the lead wire resistance. However, best
accuracy is obtained with 4-wire RTD.
4-wire RTD has one pair of leads that supplies
excitation current and the other pair measure the
voltage drop across it.
Thermistors
Thermistor Disadvantages/Issues
Narrow operating range for a single unit
Operating range is between -200 C and 1000C
Thermistor Calibration
R = R oe
1 1
T To
where
R o = reference resistance measured at T o
T
= measured temperature
= material constant
Thermocouples
Most frequently used method to measure
temperature with an electrical output signal.
Thermocouples Principle of
Operation
In, 1821 T.J. Seebeck observed the existence of and
electromotive force (EMF) at the junction formed
between two dissimilar metals (Seebeck effect).
Seebeck effect is actually the combined result of two other
phenomenon, Thomson and Peltier effects.
Thomson observed the existence of an EMF due to the contact of
two dissimilar metals and the junction temperature.
Peltier discovered that temperature gradients along conductors in a
circuit generate an EMF.
Thomson effect is normally much smaller in magnitude than the
Peltier effect and can be minimized and disregarded with proper
thermocouple design.
Thermocouple Effect
Any time a pair of dissimilar wires is joined
and a junction is formed an emf voltage will
be generated.
Twist and solder or welded junctions are most
common
Keep weld bead or solder bead within 10-15%
of wire diameter
Welding is generally quicker than soldering but
both are equally accurate
Ice Baths
Accurate and inexpensive
Zone boxes
A zone of uniform temperature that insures all
connections made within the zone are ate the same
temperature.
Copper-Constantan (T Curve)
Iron-Constantan (J Curve)
The Copper-Constantan thermocouple, with a positive copper wire and a negative Constantan wire is
recommended for use in mildly oxidizing and reducing atmospheres up to 400C. They are suitable for
applications where moisture is present. This alloy is recommended for low temperature work since the
homogeneity of the component wires can be maintained better than other base metal wires. Therefore,
errors due to the non-homogeneity of wires in zones of temperature gradients is greatly reduced.
The Iron-Constantan thermocouple with a positive iron wire and a negative Constantan wire is
recommended for reducing atmospheres. The operating range for this alloy combination is 870C for
the largest wire sizes. Smaller wire sizes should operate in correspondingly lower temperatures.
Chromel-Alumel (K Curve)
The Chromel-Alumel thermocouple, with a positive Chromel wire and a negative Alumel wire, is
recommended for use in clean oxidizing atmospheres. The operating range for this alloy is 1260C for
the largest wire sizes. Smaller wires should operate in correspondingly lower temperatures.
Thermocouple Materials
Chromel-Constantan (E Curve)
1.The S curve shows a positive wire of 90% platinum and 10% rhodium used with a negative wire of pure
platinum,
2.The R curve indicates a positive wire of 87% platinum and 13% rhodium used with a negative wire of pure
platinum, and
3.(not shown) a positive wire of 70% platinum and 30% rhodium used with a negative wire of 94% platinum
and 6% rhodium.
They have a high resistance to oxidation and corrosion. However, hydrogen, carbon and many metal
vapors can contaminate a platinum-rhodium thermocouple.
The recommended operating range for the platinum-rhodium alloys is 1540C although
temperatures as high as 1780C can be measured with the Pt-30% Rh vs Pt-6% Rh alloy combination.
Tungsten-Rhenium (C Curve)
Three types of tungsten-rhenium thermocouples are in common use for measuring temperatures up
to 2760C. These alloys have inherently poor oxidation resistance and should be used in vacuum,
hydrogen or inert atmospheres.
Grades of TC wire
Wire diameter
Type of probes
Ungrounded
Junction is detached from the probe. Electrical
isolation is obtained at the cost of response
time.
Grounded
Junction is physically attached to probe wall.
Good heat transfer to junction.
Exposed
Junction is exposed to the surrounding
environment. Best response time, but is
limited to noncorrosive and nonpressurized
applications.
Measuring
Junction
Reference
Junction
Two materials
3
Material A (+)
Material B (-)
Plus and minus refers to how the emf changes with temperature.
Example:
emf
B
Measure
d Emf
2
A
1
T junction
T meter
Temperature
T reference
T junction
5
2
4
3
Fe (+)
P (+)
emf
C (-)
C
Measure
d Emf
1
T ref
F
e
5
3
2
T 2 and 4
Temperature
T measured
Tcandle
T1
T3
T2
T1
emf
emf23
emf13
emf12
T1
F
e
T2
T3
5
3
Hot Zone
emf
C
Measure
d Emf
1
T ref
F
e
T measured
T hot
Example problems
Ambient Temp. = 24 C
ice bath
?
Voltmeter +-
Cu
iron
Cu
constantan
-10 C
Ambient Temp. = 24 C
Isothermal Block
at Ambient Temp.
6.232 mV
Voltmeter +-
Cu
iron
Cu
constantan
? C
TC Diagnostics
More Examples
Ambient Temp. = 24 C
49.312 mV
Isothermal Block
at Ambient Temp.
Cu
Averaging Circuit- Thermocouple are connected
Voltmeter +- in parallel between two
temperature zones.
Cu
4 iron
constantan
TC's
Ambient Temp. = 24 C
Ice Bath
?
Voltmeter +-
iron
Cu
110 C
100 C
Cu
constantan
130 C
? C
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Response Time
Noise
Grounding issues and shorts, especially on
metal surfaces
Conduction
L
Tm T j
4hconv
cosh L
d
k
wire wire
Tj
Tm
Errorconduction = TT TJ =
Convection Errors
Applies to high speed flow applications. Loss of kinetic energy is
converted to heat at stagnation point.
(
1 )[( 1) / 2]M 2
Ttrue T junction =
1 + [( 1) / 2]M 2
where
= recovery factor
= ratio of specific heats, c p /c v
M = Mach Number
=0.86
=0.68
(T j4 Tw4 )
hconvection
where
Tw = Wall Temperature