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Cornell

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BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE

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MATHEMATICS
FOR

THE PRACTICAL MAN

EXPLAINING SIMPLY AND QUICKLY
ALL THE ELEMENTS OF

ALGEBRA, GEOMETRY, TRIGONOMETRY,

LOGARITHMS, COORDINATE

GEOMETRY, CALCULUS
WITH ANSWERS TO PROBLErtS
BY

GEORGE HOWE,

M.E.

ILLUSTRATED

SEVENTH THOUSAND

D.

NEW YORK
VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
25

Park Place
1918
0

Copyright,

191 1,

by

D.

VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY

D.

VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY

Copyright,

igig,

by

Stanbope Ipnes

G1LSON COMPANY
BOSTON. U.S.A.

r. H.

Dedicated To

Mtavm Agrea, pf.S.

PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE
"MY GOOD FRIEND AND GUIDE."

Cornell University
Library

The

original of this

book

is in

the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright

restrictions in

the United States on the use of the

text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031266871

PREFACE
In preparing this work the author has been prompted
by many reasons, the most important of which are:
The dearth of short but complete books covering the
fundamentals of mathematics.

The tendency

of those elementary books

which " begin

at the beginning " to treat the subject in a popular rather

scientific manner.
Those who have had experience

than in a
bodies of

men

in lecturing to large

know that they are comengineers who have had consider-

in night classes

posed partly of practical

able experience in the operation of machinery, but no

scientific training

whatsoever; partly of

men who have de-

voted some time to study through correspondence schools

and similar methods of instruction; partly of men who

have had a good education in some non-technical field of
work but, feeling a distinct calling to the engineering
profession,

have sought

special training

from night lecture

courses; partly of commercial engineering salesmen,

preparation has been non-technical and

who

whose

realize in this

fact a serious handicap whenever an important sale is to

be negotiated and they are brought into competition with

the

skill

of trained engineers;

and

finally, of

young men
become

leaving high schools and academies anxious to

engineers but

purpose.

who

are unable to attend college for that

Therefore

it is

apparent that with this wide

PREFACE

iv

any
must begin with studies which are quite
familiar to a large number but which have been forgotten
or perhaps never undertaken by a large number of others.
And here lies the best hope of this textbook. It "begins
at the beginning," assumes no mathematical knowledge beyond arithmetic on the part of the student, has endeavored
to gather together in a concise and simple yet accurate and
difference in the degree of preparation of its students

course of study

scientific

form those fundamental notions of mathematics

without which any studies in engineering are impossible,

omitting the usual diffuseness of elementary works, and

making no pretense at elaborate demonstrations, believing

that where there is much chaff the seed is easily lost.
I have therefore made it the policy of this book that
no technical difficulties will be waived, no obstacles circumscribed in the pursuit of any theory or any conception.
Straightforward discussion has

been adopted;

where

an attempt has been made to

very roots, and proceed no further until

obstacles have been met,

strike at their

they have been thoroughly unearthed.

With this introduction, I beg to submit this modest

attempt to the engineering world, being amply repaid if,
even in a small way, it may advance the general knowledge
of mathematics.

GEORGE HOWE.
New

York, September, 1910.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
I.

Page

Fundamentals of Algebra.

Addition and Subtrac-

tion
II.

Fundamentals of Algebra.

Multiplication and Divi-

sion, I
III.

-.

Fundamentals of Algebra.

Multiplication and Divi12

sion, II

IV.

Fundamentals of Algebra.

Factoring

21

Involution and Evolu-

V. Fundamentals of Algebra.

tion
VI.
VII.

25

Simple Equations

Fundamentals of Algebra.

Fundamentals

of

Algebra.

Simultaneous

29

Equa-

tions
VIII.

Fundamentals of Algebra.

41

Quadratic Equations

DC. Fundamentals of Algebra.

Variation

X. Some Elements of Geometry

XII. Logarithms

XIV.

55

61

XI. Elementary Principles of Trigonometry

XIII. Elementary Principles of Coordinate

48

75

85

Geometry

Elementary Prlnclples of the Calculus

95

no

MATHEMATICS
CHAPTER

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
Addition and Subtraction

As an

introduction to this chapter on the fundamental

principles of algebra, I will say that

essential to

an understanding

it

absolutely

is

of engineering that the

fundamental principles of algebra be thoroughly digested

and

redigested,

in

mind and method

Algebra
if

is

short, literally

soaked into one's

of thought.

a very simple science

extremely

looked at from a common-sense standpoint.

seen thus,

it

If

can be made most intricate and, in

It is arithmetic simplified,

cut to arithmetic.

In arithmetic we would say,

hat costs 5 cents, 10 hats cost^ 50 cents.

cents,

say,

if

fact,

if

one

In algebra

one a costs 5 cents, then 10 a cost 50

a being used here to represent "hat."

we term

not

a short

incomprehensible.

we would

simple

in algebra a symbol,

handled by means

of

to represent one thing;

and

all

such symbols,
b,

is

what

quantities are

another symbol,

is

presumed

is

presumed

MATHEMATICS

to represent another thing, c another,

on

so

and

any number

for

is

objects.

therefore, of using

simplicity,

sent objects

of

d another, and

The

usefulness

symbols to repre-

Suppose a merchant in the

obvious.

furniture business to be taking stock.

He would

through his stock rooms and,

10 chairs, he

seeing

would actually write down "10 chairs"; 5

would actually write out "5
actually write this out,

Now,

and so on.

by the

he had at

by the

beds by the letter

letter b,

if

c,

he

he would

tables"; 4 beds,

the start agreed to represent chairs

tables

tables,

go

letter a,

and so on,

he would have been saved the necessity of writing

down

the

names

have written 10

of these articles

a, 5

and 4

b,

Definition of a Symbol.

which

it is

When

each time, and could

c.

A symbol

is

some

letter

by

agreed to represent some object or thing.

a problem

thing necessary

is

is

to

to be

worked in algebra, the

make a

first

choice of symbols, namely,

to assign certain letters to each of the different objects

concerned with the problem,

up a

code.

When

this

code

in

is

be rigorously maintained; that

any problem or

other words, to get

once established
is, if,

it

must

in the solution of

set of problems, it is

once stipulated

that a shall represent a chair, then wherever a appears

it

means a

chair,

and wherever the word

be inserted an a must be placed

be changed.

the

chair

would

code must not

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
Positivity

and Negativity.

Now, in algebraic thought,

not only do we use symbols to represent various objects

and

things,

but we use the signs plus (+) or minus (

before the symbols, to indicate

what we

call

the positivity

or negativity of the object.

Addition and Subtraction.

Algebraically,

if,

and accounts, a merchant

ing over his stock

in go-

finds that

he has 4 tables in stock, and on glancing over his

books finds that he owes 3

the 4

tables

stock

in

tables,

he would represent

by such a form

as

+4 a,

representing table; the 3 tables which he owes he would

represent

by 3

a,

the plus sign indicating that which

he has on hand and the minus sign that which he owes.

Grouping

the

quantities

+4 a

and

3a

in other words, striking a balance, one

together,

would get +a,

which represents the one table which he owns over and

above that which he owes.

The plus

sign, then, is

taken

to indicate all things on hand, all quantities greater

The minus

than zero.

sign

those things which are owed,

is

all

taken to indicate

Suppose the following to be the inventory

tain

quantity

+4 a, 2

&,

of

stock:

2 c, +5 c.

quantities together

and

all

things less than zero.

of a cer-

+8 a, 2 a, +6 b, 3 c,
Now, on grouping

these

striking a balance, it will be

seen that there are 8 of those things which are repre-

sented

a,

by a on hand;

on hand;

likewise 4 more, represented

are owed, namely,

a.

by

Therefore,

MATHEMATICS

+8 a, +4 a,

on grouping
will

be the

Now,

result.

and

we have

senting the objects which

+6b

and 2

c,

2 c,

+5

b,

+5

represents 5

represent that 5
tities neutralize

+ 8a

together^ will

on hand, and

c's

reduces to

+46.

Grouping

give o,

3c

because

and

2c

Therefore,

strike a balance.

+ 66 3 c + 4a
+ 10 a + 4

we have

b,

are owed; therefore, these quan-

c's

and

+10

together,

called

as a result

giving

and

2a

collecting those terms repre-

2b

2 c

+ 5c

b.

This process of gathering together and simplifying a

collection of

in

call

terms having different signs

algebra addition and subtraction.

is

what we

Nothing

is

more simple, and yet nothing should be more thoroughly

understood before proceeding further.

It

is

obviously

impossible to add one table to one chair and thereby

get two chairs, or one bojbk to one hat and get two

books; whereas
to another

it is

perfectly possible to

book and

get'

add one book

two books, one chair to an-

other chair and thereby get two chairs.

Rule.

Like symbols can be added and

subtracted,

and

8a; a

+b
+ b,

only like symbols.

a
will

+ a will
not give

give 2 a;
2

a or 2

this being the simplest

these

30
b,

but

50

will

will

give

simply give a

form in which the addition of

two terms can be expressed.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
Coefficients.

In

+8 a

any term such as

sign indicates that the object

zero, the 8 indicates the

is

and the a

coefficient,

ject,

whether

them on hand,

of

a chair or a book or a table that

it is

In the term

a.

greater than zero, the 6 indicates the

on hand, and the a

in his pocket

their nature.

and he owes $50,

his

represented $1

by the

owned, or
of objects

If

it is

owed by

still

letter a,

together,

which

50 a. On

Algebraic Expressions.

owe

an algebraic expression;

+ $a +

$30.

simply, for the 5 b

+ 3a +
written.

11b

c,

he
If

then the $20 in

+ 20 a,

the $50

grouping these terms

30

a.

for instance,

+a-|-2&

$b

6b

+c

+a+

+ cisan
is

and 6

b,

b is

algebraic

another

braic expression, but this last one can be written

one term, making

if

An algebraic expression con-

two or more terms;

expression;

has $20

the same process as the settling of

is

accounts, the result would be

sists of

man

evident that

pocket would be represented by

that he

+6 a,

is

paid up as far as he could, he would

we had

we

number

sign indicates that the object

(+)

it

the

called

is

indicates the nature of the ob-

have represented by the symbol

the plus

the plus

on hand or greater than

number

the numerical part of the term and

is

alge-

more

can be grouped together in

and the expression now becomes

which

is

as

simple as

it

can be

It is always advisable to

group together into

any

algebraic expression

the smallest

number

of terms

MATHEMATICS

wherever

it is

met

in a problem,

manipulation or handling of

When

there

is

To

sign

it.

no sign before the

expression the plus

i

and thus simplify the

(+)

sign

is

term of an

first

intended.

subtract one quantity from another, change the

and then group the quantities into one term, as

just

+ 12 a

we

Thus: to subtract 4 a from

explained.

write

4a

-+

i2j^wMclvsiniplifies into 4-8

a.

subtracting i"a from 4- 6 a

which equals

we would have

Again,
a

+ 6 a,

+4 a.
PROBLEMS

Simplify the following expressions

1.
2.

3.

4.

5.

6.
7.

4 ^ V- &B
+ 5b + 6c-8a~3d +
a 6 + c 10 a c + 2
10J + 3Z + 8& 4 d 6.z 12 & + 5 a 3d
+ 8z ioa + 8b $a 6z + iob.
5 4 y + 3 2 &.+ 4 y + * + z + a j
+ 6y.
6
2 a + 5 c + 7 a 10 6j 8 c 4- 4 a b + c.
3
2 + a + 6 + ioy 6 * y 7 a + 3 b + 2y.
4X y + z + x + 15Z 3X + 6y^7y+ 12Z.
r
r
ioa

b.

7,

,z

&.

CHAPTER

II

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
and Division

Multiplication

We

have seen how the use

of algebra simplifies the

operations of addition and subtraction, but in multiplication

and

division this simplification is far greater,

weapon

the great

to the student is

of

now

to

become
If the

is

one foot, his result

one square

foot, the

being very different from the foot.

multiply one chair
the result?
Is there

by one

What word

is

asked to multiply one foot by

student of arithmetic
is

and

realized for the first time.

thought which algebra

Now, ask

How

table.

square foot
hira to

can he express

can he use to signify the result?

any conception

in his

mind as

to the appear-

ance of the object which would be obtained by multiplying one chair

simplified.
b,

If

we

by one

which represents in

by a

to call it;
to our

table.

its

b,

by

we obtain

a,

all

this is

and a chair by

the expression ab,

entirety the multiplication of a

We need

we simply

no word, no name by which

use the form ab, and that carries

mind the notion

multiplied

In algebra

represent a table

and we multiply a by

chair

table?

of the thing

by the thing which we

7

which we

call b.

And

call

thus the

MATHEMATICS

form
to

is

any further thought being given

carried without

it.

Exponents.

The

by

represented
cut,

namely, a2

two

a's

multiplication of a

we have a further short

called

an exponent, indicates that

But

aa.

This

2,

by a may be

here

have been multiplied by each other; a

would give us a

signifies

been multiplied by

the

number

of times the

Now, suppose a were multiplied by a3

signifies

and a3 indicates that 3

The exposymbol has

;j

the result would

a's are multiplied together;

would likewise give us a10 a4

,

Rule.

The

representing

then

by each other simply

indicates that 5 a's are multiplied together,

that 2 a's are multiplied together,

multiplying these two expressions

itself.

be a5 , since a2

the 3 indicating that three a's have

been multiplied by one another; and so on.

nent simply

a3

a7

a4 would give us a8,

would give us a13 and so on.

,

multiplication by each other of symbols

similar objects

is

accomplished by adding

their exponents.

Indentity of Symbols.

be

clearly seen that the

from

either

a or b

from a or b as

Now,

in the foregoing it

combined symbol ab

different

ab must be handled as differently

would be handled;

an absolutely new symbol.

from a as a square foot
2

is

must

is

in other words, it is

Likewise a2

from a linear

as different from a as one cubic foot

is

is

as different

foot,

and a3

is

from one square

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
a2

foot,

a3

a distinct symbol,

is

a distinct symbol,

is

and can only be grouped together with other a3

example,

if

an algebraic expression such as

+ a + ab + a + 3 a

a2

For

's.

were met

this
ab,

to simplify it

we could group

+3 a2

+4 a2 the +a and the 2a give a;

the ab neutralize each other; there is

the

giving

+ab and

together the a2 and the

term with the symbol a3

only one

Therefore the

above expression simplified would be 4 a2

This

Above

is

as simple as

can be expressed.

it

things the most important

and

separate

distinct

8
.

all

never to group unlike

is

symbols together by addition and subtraction.

member fundamentally

+a

that a,

b, ab,

symbols,

2
,

3
,

Re-

a* are all

each representing a

separate and distinct thing.

X c. It gives us the term

X b we get a2b. If we have ab X ab,
we have 2 ab X 2 ab we get 4 a b

Suppose we have a
If

abc.

we

we have a

get a2 b 2

6 a2W

c,

2 2

If

we

get 18 a2 b3c; and so on.

Whenever two

terms are multiplied by each other, the coefficients are

multiplied together, and the similar parts of the symbols
are multiplied together.

Division.

Just

down -to mean

as

when

divided

in

by

arithmetic

3, in

algebra

mean a

divided

by

b.

is

called a

b a denominator, and the expression

write

we writer
o

3
to

we

numerator and
is

called a frac-

MATHEMATICS

IO
tion.

If

result is
If

is

a3
5

is

multiplied

by a2 we have seen that the

,

obtained by adding the exponents 3 and

divided by a

by subtracting

the result

from

is

obtained

would

equal a,

which

is a,

Therefore

3.

2.

a?b

2
the a in the denominator dividing into o in the nu-

merator a times, and the b in the denominator cancelDivision

ing the b in the numerator.

inverse of multiplication, which

is

is

a b

and

way

logical

of multiplication,

we obtain

may be

written

a b
,

and so

on.

But there

a more

is

scientific

of explaining division as the inverse

and

This

fraction.
a2

simplify-

Or OCr

Negative Exponents.

On

patent.

A 2 3

ing such an expression as

then simply the

it is

may
;

thus

Suppose we have the

be written a

that

is,

-2
,

or the term b 2

any term may be changed

from the numerator of a fraction to the denominator by

simply changing the sign of

its

a5

exponent.

For example,

written o5

terms together, which

is

accomplished by adding their

-j

may be

Multiplying these two

exponents, would give us a3

the addition of 5 and 2.

It

therefore, to

made

make a

being the result of

is

scarcely necessary,

separate l'aw for division

for multiplication,

when

it is

if

one

is

seen that division

simply changes the sign of the exponent.

This should

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

II

be carefully considered and thought over by the pupil,

Take such an

for it is of great importance.

as

abc

Suppose

all

the symbols in the denominator

are placed in the numerator, then

simplifying, ab~

or,

which

<?,

expression

we have a^Wa^b^c,

may be

further written

ft/**

The

b6

is

well to

negative exponent

become thoroughly

is

very serviceable, and

familiar with

lowing examples should be worked by

it.

The

the student.

PROBLEMS
Simplify the following
i.

2aX $b X
12

a?bc

6x

4 a?bc

sab.
2

c b.

3 xy.

3 abc

a5 $

2
ft

aW
'

a2d?

X & X a c.
X 6-?a-V X

a"2

fi

abc2

o 3 63

a'b^ch

10
ii

10 a26
5

s/*"

Wa

3
45 a

12

X 6^'

^-*

7^ X
2

o a

io- J a.

it

fol-

CHAPTER

III

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
and Division (Continued).

Multiplication

Having

and explained the principles

illustrated

multiplication

and

division of algebraic terms,

we

of
will

in this lecture inquire into the nature of these processes

as they apply to algebraic expressions^

this,

however,

let

us investigate a

Before doing
further into the

little

principles of fractions.

Fractions.

We have

said that the fraction 7 indi-

cated that a was divided

\ indicates that

tic

is

by

b,

divided

just as in arithme-

by

3.

-by

Suppose we

our procedure
3, we obtain**
3
3
being to multiply the numerator 1 by 3.
Similarly,
multiply the fraction

if

we had

multiplied the fraction -

would have been ^~

Rule.
tity

is

by

our result

The multiplication of a fraction

accomplished

3,

by multiplying

its

by any quan-

numerator

by

2 a?

that quantity; thus,

7--

Conversely,

7- multiplied by 3 a would give

when we

divide

fraction

by a

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
we multiply

quantity,

its

denominator by that quantity.

Thus, the fraction - when divided by

we multiply

should

Finally,

it

is

obvious that

the value of the fraction, for

multiplied and divided

this

2 & gives -^t2

2 b

the numerator and the

denominator by the same quantity,

we do not change

13

it

by the same

we have

From

thing.

must not be deduced that adding the same

it

quantity to both the numerator and the denominator of

The beginner

a fraction will not change its value.

make

likely to

against

this

mistake, and he

is

Suppose we add to both the numerator and

it.

the denominator of the fraction f the quantity 2

obtain

is

here warned

which

is

different in value

from

^,

We will
proving

that the addition or subtraction of the same quantity

from both numerator and denominator of any fraction

changes

its

value.

The

multiplication or division of

both the numerator and the denominator by the same

quantity does not alter the value of a fraction one whit.

Multiplying
plished

two fractions by each other

by multiplying

their

is

accom-

numerators together and

multiplying their denominators together.

Thus, -

Xc

would give us
Suppose
fraction \

it

be
is

desired to

add the

fraction \ to the

Arithmetic teaches us that

sary to reduce both fractions to a

it is first

common

neces-

denominator,

MATHEMATICS

14

which

in this case is 6, viz.

added

tors being

Likewise,

value.

if

+1

the numera-

1,

the denominators are of a

if it is

common

add - to - we must

desired to

common denominator,
common denominator of

reduce both of these fractions to a

which in

this case is bd.

several denominators

is

(The

a quantity into which any one of

these denominators may be divided; thus b will divide into

bd,

d times, and a* will divide into bd, b

then become

+
bd

common

The denominators now having a

bd

-\

denominator in

becomes -

2a

sa
case

this

the second

6 a

be added by adding

the numerators, resulting in

we

find that the

is

Likewise, adding

The

a.

^ and

first

the third

6a

result being the fraction

will

may

value, the fractions

the fractions -

Our fractions

times.)

2 Or

fraction

the

"A

"l

~\~

2 C

This process

on

be taken up and explained in more detail

the student should

common

make an attempt

later,

but

to apprehend the

and solve the problems given at

principles here stated

the end of this lecture.

Law

of_Signs.

Like signs multiplied or divided give

+ and unlike signs give

+3a X +
also

3a

Thus

a gives

X 20

gives

+ 6a
+ 6a

2
,

2
,

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

+ 3 a X 2 a gives a
or 3 a X + 20 gives 6 a
furthermore + 8 a divided by + 2 a gives + 4 a,
and 8 a divided by 2 a gives + 4 a
while 8 a divided by + 2 a gives 4 a
or + 8 a divided by 2 a gives 4 a.
2

while

Multiplication

Quantity. As
sion consists of

but 3 a
of a

of

an

previously said, an algebraic expres-

two or more terms.

S b is

a, 5 b,

an algebraic expression.

merchant consists of 10 tables and 5

doubles his stock,

number

of tables

increase

it

by a

Expression

Algebraic

and he

chairs,

evident that he must double the

it is

and

are terms,

If the stock

also the

to 20 tables

number

and 10

of chairs, namely,

chairs.

Likewise,

when

2 b is

an algebraic expression which

consists of 3 a

doubled, or, what

thing, multiplied

is

the

same

each term must be doubled or multiplied by

ing in the expression 6 a

+4

b.

Similarly,

2,

by

2,

result-

when an
terms

is

divided by any number, each term must be divided

by

algebraic

expression

consisting

of

several

that number.

Rule.
unit.
tity,

An algebraic expression must be treated as a

Whenever it

is

multiplied or divided

by any quan-

each term of the expression must be multiplied or

divided by that quantity.

For example: Multiplying

MATHEMATICS

16

+ 3 y + 5 xy by the quantity 3 x will

give the following result 12
+ 9 ary + 15 a^y, obtained
the expression 4 x

a;

by multiplying each one

of the separate terms

by

a;

successively.

Division of an Algebraic Expression by a Quantity.

Dividing

would

the

6 a3

expression

result in the expression =2t

by dividing each term

+4b

2 a?b
\-

-\

by

2 oft

obtained

successively

by

2 b.

This rule

-***

must be remembered, as
estimated.

its

importance cannot be over-

The numerator

or denominator of a frac-

two or more terms must be

tion consisting of one or

handled as a unit, this being one of the most important

For example,

applications of this rule.

or

it is

in the fraction

impossible to cancel out the a in

the numerator and denominator, for the reason that

the numerator

divided

by

a,

is

divided

by

a,

if

each term must be

and the operation upon the one term o

without the same operation upon the term b would

be erroneous.

If the fraction

is

multiplied

a
it

becomes 2

2_.

If

the fraction

a
plied

2
by -

it

becomes

a
(t

~~ 2 b

30

+ 3*

+b

and so

on.

is

by

3,

multi-

Never

forget that the numerator (or denominator) of a fraction

consisting of

two or more terms is an algebraic expression

and must be handled as a

unit.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

One

Multiplication of
other.

It

Algebraic Expression by An-

frequently desired to multiply an alge-

is

braic expression not only

by a

single

term but by another

algebraic expression consisting of two or

which case the

by each term
result

from

first

expression

then collected together

this operation are

+b

to multiply a

+b

by

c,

by

bd.

result expressed in

Suppose

+ d. We

Now,

by

d,

it

would

which would give us ac

would multiply a
ad

were desired

first

+ be.

we obtain

ac

multiply

Then we

which would give us

collecting the result of these

plications together,

be

ad

two multi-

+ bd,

viz.

+b
c + d
ac + be
a

+ bd
+ ad + bd
ad

ac

+ be

Again, let us multiply

+b3c
a + 2h c
2
2 a + ab 2>ac
2

by

$ab

2 b

2 ac

6 be
be +

2
3 c

and we have
2

a2

5 ab

5 ac

in

The terms which

of the second expression.

the simplest manner possible.

more terms,

multiplied throughout

is

by addition and subtraction and the

17

2 b

7 be

+3

<?

MATHEMATICS

The Division

This

is

one Algebraic Expression by Another.

of

somewhat more

In general

stand than the foregoing.

that, suppose

6 a

17 ab

we

12 b 2

by 3 a

+
6a2 +

6 a2

+4

may

be said

17 ab

we would

b,

arrange

way

12 b2

3 a

Bab

+ 12 b
gab + 12 b

+ 4b
+3&

9 ab

'will

it

are required to divide the expression

the expression in the following

3 a

explain and under-

difficult to

divide into 6 a2 2 a times,

and

This

in the quotient as shown.

this is placed

then multiplied

is

successively into each of the terms in the divisor, namely,

3 a

+4

b,

and the

result,

namely, 6 a2

beneath the dividend, as shown.

and

this quantity subtracted

gab.

The +12

Again,

we observe

gab,

+36

times,

in

the

8 ab,

line is

is

placed

then drawn

from the dividend, leaving

dividend

is

now

carried.

that 3 a in the divisor will divide into

and we place

this

term in the

divisor.

Multiplying 3 b by each of the terms of the divisor, as

before, will give us 9 ab

12 b 2

and, subtracting this

as shown, nothing remains, the final result of the division then being the expression

20

+ 36.

This process should be studied and thoroughly understood

by the

student.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

19

PROBLEMS
Solve the following problems
1.

Multiply the fraction

2.

Divide the fraction

by the quantity 3

x.

by the quantity 3 a.
a

Multiply the fraction

3.

xy

a2b2c2

by the

aW

fraction

by

the fraction -r*

quantity 5

quantity

z z

ab2

by the

2 ab.

by the

expression

b.

7.

Multiply the expression

pression

+4ab

Multiply the expression a

6.

22 by the

x.

Divide the expression 8 a?b

5.

+ 33; +

Multiply the expression 43;

4.

3a 2&

+b

by the

ex-

+ 4C.

8.

Divide the expression a2

9.

Divide the expression a3

ab

2
3 a b

by a

b.

+ 3 a& + 5
2

by

+ b.
10.

11.

12.

Multiply
r J the fraction
Multiply
^ J the fraction
Multiply the fraction

-3
c

+d

by
a

;-

by

by

by

- by
2

MATHEMATICS

20

040

13.

Add

together the fractions

14.

Add

together the fractions

15.

16.

Add
Add

together the fractions

Add

4.

2
3 a

40

together the fractions

46

a
a

together the fractions

2
b

17.

(-

2 c

CHAPTER

IV

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
Factoring
Definition of a Factor.

factor of a quantity is

one of the two or more parts which when multiplied

together give the quantity.

factor

an integral

is

part of a quantity, and the ability to divide and subdivide a quantity, be

it

sion, into those factors

it, is

a single term or a whole expres-

whose multiplication has created

very valuable.

Suppose

we take

the

factors are readily detected as 2

and

Factoring.

factors of 10 are 5
2; or,

better

3X2X5;

still,

and

and

The

2.

3X3X2.

so on.

The

number
3.

factors of 18 are 9

The

factors of

their multiplication created the

5,

a and

The

b,

and

c.

term

The

and

30 are

b,

because

The

ab.

factors

factors of 25 ab are

5,

which are quite readily detected.

factors of

an expression consisting

terms, however, are not so readily seen

of

two or more

and sometimes

require considerable ingenuity for their detection.

pose

and

factors of the algebraic ex-

pression ab are readily detected as a

of 6 abc are 3, 2, a, b

Its

6.

Likewise the

we have an

algebraic expression in which

Supall

of

MATHEMATICS

22

more common

the terms have one or

that one or more like factors appear in the

each term.

It

common

the

that

is,

make-up

of

factors,

often desirable in this case to

is

remove

from the several terms, and

factors

in

order to do this without changing the value of any of

common

the terms, the

factor or factors are placed

outside of a parenthesis and the terms from which they

have been removed placed within the parenthesis

Thus, in the algebraic expression

their simplified form.

2

6 a b

3 a

therefore

ing

its

3 a

is

we may

common

The term

3 a

cates that

it

factor of both terms;

write the expression, without chang-

value, in the following

2

manner: 3 a2

must be multiplied

expression 12 xy

4 x3

6 x2z

factor of each of the terms,

2

(2 b

+ a).

written outside of the parenthesis indiinto each of the sepa-

rate terms within the parenthesis.

be written

in

(6

Likewise, in the

8 xz, 2 x

is

common

and the expression may

+ 3 xz + 4 z).

It

is

often

desirable to factor in this simple manner.

Still

further suppose

can take a out of the

a (a

last two, thus:

we have a2
first

sion

we have
or,

(a

ab

+ ac + be;

two terms and

+ b) +

c (a

two separate terms and taking

we have

b).

(a

+ b)

6 x2

(a

c).

out of the

Now we

have

out of each

X +
+ 4 xy 3 zx 2 zy
2 x (3 x + 2 y) 2 (3 x + 2 y),
(3 x + 2 y) X (2 * 2).
b)

we

Likewise, in the expres-

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
Now, suppose we have

We

by a

Any

b.

square;

3 x

b;

the

expression where this

and

2 y,

may

12 xy

+4y

be written

the product of the

is

sum and

of the

+ b) X

such as (a

b2 .

terms

while

the

(a

b)

sum and

(3

x
is

square

the

is

2 y)

of

Remem-

2
.

readily detected.

difference of

equals a

a perfect

is

difference of

2
;

two terms
or,

briefly,

two numbers

equal to the difference of their squares.

By

trial it is

often easy to discover the factors of

algebraic expressions; for example, 2 a 2

+ 3&.
Factor the following
1.

3oa?b.

2.

4&ai c.

3.

30x2y*z 3

4.

144 x a

2
.

12 ab
3

10 xy2

(?

Atfb2

"

7.

2
2xry

a2

'

+ ab

be the product of

readily detected to

last

b,

the case

is

bering these facts, a perfect square

The product

ab

equal to twice the product of a and

is

thus,

and

first

the result of

is

squares of a and

are respectively the

middle term

the expression a2

readily detect that this quantity

multiplying a

23

ac

ic.

7 ab
2

+ 3 b is
+ b and
2

24

MATHEMATICS

24
8.
9.

10.

11.
12.
13.
14.

15.
16.

17.

+ xy + 3 xc + cy.
2X + sxy + 2xz + $ yz.
a 2 ab + b
4* i2ary + (jy
81 a + go ab + 25 b
16 c 48 ca + 36 a
4 afy + 5 *zy 10 xzy.
30 ab + 15 a&c 5 be.
81 y 25 a
2
3x

16 6

18.

144 afy

19.

4 a2

4
.

64 z2

+4
+ 8xy + x
8 ac

c.
2

20.

i6y

21.

6y $xy 6X
2

24.

6y
2
2 a

25.

22.
23.

4a

a2

306

i$xy
5 a&

10 6

2
.

+6X

2
3&

+ 9 a& + 10 b

2
.

CHAPTER V
FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
Involution and Evolution

We

have

in a previous chapter discussed the process

by which we can

an algebraic term and even a

raise

whole algebraic expression to any power desired, by

multiplying

method

by

it

Let us now investigate the

itself.

of finding the square root

of an algebraic expression, as

upon

a3

so
,

on,

any term such as a2

root of

by

obtained

a,

respectively,

be,

will

The plus-or-minus

are frequently called

to do.

The square
and

we

and the cube root

() shows that

sign

a when squared would give us

a2

exponents

the

dividing

+0

2
.

either

On

a4

a6

by

2.

+a

or

taking the

square root, therefore, the plus-or-minus sign ()

This

always placed before the root.

root, however.

the cube

such terms as a
2

tively a, a

by

3.

to be

is

and

is

not the case in

Likewise, the cube root of

and

so on,

would be respec-

and a3 obtained by dividing the exponents

,

4 6
Similarly, the square root of 4 o 6 will be seen

2 cPb

3
,

obtained by taking the square root of

each factor of the term.

And
25

likewise the cube root

MATHEMATICS

26
of

27

3 aW.

a 9 66 will be

evident that

These facts are so

scarcely necessary to dwell

it is

self-

upon them.

However, the detection of the square and the cube root

of

an algebraic expression consisting

by no means

of several terms is

so simple.

Square Root of an Algebraic Expression.

we multiply
2

ab

the expression a
b

This

is

by

Suppose
We

itself.

obtain

evidently the square of a

Suppose then we are given

this expression

and asked

determine

We proceed in

this

square root.

its

Take the square

calling
a;

it

the

root of the

term and

The square

root.

trial

first

a and subtract

we have

from the

this

the remainder 2 ab

we proceed

Now

the

2 ab,

a.

b to the trial root,

Now

multiply the

and subtracting
have nothing
is

this

it,

is

square

and

trial divisor

+b

2 a.

20

will

b times.

+ b.
gives us 2 ab + b

and the same becomes a

by

b, it

from our former remainder, we

The square

left.

a2
a

For our

This gives us

trial divisor

seen to be a

term of the remainder,

first

Add

then,

as follows: Double the part of the root

already found, namely,

go into

isolate

original expression,
2

to

manner

root of a

therefore place a in the trial root.

b.

root of our expression,

b, viz.

2 ab

+b

+b
2ab + b

2\ab

\a

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
Likewise we see that the square root of 4 a2
is 2

+ 3 b,

27

12

ab

+9b

If

viz.

+g

4jz2,+ 12 ab

b2

+3

4 a

+3

4 a

&

The Cube Root

+b

multiply a

of

by

+9&
a& + 9 6

12 aJ

12

an Algebraic Expression.

itself

three times, in other words,

+ 3 a b + 3 ab +

cube the expression, we obtain a3

It is evident, therefore, that

and asked

latter expression

result should

we proceed

be a
thus:

term, namely,

cube

a,

a,

we had been given

if

3
.

this

to find its cube root, our

b.

In finding the cube root, a

+ b,

We

take the cube root of the

first

and place

our

this in

Now

trial root.

subtract the a3 thus obtained from the original

expression,

Now

we

our

and we have as a remainder 3

trial divisor will consist

a?b

+ 3 ab + b
2

as follows:

3
.

Square

the part of the root already found and multiply same

by

3.

This gives us 3 a2

Divide 3 a2 into the

term of the remainder, namely, 3 a2b, and

b

times,

root.

Now

then

add

it

becomes the second term

first

will

go

of

the

to the trial divisor three times the first

term of the root multiplied by the second term of the

root,

which gives us 3

ab.

Then add the second term

2
of the root square, namely, b

becomes 3 a

by b and

+ 3 ab + b

2
.

Our

full

divisor

now

Now multiply this full divisor

subtract this from the former remainder, namely,

MATHEMATICS

28
3 a?b

+ 3 ab + W,
2

and, having nothing

the cube root of our original expression

a3
2
3a

+ 3 ab + b

+ sa b + sab + b
2

+ 3 a& +
3 a b + 3 a& +

2
3ab

27

4.

27

2
a;

9x

2
27 x

+9 +
+ gx +
a;

1
1

of the following expressions

+ 24 xy + 9 y
4 a + 4 o& +
36x + 24x3/ + 4y
25 a 20 ab + 4 b
a + 2
+ 2 ac + 2 Sc + 6 + c
2

Z>

aft

2-

Find the cube root of the following expressions

1.
2.

3.

16 x2

5.

+ gx + 1

Find the square root

3.

<

+ 2'jx + gx + i I3X+1
27 x

2.

viz.

1.

+ b,
a + b
a

1, viz.

2 ,jx?

2
2j x

see that

Likewise the cube root of 27 x3

is

we

seen to be 3 x

left,

+ 54x;y + 27
x + 6x y + 12 xy + Sy
27 a + 81 a b[+ 81 a& + 27 W.
8x3 + 36x2

)>

j/

is

CHAPTER

VI

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
Simple Equations

An

equation

is

the expression of the equality of two

things; thus, a

b signifies that

equal to whatever

money

we

ca.ll

whatever we

b; for

if

side of

a quantity

is

is

example, one pile of

containing $100 in one shape or another

equal to any other pile containing $100.

that

call

It

is

is

evident

added to or subtracted from one

an equation or equality,

it

must be added

to or

subtracted from the other side of the equation or equality, in

thus,

if

order to retain the equality of the two sides;

Similarly,

or divided

=
if

b,

then a

by any

then

+c

and a

is

the

b,

ac

be

c.

multiplied

quantity, the other side

by

must be

same quantity;

thus,

a- = -b

j
and

c
Similarly,

one side of an equation

multiplied or divided
if

+c

if

one side of an equation

is

squared, the

other side of the equation must be squared in order to

29

MATHEMATICS

30
retain the equality.

In general, whatever

done to

is

one side of an equation must also be done to the other

side in order to retain the equality of

both

The

sides.

logic of this is self-evident.

Transposition.

+b=
a + b
a

we

have

equation

the

Subtract b from both sides, and

c.

Suppose

b.

and the

tion the

-\-b

we have

the result a

On the left-hand side of the equab will cancel out, leaving a, and
= c b. Compare this with our

and we

original equation,

we have

will see that

they are exactly

alike except for the fact that in the one b is

on the

left-hand side of the equation, in the other b

the right-hand side of the equation; in one case

is

plus, in the other case its sign is minus.

is

on

its sign

This indi-

cates that in order to change a term from one side of

an equation to the other

change

its sign;

thus,

may

side it is simply necessary to

c+b =

be transposed into the equation

or into the form

or into the form

Any term may be

=c
c

+ d,

b,

b.

transposed from one side of an equa-

tion to the other simply

by changing

its sign.

Adding or Subtracting Two Equations.

When

two

equations are to be added to one another their corre-

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

31

+c=
+c=b+d+

sponding sides are added to one another; thus, a

to a

Likewise

3 a

when added

ioa

2b = 6c

e will

give

2a

when

2 c

Two

Multiplying or Dividing

c.

Equations by one An-

When two equations are multiplied or divided

other.

by one another

their corresponding sides

plied or divided

by one another;

= d

will give ac

....

will give c

thus, a

bd, also

must be multib multiplied

b divided

by

= d

equation as 4 x

Suppose we have such an

10

24,

and

it is

desired that

equation be solved for the value of x; that

the value of the

order to do
to group the

this,

unknown quantity x be
the

first

process

is,

that

found.

all

the other terms in the

In this

equation on the other side of the equation.

grouping

the

terms

containing

the

unknown

quantity x on the left-hand side of the equation

"ave

Now,

4x

24

collecting the like terms, this

2

The next
coefficient

step
of

In

must always be

terms containing x on one side of the

equation by themselves and

case,

by

b
-

Solution of an Equation.

this

e.

from

subtracted^

+b

will yield 7

is

10.

becomes

14.

to divide the equation through

x,

namely,

2.

we

Dividing

the

by the

left-hand

MATHEMATICS

32

by

side

by

2,

2,

we have

we have

Dividing the right-hand side

x.

therefore, has resolved

Our equation,

7.

itself into

We

therefore

7.

have the value of

4 x

we

10

see that the equation

28

The

24,

becomes

+ 24,

14

38

38,

result.

process above described

solving for an

+ 10

or,

which proves the

Substituting this

x.

namely,

value in the original equation,

the general

is

unknown quantity

method

of

in a simple equation.

Let us now take the equation

2

ex

+c

40

5 x.

This equation contains two unknown quantities, namely,

c

and

x, either of

which we

may

solve for.

is

usually,

however, chosen to represent the unknown quantity,

whose value we wish

in fact, x,

unknown
equation.

y and

to find, in

an algebraic expression;

z are generally chosen to represent

quantities.

Let us solve for x in the above

Again we group the two terms containing

x on one side of the equation by themselves and

other terms on the other side, and
2 ex

we have

+ 5 * = 40

c.

all

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

On

the left-hand side of the equation

containing

xasa

we have two terms

Let us factor

factor.

33

this expression

and we have
*

(2 c

+ 5)

- c.

40

Dividing through by the coefficient of

which

x,

the

is

parenthesis in this case, just as simple a coefficient to

handle as any other, and

x
This

final result is the

we have

40

-aL

2c

complete solution of the equa-

tion as to the value of x, for

one side of the equation by

other side.

unknown

we have x

itself,

and

of

quantities represented by symbols, the complete

value of

any one of

accomplished when we have isolated this

side of the equation by

This

itself.

the

unknowns

is

unknown on one

is, therefore, the

whole

our solution.

It is true that the value of

tains

value on the

In any equation containing any number

solution for the

object of

its

on

isolated

an unknown quantity,

value of c were

now

given,

x above shown

still

con-

Suppose the numerical

c.

we could immediately

find

the corresponding numerical value of x; thus, suppose c

were equal to

2,

we would have
x

or,

= 40

4 + 5

.-31

MATHEMATICS

34
This

is

the numerical value of x, corresponding to the

numerical value 2 of

the numerical value of c

XB=

If

c.

we should have

4Q-4 = 3g.
8

Clearing of Fractions.

contained no fractions.

4 had been assigned as

+5

13

The above simple equations

Suppose, however, that

we

are

asked to solve the equation

4226
Manifestly this equation cannot be treated at once in
the

manner

of the preceding example.

in solving such an equation

denominators of

is

The

first

the removal of

all

the fractions in the equation,

step

the
this

step being called the Clearing of Fractions.

As previously

seen,

in

order to add together the

fractions and f we must reduce them to a common

We then have t + f = f Likewise,
denominator, 6
.

we can group or operate upon any

terms we must reduce them to a common

in equations, before

one of the

The common denominator

denominator.

denominators

is

various denominators will divide, and the least

denominator

the smallest such number.

is

several

of

any number into which any one

of the

common

The product

the denominators that

multiplying them
together
give
always
a common denominator, but

of all

is,

will

all

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
not always the

common

least

common

common
them

ceed.

9 and

needed frequently in

is

and

2.

3, 2

and

and then by what

common to both
and 3. 2 is common
1,

4 and

Finally,
2,

1.

which

is left

and

2,

and we have
Multiplying

is

and

6
to

still

the Least

2,

8 and

4,

leaving

common to 4
common factors

the

of these together

1, 2,

we have

Common Denominator
1

6, 8, q,
2 , 8>

of these

3,4

1. 4, 3, 2
i,

2,3,

3X2X2X1X2X3X1
Having determined the Least
any common denominator

it

Common

7 2-

Denominator,

for that matter, the next

to multiply each denominator

as will change
If the

8,

leaving respec-

the denominators

left in

all

9,

6,

viz.

is

denomi-

of the

further

we have removed

step

factors

two denominators and multiplying

is

numbers,

or

all

Thus, suppose we have the denominators

4.

de-

probably the easiest and simplest way to pro-

is

tively 2

3 and

common

old rule of withdrawing

to at least

respectively

72,

The

it.

together,

nators,

least

always desirable in preference to a larger

is

number; but some ingenuity

detecting

The

denominator.

denominator, being the smallest

nominator,

35

into the Least

by such a quantity

Common

denominator of a fraction

is

Denominator.

multiplied

by any

MATHEMATICS

36
quantity, as

we have

previously seen, the numerator

must be multiplied by that same quantity, or the value

of the fraction

is

the denominator of

must

Therefore, in multiplying

changed.

by a

each fraction

we

quantity,

Returning to the
oc
6
=
equation which we had at the outset, namely, - -\
2
4
also multiply the numerator.

"?

OC

h ^
6

2
12.

we

see that the

common denominator
-

Our equation then becomes

\-

12

We

12

here

is

-\

12

12

have previously seen that the multiplication or

division of both sides

of

equation by the same

an

quantity does not alter the value of the equation.

Therefore

we can

equation by 12.
appear.

This

is

at once multiply both sides of this

Doing

the denominators dis-

so, all

equivalent to merely canceling

denominators, and the equation

simple form 3 x
this

36

18 x

is

now changed

On

10.

becomes

18 x = 10
15 x = 26,

3 x
or

or

x =

-26
J

+x

or

36,

+ 26
IS

Again, let us

now

take the equation

2

5*

10
c

a:

~t'

all

the

to the

transposition

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
The

common denominator

least
2

Reducing

be 15

nator

we have

all

will at

once be seen to

fractions to this

common denomi-

6 ex
15

Canceling

all

15 c

in

a;

which

15 c2

+ 150 =

$c2x.

we have

as a
it

_ $c2x

we then have

denominators,

6 ex

Taking

150

6 ex
Transposing,

37

2
5 c x

common

appears,

= 150.

factor out of both of the terms

we have

(6 c

= - 150.

2
5 c )

Dividing through by the parenthesis, we have

~
6c

This

is

given to

the value- of
c,

such as

x.

2,

I 5

If

2
s c

some numerical value

for instance,

we can

the corresponding numerical value of x

the numerical value of c in the above,

150
2 = 150
|
o
12
20

In this same manner

appear are solved.

all

by

is

then find

substituting

and we have

=18.75.

equations in which fractions

MATHEMATICS

38

PROBLEMS
Suppose we wish to make use
tion of a simple problem usually
taking, for example, such a

and coat

chases a hat

much

twice as

We

worked

problem as

for $15.00,

this

A man pur-

and the coat

How much

as the hat.

arithmetically,

costs

did the hat cost?

would proceed as follows Let x equal the cost of

:

Since the coat cost twice as

the hat.

then
is

of algebra in the solu-

x equals the cost

of the coat,

much

and x

as the hat,

15

the equation representing the fact that the cost of

the coat plus the cost of the hat equals $15; therefore,
3

$15, from which x

hat was $5.

$5; namely, the cost of the

x then equals $10, the cost

Thus many problems may be

of the coat.

attacked.

Solve the following equations

6x

+ 4# + 3 = 2x + 20 x + 15.
# + 5+3# + 6= 10 + 25 + 8 #.
ex + 4 + x = ex + 8. Find the numerical

1.
2.

a;

3.

of x

io

X
-

4-

if

if

T+

4
3.

4-

-\

& X

+ 3=
3

6.

value

3.

+ 12

Find the numerical value

c

of

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
IOC

ex.

$C

xcx -**
15
*
r
IO
2 C

_.

.,

39

Find the numerical

MATHEMATICS

40
24.

The value

of a horse is $15

more than twice the

value of a carriage, and the cost of both

the cost of each
25.

One-third of Anne's age

what

is

is 5

He

that he

now

sells

is

her age?

years less than one"

merchant has 10 more chairs than tables

stock.

many

$1000; what

half plus 2 years;

26.

is

four of each

has twice as

of each did he

and adding up stock

many

have at

chairs as tables.

first?

in

finds

How

CHAPTER

VII

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
Simultaneous Equations

As

when we have a

seen in the previous chapter,

simple equation in which only one

unknown quantity

appears,

we

such, for

instance, as

x,

can,

by

alge-

braic processes, at once determine the numerical value

of this

unknown

quantity, such

as

c,

appear in this equation, in order

to determine the value of

be assigned to
sible.

An

x some

However,

If

some manner

this is

senting two separate

and

not always pos-

unknown

of relation

two separate and

quanti-.

between these

distinct equations repre-

distinct relations

between the two unknown

must

definite value

equation containing two

ties represents

quantities.

c.

Should another unknown

quantity.

which

exist

quantities can be found,

then the numerical values of the unknown quantities

become

fixed,

and

either one can

be determined without

knowing the corresponding value

two separate equations are

The

of the other.

called simultaneous equa-

tions, since they represent simultaneous relations be-

tween the unknown quantity.

example:
41

The

following

is

an

MATHEMATICS

42

The

first

+y

= 4.

10.

equation represents one relation between

The

and y.

subsisting between
ical value of x, or

x and

The

y.

solution for the numer-

that of y, from these two equations,

unknowns, x or y as

consists in eliminating one of the

the case

may

be,

by adding

equation, and

we

10

of

y.

we have

+ y.

may now

of

be

see that this is

Likewise in the second equation

These two values

other, as will

Let us now find the value

seen in the following.

first

or subtracting, dividing or

by each

multiplying the equations

x in the

a;

second equation represents another relation

be equated

(things

equal to the same thing must be equal to each other),

and we have
10

or,

+
Now,

this

value of

is

x,

the

we

+ y,

= 4 10,
2y = -6,
2y = +6,
V = 3-

value of
substitute

y.

this

In order to find
numerical

value

y in one of the equations containing both x and

the
of
y,

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
such as the

first

equation, x

+y =

10.

43
Substituting,

we have
x

+3 =
x

Transposing,

x
Here, then,
y,

the

by the

we have found

=
=

10

3,

7.

the values of both x and

having been made possible

algebraic

process

fact that

we had two

unknown

10.

equations connecting the

quantities.

The simultaneous equations above given might have

been solved likewise by simply adding both equations
together, thus:

Adding

MATHEMATICS

44

we have

But sup-

eliminated one of the unknowns.

pose the equations are of this type

+ 2y =
x + y = 5.

(i)

?,x

(2)

Now we

12,

can proceed to solve these equations in one of

two ways:

first,

to find the value of

and then equate these values

But suppose we

by

these equations
will

not eliminate

it.

If,

unknown quan-

are trying to eliminate x from

addition;

*,

an

of x, thus obtaining

equation where only y appears as an

tity.

in each equation

it will

nor even

be seen that adding

will subtraction eliminate

however, we multiply equation

(2)

by

3, it

be-

comes

3^
Now, when

this

+ 33'

x 5-

subtracted from equation

is

(1),

+ 2y = 12
+ sy = 15
-y = -3
and + 30: respectively,

thus

3*
3X

the terms in #,
nate, 3 y

+3

minus

231 leaves

-y =

or

y, and

will elimi-

leaves 3,

-3,

+y=

therefore

12 15

+3.

Just as in order to find the value of two unknowns

two

distinct

and separate equations are necessary

to

express relations between these unknowns, likewise to

find the value of the

unknowns

in equations contain-

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
unknown

ing three

45

quantities, three distinct

Thus, we

rate equations are necessary.

and sepa-

may have

the

equations

(2)

+ y + z = 6,
x y + 2Z = 1,

(3)

(1)

We now

+y-z=

4.

combine any two of these equations,

stance the

first

and the second, with the idea

nating one of the

equation

(2)

unknown

from

(1),

(4)

Now

we
2

quantities, as x.

will

for in-

of elimi-

Subtracting

have
z

5.

taking any other two of the equations, such as the

second and the third, and subtracting one from the other,
with a view to eliminating
(5)

We now

x,

and we have

-27 + 3Z =

-3.

have two equations containing two unknowns,

which we solve as before explained.

ing them,

For instance, add-

we have
2Z

2,

I.

Substituting this value of z in equation

2

5>

2y =

6,

3-

(4),

we have

MATHEMATICS

46

Substituting both of these values of z and y in equation

(i),

we have
x

+3+i =

6,

2.

Thus we

see that with three

unknowns three

distinct

and separate equations connecting them are necessary

may

order that their values

four

unknowns four

showing relations
case where

Likewise with

and separate equations

distinct

between them are necessary.

we have a

we combine

be found.

larger

in

number than two

In each

equations,

the equations together two at a time, each

time ehminating one of the unknown quantities, and,

using the resultant

we have

course until

same

equations, continue in the

resolved into

finally

equation containing only one unknown.

value of the other unknowns

To

one

final

find the

we then work backward,

substituting the value of the one

unknown found

in an

equation containing two unknowns, and both of these in

an equation containing three unknowns, and so on.

The

solution of simultaneous equations is very im-

portant,
until

he

and the student should practice on

is

steps.

Solve the following problems

i.

this subject

thoroughly familiar with every one of these

2X
2

+ y = 8,

6.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

+ y = 7,
3* -y = 13.
4x = y + 2,
x + y = 3.
x

2.

3.

4.

47

Find the value of

x,

y and

in the

following

z in the

following

equations

+ y + z = 10,
2X + y z = 9,
# + 2y + z = 12.
x

5.

Find the value of

x,

y and

equations

+ 3y+2Z = 20,
x + sy + z = 13,
# + y + 2z = 13.

2#

X
6.

+y

10,

100 x

3 a

2# =
y

+
,

+a

if

10.

3*
x

+ y = 15,
6 + 7 y.

os
a

.,fl
if

+y- 5
3*-y + 6* = 8,
y 10 + 4 y = #
x

10.

+&

=
=

6,
5-

8,

CHAPTER

VIII

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
Quadratic Equations

Thus

far

we have handled

equations

where the

unknown whose value we were

solving for entered the

equation in the

Suppose, however, that

the

unknown entered

for instance, the

power.

first

the equation in the second power;

unknown x
x =
2

In solving

enters the equation thus,

2#

12

Sx =
x2 =
x

manner we obtain

12,
4.

Taking the square root of both

first

this equation in the usual

2

We

sides,

2.

obtained the value of x2 and then took the

square root of this to find the value of

tion of such

an equation

x.

The

solu-

seen to be just as simple in

is

every respect as a simple equation where the unknown

did not appear as a square.

But suppose that we have

such an equation as this

4X2

We

see that

will do.

We

+ Sx

12.

none of the processes thus

must

therefore find
48

far discussed

some way of grouping

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
x2 and x

together which will give us a single term in x

when we take
is

49

the square root of both sides; this device

called " Completing the square in x."

It consists as follows:

Group together

into a single term, likewise

side

of

Now

the equation.

coefficient of

terms containing x into

all

and everything

on the right-hand

else

through by the

divide

In the above equation this

terms in x2

Place these on the left-hand side

another single term.

of the equation

all

Hav-

is 4.

ing done this, add to the right-hand side of the equation the square of one-half of the coefficient of x.
this is

added to one

side of the equation it

must

wise be added to the other side of the equation.

4.x

8x =

If

like-

Thus:

12.

Dividing through by the coefficient of x2 namely

,

4,

we

have
x2

Adding to both
coefficient of x,

sides the square

which

x2

The

+ 2 x = 3.

is 2

in the

+ 2X + 1 =3 +

one-half

of

term

1,

now been made

and therefore may be

expressed thus:
(*

Now

+ i) = 4.
2

taking the square root of both sides

+1 =

2.

the

1.

left-hand side of this equation has

into the perfect square of

of

2 x,

we have

MATHEMATICS

50

Therefore, using the plus sign of

x
Using the minus sign of

we have

2,

1.

we have

x = -3.

The student

will note that there

must, in the nature of

the case, be two distinct and separate roots to a quadratic equation,

due to the plus and minus signs above

mentioned.

To
(1)

recapitulate the preceding steps,

Group

all

we have

the terms in x 2 and x on one side of the

equation alone, placing those in x2

first.

(2)

Divide through by the coefficient of x2

(3)

Add

to both sides of the equation the square of

one-half of the coefficient of the x term.

(4)

Take the square root

of

side being a perfect square).

both sides (the left-hand

Then

solve as for a simple

equation in x.

Example: Solve for * in the following equation:

2
4x

56

20 x,

x2

+ 20 x = 56,
+ 5 x = 14,

x2

+ 5X + ^

4x

=14

+ ^,

4
x?

$x

+ ^- = ,
4

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
Taking the square root

of

both sides we have

a;

Example: Solve

for

4 a?

x2 -

2
a;

2 or

7.

* in the following equation:

+ 5=a5 + 2a;-io-3 + 33,

+ 33? 4a; 2 = 33 10 5,

2a^-4a;
2 a?

51

a;

a;

18,

MATHEMATICS

52

Solving an Equation which Contains a Root.

quently

we meet with an equation which

In such cases

square or a cube root.

it is

Fre-

contains a

necessary to

get rid of the square or cube root sign as quickly as

possible.

To do

this the root is usually placed

by

side of the equation

itself,

squared or cubed, as the case

and then both

may

on one

sides are

be, thus

Example: Solve the equation

V2 x + 6 +
Solving for the root,

or,

+6 =
2

squaring both sides

2

10.

we have

V2 x +
Now

5 a

10

5 a.

we have

100

25 a

2
25 a

+ 25 a
100 a + 100 6,
100 a + 94
2

100 a

In any event, our prime object is first to get the squareroot sign on one side of the equation
so that it

may

by

be removed by squaring.

Or the equation may be

2S +

of the type

4
.

Vfl
Squaring both sides

we have

21

*6

itself if possible,

FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA
Clearing fractions

4<i

(4

53

we have

4<ix

+4a +
_

+ 4a + 4a + a
3

1)
3

4a

= 4 a

4a

16

+4a +^
+4a + 1
2

16,

16,

2
4a

PROBLEMS
Solve the following equations for the value of x :

6.

= 10.
3 x + 4 x + 20 = 44.
23? + 11 = x2 + 4X + 7.
2
+ 4se = 2x + 2x2 8.
2
73: + 15 - x = 32; + 18.
2
4
+ 2 x = 24.

7.

x2

9.
7

14

1.
2.

3.

4.
5.

a;

15 x

jc

jc

+^a + 6x

10.

+ *6 = =4 2x
1

3;

1-

a
2

a;

7.

54

MATHEMATICS

54

l6

+7

3*

a?

+2

a;

S?

12

+3+2

ax

'

+I

a;

18.

^+6

4
19.

20.

o
8

64

Vx +
Va; + a + 10 a =
X

21

15.

=Vx~+7.

a
22.

3 *

+ 5 = 2 + V 3 + 4.
a:

CHAPTER IX
VARIATION
This

a subject of the utmost importance in the

is

mathematical education of the student of

is

one to which, unfortunately, too

little

science.

It

attention

is

paid in the average mathematical textbook.

it is

Indeed,

not infrequent to find a student with an excellent

mathematical training who has but vaguely grasped

the notions of variation, and

that

we depend

upon variation

still it is

for nearly every physical law!

Fundamentally, variation means nothing more than

the

finding

constants

Let

varying quantities.

We know

and money.

which connect two mutually

for .instance,

us,

in a general

way

take wheat

that the more

money we have

the more wheat

This

between wheat and money.

is

a variation

we can purchase.

can go no further in determining exactly

bushels of wheat a certain
before

we

establish

bushel of wheat.
the variation.

varying

definite

of

money

constant

money, namely,

This price

is

how many
will

buy

relation

the price

per

called the Constant of

Likewise, whenever two quantities are

together,

absolutely

some

and

wheat

between

amount

But we

the

movement

upon the movement

S5

of

one

depending

of the other, it is im-

MATHEMATICS

56

possible to find out exactly

what value

of

one corre-

sponds with a given value of the other at any time,

unless

we know

exactly

what constant

relation subsists

between the two.

Where one

quantity, a, varies as another quantity,

namely, increases or decreases in value as another quantity, b,

we

represent the fact in this

cc

manner

b.

Now, wherever we have such a

relation

we can immedi-

ately write

a
a
If

we observe

b,

we can

= some constant X
= KXb.

closely

substitute

b,

two corresponding values

them

in this equation

the value of this constant.

This

is

and

of a

and

find out

the process which

the experimenter in a laboratory has resorted to in de-

ducing

all

the laws of science.

Experimentation in a laboratory

will

enable us to

determine, not one, but a long series of corresponding

values of two varying quantities.

This

series of values

will give us an idea of the nature of their variation.

We may
and

then write

down

the variation as above shown,

solve for the constant.

This constant establishes

the relation between a and b at

fore all-important.

all

times,

and

is there-

Thus, suppose the experimenter in

a laboratory observes that by suspending a weight of

VARIATION

57

ioo pounds on a wire of a certain length and size

pounds he observes that

On

inch.

stretches three-tenths of

an

inch,

and

so on.

it

He

at

a constant relation between the

is

and the weight producing

elongation

it.

He

then

Elongation

weight.

<*

Elongation = some
E = K X W.

Now

an

stretches two-tenths of

it

it

suspending 200

suspending 300 pounds he observes that

once sees that there

writes

On

an inch.

stretched one-tenth of

this is

constant

weight.

Suppose we substitute one of

an equation.

the sets of values of elongation and weight, namely,

.3

this is

and

lbs.

.3

Therefore

wire,

an inch and 300

= K X 300.
K = .001.

We have
Now,

of

if

an absolute constant for the stretch of that

at

any time we wish

certain weight, say 500

simply have to write

Substituting

and we have

lbs., will

down

to

know how much

stretch that wire,

we

the equation;

E = K X W.
elong. = .001 X 500,
elong.

.5

of

Thus, in general, the student

an

will

inch.

remember that where

two quantities vary as each other we can change

variation,

this

which cannot be handled mathematically,

MATHEMATICS

58

an equation which can be handled with absolute

into

and precision by simply

definiteness

inserting a con-

stant into the variation.

Inverse Variation.

Sometimes we have one quantity

increasing at the

same rate that another

thus, the pressure

on a certain amount

as its

volume

is

decreases;

of air increases

and we write

decreased,

-,

oc

P
then

KX~P

Wherever one quantity increases as another decreases,

we

call this

an

and we express

inverse variation,

manner above shown.

as the square or the cube or the fourth

other

it

in the

Frequently one quantity varies

power of the

for instance, the area of a square varies as the

square of

its side,

and we write

or,

Again, one quantity

A b\
A = Kb2

may vary inversely

as the square of

the other, as, for example, the intensity of light, which

varies inversely as the square of the distance
source, thus:
,

oc

A =

i
,

Kj

from

its

VARIATION
Grouping

Variations.

of

59

Sometimes

we have a

quantity varying as one quantity and also varying as

another quantity.

In such cases we

two variations into a

may

group these

Thus, we say

single variation.

that

<x

also

oc c,

then

a a 5

or,

This

is

b,

beam

c,

KXbXc.

obviously correct;

weight which a

for,

suppose we say that the

will sustain in

end-on compression

varies directly as its width, also directly as its depth,

we

see at a glance that the weight will vary as the

cross-sectional area,

by the

which

the product of the width

is

depth.

Sometimes we have such variations as

a

oc

b,

also

oc

-j
c

then

oc

this

This

is

practically the

same

as the previous case, with

the exception that instead of two direct variations

we

have one direct and one inverse variation.

There
however,

is

much

is

interesting theory in variation, which,

unimportant

for our purposes

and which

MATHEMATICS

60

ters the principles

student thoroughly mas-

If the

I will therefore omit.

above mentioned he

will find

them

comprehending the deduction

of inestimable value in
.

of scientific equations.

PROBLEMS
If a

i.

oc

when a

and we have a

500, b

10,

showing that

set of values

what

the constant

is

of

this

variation ?
If

2.

oc

what

2205,

3.

oc

is

b;

b2 ,

and the constant

the value of b
also

a -.

oc

c'

when a =

100, then 6

stant of this variation

4.

What
5.

is

oc

be.

The constant

the value of a

0= KX-.
is

and

If

when

the value of c

-.
c

we

If

what

3,

find that

is

the con-

what

is

= 5?

when

or,

of the variation

15

of the variation equals 12.

6

and

and a

=
6

and

2.

CHAPTER X
SOME ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY
In

this chapter I will

attempt to explain

elementary notions of geometry which

will materially

aid the student to a thorough understanding of

At

physical theories.

some

briefly

many

the start let us accept the fol-

lowing axioms and definitions of terms which

we

will

employ.

Axioms and
I.

Definitions

Geometry

is

the science of space.

There are only three fundamental directions or

II.

dimensions in space, namely, length, breadth and depth.

III.

geometrical point has theoretically no dimen-

geometrical line has theoretically only one

sions.

IV.

dimension,
V.

length.

geometrical surface or plane has theoretically

only two dimensions, namely, length and breadth.

VI.

geometrical body occupies space and has three

dimensions,
VII.

An

angle

two straight
thus, in Fig.

length, breadth

lines

is

and

depth.

the opening or divergence between

which cut or

i,

61

intersect

each other;

MATHEMATICS

62

Fig
4-

is

an angle between the

be expressed thus,
VIII.

4-

When two

a or

4-

i.

lines

AB

and CD, and may

BOD.

lines lying in the

same surface or

plane are so drawn that they never approach or retreat

from each other, no matter how long they are actually

extended, they are said to be parallel; thus, in Fig.

Fig.

the lines

IX.

by

2,

AB

and

CD

2.

are parallel.

definite portion of a surface or plane

lines is called a polygon; thus, Fig. 3

Fig. 3-

bounded

shows a polygon.

SOME ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY

X.

polygon bounded

by

63

three sides

is

called a

polygon bounded by four sides

is

called a

triangle (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4.

XI.

quadrangle (Fig.

5),

and if the opposite

a parallelogram (Fig.

6).

Fig. 6.

Fig. 5-

When

XII.

sides are parallel,

a line has revolved about a point until

has swept through a complete

or

circle,

comes back to
position.

360

When

it

has

volved one quarter of

circle,

or 90

be at

re-

away from its

original position,
to

it

its original

right

it is

said

angles

or

perpendicular to

its original

position; thus,

the angle a (Fig. 7)

is

a right

a.

it

MATHEMATICS

64

between the

lines

AB

and CD, which are perpendicular

to each other.

XIII.

An

angle less than a right angle

is

called

an

called

an

acute angle.

XIV. An

angle greater than a right angle

is

obtuse angle.

XV. The addition of two right angles makes a straight

line.

XVI. Two

angles which

when placed

added together make a right angle, or 90

be complements of each other; thus,

4-

by

side
,

side or

are said to

30 and

4-

6o are

complementary angles.
i

XVII. Two angles which when added together form

180

or a straight line, are said to be supplements of

each other; thus, 130

and

4-

50

are supplementary

angles.

XVIII.

When

a right angle,

one of the inside angles of a triangle

it is

is

called a right-angle triangle (Fig. 8),

Fig. 8.

and the

side

hypothenuse.

AB

opposite the right angle

is

called its

SOME ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY

XIX.
are

rectangle

is

a parallelogram whose angles

right angles (Fig. 9a),

all

whose

65

and a square

is

a rectangle

sides are all equal (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9.

XX. A

Fig. 9a.

circle is a

curved

equally distant or equidistant

line, all

points of which are

from a

fixed point called a

center (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10.

With these
sumptions we

now

proceed.

as-

may
Fls-

Let

BM

CN

"

us look at Fig.

n.

by

transversal or intersecting line

is

the
seen

called

common
at

glance

vertical angles,

and

that the

4-

are parallel lines cut

ROM

are equal; likewise

RS.

It

and BOA,
4-

ROM

and

MATHEMATICS

66

4 RAN,

called

likewise

4 RAN,

and

are

angles,

terior

angles,

interior

exterior

BOA

These

equal.

are

equal;

opposite

called

are

facts

in-

actually

proved by placing one on the other, when they

will

4 ROM and 4 BOR

sum forms the straight

line

coincide

The

exactly.

supplementary, as their

BM,

or

4 NAS,

and

4 MOS,

or

are supplementary.

we have

In general,
sides of

ROM

Likewise

i8o.

are

this rule

any two angles are

When

the corresponding

parallel to each other, the angles

are either equal or supplementary.

Triangles.
erties

of

Let us now investigate some of the prop-

the

triangle

ABC

(Fig.

Through

At a glance we

see

12).

Fig. 12.

draw a
that the
or

line,

sum

two right

MN,

BC.

of the angles a, d,

angles,

4 a
But 4

parallel to

+ 4d+ 4e

c is equal to

previously seen; therefore

d,

and

and 4

e is

180

b is equal to

180

we have

4a+ 4c+ 4b=

equal to 180

e,

as

SOME ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY

67

This demonstration proves the fact that the sum of

all

to

the inside or interior angles of any triangle

180

Now,
angles

if

or,

what

is

the triangle

is itself

is

equal

the same thing, two right angles.

is

a right triangle and one of

a right angle, then the

remaining angles must be equal

to

sum

its

two

joJ the

one right angle, or 90

This fact should be most carefully noted, as

it is

very

important.

When we have two

triangles with all the angles of

the one equal to the corresponding angles of the other,

as in Fig. 13, they are called similar triangles.

Fig. 13-

When we have two

triangles with all three sides of

the one equal to the corresponding sides of the other,

they are equal to each other (Fig. 14), for they

may

be

Fig. 14.

perfectly superposed

on each

triangles are seen to be equal

other.
if

two

In

fact, the

sides

and the

two
in-

MATHEMATICS

68

eluded angle of the one are equal to two sides and the
included

the other; or,

angle of

if

one side and two

angles of the one are equal to one side and the corre-

sponding angles respectively of the other;

and the angle opposite

side

it

AB

of the other.

The projection of any given

(Fig. 15),

upon a

line,

one side

of the one are equal to one

and the corresponding angle

Projections.
as

to

or, if

such as

MN,

tract,

such

that space,

is

tL
Fig. 15-

CD, on
from

MN

the line

and

bounded by two

respectively perpendicular to

Rectangles and

Parallelograms. A

line

tween opposite corners of a parallelogram

diagonal; thus,

AC

is

drawn

lines

a diagonal in Fig. 16.

MN.
drawn
is

be-

called a

It is along

Fig. 16.

this diagonal that a

direction of

by

AB

another, the

body would move

by one
two

force,

and

if

pulled in the

in the direction

forces having the

same

AD

relative

SOME ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY

magnitudes as the relative lengths of
This fact

is

AB

69

and AD.

only mentioned here as illustrative of one

of the principles of mechanics.

Fig. 17.

The area
length

of a rectangle is equal to the

by the breadth;
Area of

This fact

is

thus, in Fig. 17,

ABDC = AB X AC.

so patent as not to need explanation.

Suppose we have a parallelogram

what

is its

product of the

area equal to

(Fig. 18),

however,

Fig. 18.

The perpendicular
and

AD

distance

of a parallelogram

tend the base

AD

BF
is

and draw

BC

between the sides

called its altitude.

CE

Ex-

perpendicular to

it.

MATHEMATICS

Now we

have the rectangle BCEF, whose area we know

to be equal to

DCE

BC X

But the

BF.

are equal (having 2 sides

equal),

triangles

and

and we observe that the rectangle

and the

triangle

DCE

and

angles mutually-

than the parallelogram with the triangle

off

ABF

nothing else

is

ABF

chipped

added on, and since these are

equal, the rectangle is equal to the parallelogram, which

then has the same area as

Area
If,

it; or,

of parallelogram

A BCD = BC X BF.

ABC
AD and CD

now, we consider the area of the triangle

(Fig. 19),

we

see that

by drawing the

lines

BC and AB respectively, we have the parallelogram BA DC, and we observe that the triangles ABC
and A DC are equal. Therefore triangle ABC equals

parallel to

one-half of the parallelogram,

is

equal to

BC X AH,

and since the area

of this

then the

Area of the triangle

ABC = %BCX

which means that the area of a triangle

one-half of the product of the base

by the

AH,
is

equal to

altitude.

SOME ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY

Circles.

Comparison

71

between the lengths

diameter and circumference of a

the

of

circle (Fig. 20)

made

with the utmost care shows that

the circumference

is

3.1416 times as

This con-

long as the diameter.

stant,

3.1416,

by the Greek
fore,

usually expressed

letter pi

There-

(ir).

the circumference of a circle

equal to

if

is

ir

r , the radius, is

The

is

the diameter.

Fig. 20.

circum.

circum.

ird,

2 irr

used instead of the diameter.

area of a segment of a circle (Fig. 21), like the

area of a triangle,

is

base

equal to \ of the product of the

by the

altitude,

or

\a

Y.

r.

This comes from the fact that the

segment

may

be divided up into a

very large number of small segments

whose bases, being very small, have

very

little

curvature, and

fore be considered as small triangles.

consider the whole

is 2 wr,

the area

is

2 irr

Area

Therefore,

where the length

circle,

Xr =

circle

irr

irr

may

thereif

we

of the arc

MATHEMATICS

72

I will conclude this chapter

by a

discussion

of.

one of

the most important properties of the right-angle

angle, namely, that the~square erected

nuse
its

is

equal to the

other two sides

sum

that

(Fig. 22)

its

hypothe-

of the squares erected

is,

AC = AB* + BC\

/I

on

tri-

that in the triangle

on

ABC

SOME ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY

and leave a

tion

little

73

reasoning for the student himself

to do.

ARC = triangle BMC,

ARC = %CRxBC

triangle
triangle

BCM

triangle

% of the square

=
=

%CMxCO

BCRS,

\ of rectangle

COFM

\ of rectangle

COFAf

Therefore

5Cii5 =

of square

BCRS = COFM.

or

Similarly for the other side

ABHK

= AOFN.

But

COFM + AOFN =

ACMN

Therefore

whole square

= BCRS

ACMN.

+ ABHK.

AC = BC + AB\
2

PROBLEMS
i.
ft.

What

wide
2.

the area of a rectangle 8

is

the area of a triangle whose base

What

altitude

3.

What

4.

What

is

and 9

is

18

by

12

is

ft.?

is

20

ft.

ft.?

the area of a circle whose radius

angle triangle
ft.

ft.

and whose

long

is

is

9 ft.?

the length of the hypothenuse of a rightif

the other two sides are respectively

MATHEMATICS

74

What

5.

is

the circumference of a circle whose diame-

ter is 20 ft.?

The hypothenuse

6.

and one

side is 18 ft.;

If the area of

7.

diameter

what

10.
its

circle is

600

sq. ft.,

25

ft.

what

is its

area of a triangle

what

The
is

of the earth is 25,000 miles;

diameter in miles

is its

base

the other side

is

is

The

9.
ft.

what

The circumference

8.

of a right-angle triangle

is its

altitude

?
is

30

sq. ft.

ft.;

what

its

base

is

area of a parallelogram
25

and

is its

is

altitude?

100 sq. feet and

CHAPTER XI
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometry is the
to teach us

how

science of angles; its province

to measure

is

and employ angles with the

same ease that we handle lengths and

areas.

In a previous chapter we have defined an angle as the

opening or the divergence between two intersecting

lines,

AB and CD (Fig.

23).

The next

question

is,

How

Fig. 23.

are

we going to measure

seen that

we can do

We

this angle ?

this in

one way by employing

degrees, a complete circle being 360

many

have already

But there are

instances which the student will meet later on

where the use of degrees would be meaningless.

is

It

then that certain constants connected with the angle,

called its functions,

must be resorted

have the angle a shown

in Fig. 24.
75

to.

Now

Suppose we
let

us choose

MATHEMATICS

76

AB

a point anywhere either on the line

instance, the point P.

From P drop

or

CD

for

a line which will

Fig. 24.

be perpendicular to CD.
triangle

whose

We may now

This gives us a right-angle

we may

sides

call a, b

and

c respectively.

define the following functions of the

4-

sine a

->

cosme a

-1

tangent a

->

which means that the sme of an angle

dividing the side opposite to
cosine,

by

is

obtained by

by thehypothenuse;

dividing the side adjacent to

thenuse; and the tangent,

by the

it

it

by dividing the

by

the

the hypo-

side opposite

side adjacent.

These values,

sine, cosine

nothing but ratios,

and tangent, are therefore

pure numbers, and under no dr-

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF TRIGONOMETRY

cumstances should be taken for anything

This

else.

one of the greatest faults that I have to find with

texts

and handbooks

Looking at

be the same; for

line I will increase

in the

c,

is

many

in not insisting on this point.

no matter where

Fig. 24, it is evident that

I choose P, the values of the sine, cosine

will

77

if

I choose

farther out on the

but at the same time a

same proportion, the quotient

and tangent

will increase

- being always

of

P may

the same wherever

CO

Likewise - and -

be chosen.

always remain constant.

will

and tangent are

sine, cosine

constant quantities for

remarked that

if

P had

any given

angle.

been chosen on the

the perpendicular drawn to

lines (Fig. 24), the

therefore always fixed

AB,

as

The
and

might have
line

CD

and

shown by the dotted

hypothenuse and adjacent side simply

exchange places, but the value of the

sine, cosine

and

tangent would remain the same.

Since these functions, namely, sine, cosine and tangent, of

any angle remain the same at

become very convenient handles

angle.

every

The
size

sines, cosines

may

all

times, they

employing the

for

and tangents

of all angles of

be actually measured and computed

with great care once and for

in tabulated form, so that

can immediately find the

all

time,

and then arranged

by referring

to this table one

sine, cosine or

angle; or, on the other hand,,

if

tangent of any

a certain value said to

MATHEMATICS

78

be the

sine, cosine or

given, the angle that

from the

tangent of an

unknown

corresponds to

it

is

be found

Such a table may be found at the end

table.

and tangents

of this book, giving the sines, cosines

all

may

angle

Some

angles taken 6 minutes apart.

of

special compi-

lations'of these tables give the values for all angles taken

only one minute apart, and some even closer, say 10 sec-

onds apart.

On

reference to the table, the sine of io

cosine of io

is

.9848, the sine of 24

the decimal point

for, if

we

we

refer

is

36'

is

understood to be before every value,

back to our

definition of sine

will see that these values

c is

and

cosine,

can never be greater than

1; in fact, they will always be less than

hypothenuse

.4163, the co-

In the table of sines and cosines

36' is .9092.

sine of 24

.1736, the

is

since the

1,

always the longest side of the right

angle and therefore a and b are always less than

Obviously, - and
c

->

the values respectively of sine and

cosine, being a smaller quantity divided

can never be greater than

for

therefore -

and 90
than

1.

of io 24'

1.

Not

between o and 45

angles

is less

is

it.

than

greater than

by a

larger,

so with the tangent;

is

less

than

b,

but for angles between 45

b,

and therefore -

is

greater

Thus, on reference to the table the tangent

is

seen to be .1835, the tangent of 45

the tangent of 6o 30'

is

1.7675.

isi,

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF TRIGONOMETRY

Now

let

us work backwards.

79

Suppose we are given

3437 as the sine of a certain angle, to find the angle.

On

reference to the table

of

206',

therefore this

we have

suppose

On

the angle.

find that this is the sine

the angle sought.

is

Again,

.8878 as the cosine of an angle, to find

we

reference to the table

the angle 27

is

we

find that this

we

Likewise suppose

24'.

are given

3.5339 as the tangent of an angle, to find the angle.

The

tables

show that

When an
found in the

this is the angle 74

angle or value which

tables,

we must

higher and lower values.

polation,

and

is

This process

is

called inter-

merely a question of proportion.

Relation of Sine and Cosine.

we

sought cannot be

prorate between the next

explained in detail in the chapter

be

2q

is

12'.

see that the sine

a = -

It will

on Logarithms.

On reference to Fig.

but

if

we

take

0,

the other

acute angle of the right-angle

triangle,

we

see that cosine

Remembering; always the fundamental

sine

and

cosine,

namely,

sme

cosine

side
Opposite
rr

Hypothenuse
Adjacent
=-* 7: side

Hypothenuse

>

definition of

MATHEMATICS

80

we

see that the cosine

jS

is

equal to the same thing as

cosine

the sine a, therefore

sine

Now,

if

we

refer

member

that the

or

180

two

/3.

back to our geometry, we

sum

will re-

of the three angles of a triangle

right angles,

and therefore

in a right-

4 P = 90 or 1 right angle. In
other words 4 a and 4 P are complementary angles.
We then have the following general law: "The sine of

angle triangle

an angle
if

is

equal

we have a

sines

a-

to the

cosine of

its

and cosines between o and 45

we may look

we want

If

we

for the cosine of (90

68), or 22

or

we make use

of

are asked to find the sine of 68

the cosine of 68,

68), or 22

we may look

or, if

for the sine of

Other Functions.
of the angle

Thus,

complement."

table of sines or cosines from o to 90

this principle.

(90

There

some other functions

are

which are seldom used, but which

I will

mention here, namely,

Cotangent

->

Secant

Cosecant

>

Other Relations of Sine and Cosine.

We have seen

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF TRIGONOMETRY

that the sine

a=

a=-.

- and the cosine

c

Also from

geometry
ffl

Dividing equation

by

(i)

But

this is

+ tf =
c

we have

nothing but the square of the sine plus the

(sine a)

a, therefore

(cosine a) 2

Other relations whose proof

now

are

=
2 a =

COS 2

or

2 sin
1

all

cos'2

of Trigonometry.

in triangulation of
side

sine 2

cos

Use

(T)

52

square of the cosine of

into

C 2.

is

2 Sin

too intricate to enter

a cos

r*

a,

a,

Trigonometry

kinds.

and an acute angle

A

is

When two

invaluable

sides or

one

of a right-angle triangle are

Fig. 26.

given, the other

pose

we

two

sides can

be easily found.

wish to measure the distance

river in Fig. 26

we proceed as

BC

follows : First

Sup-

across the

we

lay off

MATHEMATICS

82

AB

and measure the distance

means

of a transit

and

river

we

along the shore; then by

sight perpendicularly across the

we

erect a flag at C; then

and from

before seen,

to

sight

from

and determine the angle

we know

to

Now, as

a.

that

tangent a

Suppose

had been iooo

and a was 40

ft.

tangent 40

The

tables

IOOO

.8391

therefore

40

is

.8391;

839.1

ft.

across the river to be

ft.

Likewise in Fig. 27, suppose

to find a

and

b.

We

have

sine

-j

or

of

1000

Thus we have found the distance

839.1

then

show that the tangent

then

sine 36

=
300

300 and

a=

36

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF TRIGONOMETRY

From

the tables sine 36

.5878.

83

MATHEMATICS

84

From

tables,

sine 66 4'

.9140,

.9140

22

therefore

c
>*>

or

22 2c

248.5

ft.

.9140

And

thus

being

all

difficult

we may
that

is

proceed, the use of a

little

judgment

necessary to the solution of the most

problems of triangulation.

PROBLEMS
i.

2.

3.

4.
5.

6.

Find the

sine, cosine

and tangent

of 32 20'.

Find the

sine, cosine

and tangent

of 8i 24'.

What
What
What
What

angle

is it

whose

angle

is it

whose cosine

angle

is it

whose tangent

angle

is it

whose cosine

In a right-angle triangle
7.

If

8.

If

9.

If

10.

If

and al

=300

ft.

and t

sine is .4320 ?
is

is

.1836
is

.753 ?

.8755

a.

30

what

are c and b

= 500 ft. and b = 315 ft., what are % a and c ?

c = 1250 ft. and a = 8o, what are b and a ?
b = 250 ft. and c = 530 ft., what are % a

CHAPTER

XII

LOGARITHMS
have

inserted this chapter on logarithms because

knowledge

I consider a

them very

of

essential to the

education of any engineer.

Definition.

must

logarithm

Thus, suppose we choose 10 as our base, we

that

2 is

the logarithm of ioo, because

the second power

to produce ioo.
for

we have

We

of 100,000

is

The

10; of the
latter is

it

say

will

raise 10 to

in order

the logarithm of 1000,

power

of 10,000

would be

base of the universally used

logarithms
or 2.7.

is

The logarithm

and the logarithm

The

we must

in other words, square

Likewise 3

to raise 10 to the third

produce 1000.
4,

(thus, io3 ) to

would then be
5,

and so on.

Common System

see that the logarithms of such

is

100,

which
which

logarithm

is

seldom used.

numbers as

100,

1000, 10,000, etc., are easily detected; but suppose

its

of

Naperian or Natural System,

have a number such as 300, then the

ing

we

the power to which

is

produce a given number.

raise a given base to

apparent.

We

we

difficulty of find-

have seen that io2

and io3 equals 1000, therefore the number 300,

lies
lies

between 100 and 1000, must have a logarithm

between the logarithms of 100 and 1000,

8s

MATHEMATICS

86

namely

and

Reference to a table of

3 respectively.

logarithms at the end of this book, which

we

plain later, shows that the logarithm of 300

will ex-

is

2.4771,

which means that 10 raised to the 2.477iths power

The whole number

give 300.
ple the

the above case,

2 in

in a logarithm, for

will

exam-

called the characteristic;

is

the decimal part of the logarithm, namely, .4771,

called the mantissa.

understand at

first

It will

what

is

is

be hard for the student to

meant by

raising 10 to a

fractional part of a power, but he should not worry

about

this at the present

time;

as

he

studies

dawn on him

deeply into mathematics the notion will

more

more

clearly.

We now
matter

how

see that every

large or

number has a

how small

it

may

logarithm, no

be; every

number

can be produced by raising 10 to some power, and

power

is

what we

call

this

the logarithm of the number.

Mathematicians have carefully worked out and tabu-

and by reference

lated the logarithm of every number,

to these tables
to

Now

is

2.545,479.
its

versa.

shown at the end

take the

and 1000
lie

find the logarithm corresponding

any number, or vice

rithms

is

we can

short table of loga-

of this book.

number 351.1400; we

Like

all

numbers which

find its logarithm

characteristic

is

3.

lie

The numbers which

between 1000 and 10.000 have 3 as a

between 10 and

between 100

characteristic;

100, 1 as a characteristic.

We

there-

LOGARITHMS
fore
less

have the rule that

Thus,

if

we have

to the left of

the

number

be

acteristic, it is

Since

we

logarithm

its

because there are five places to the

4,

decimal point.

tissa or

the decimal

31875.12,

immediately see that the characteristic of

will

always one

the characteristic is

than the number of places

point.

87

left of

the

so easy to detect the char-

it is

never put in logarithmic tables, the man-

decimal part being the only part that the tables

need include.
If

one looked in a table for a logarithm of 125.60, he

would only find

.09,899.

This

only the mantissa of

is

the logarithm, and he would himself have to insert the

one

characteristic, which, being

less

than the number of

places to the left of the decimal point, would in this

case be 2

therefore the logarithm of 125.6

Furthermore,

the

mantissa

of

the

3.4546, 34.546, 34546, 3454-6, etc., are

same.

The

is

2.09,899.

logarithms
all

characteristic of the logarithm

of

exactly the
is

the only

thing which the decimal point changes, thus

= 0.538,398,
log 34-546 = 1.538,398,
log 34546 = 2.538,398,
log 3454-6 = 3-53 8 .398,
log 3-4S46

etc.

Therefore, in looking for the logarithm of a number,

first

put down the

characteristic

on the basis of the

MATHEMATICS

88

above

then look for the mantissa in a table,

rules,

neglecting the position of the decimal point altogether.

Thus,
first

if

we

are looking for the logarithm of .9840,

down

write

would be

no places to the

(there are

decimal point in this case, therefore one

is

1).

Now

we

the characteristic, which in this case

left

less

of the

than none

look in a table of logarithms for the

we

mantissa which corresponds to .9840, and

find this

to be .993,083; therefore
log .9840
If the

-1.993,083.

number had been 98.40 the logarithm would have

been +1.993,083.

When we have
istic

of

its

such a number as

logarithm would be

less

than no places at

for,

even

if

the left of

all to

the decimal point were

one place, you would

still

.084, the character-

2,

there
its

being one

decimal point;

moved

have no places

to the right

to the left of

the decimal point; therefore

log .00,386

= -

log 38.6

=1.586,587,

log 386

=2.586,587,

log 386,000

Interpolation.

Suppose

3.586,587,

5.586,587.

we

are asked to find the

logarithm of 2468; immediately write

characteristic.

Now, on

down

3 as the

reference to the logarithmic

LOGARITHMS
table at the end of this book,

89

we

see that the loga-

rithms of 2460 and 2470 are given, but not 2468.

log 2460
log 2468
log 2470

We

find

=
=
=

3.3909,
?

3.3927.

that the total difference

between the two

given logarithms, namely 3909 and 3927,

total difference

is

is 10,

the

the difference between 2460 and

logarithms 3909 and 3927.

16.

16,

8; therefore the logarithm to be found lies

of the distance across the bridge

is

is

between the numbers corresponding to

these logarithms

2468

Thus

A of

16

is

12.8.

between the two given

The whole

Adding

distance across

this to

3909 we have

3921.8; therefore
log of 2468

3.39,218.

Reference to column 8 in the interpolation columns to the

right of the table

would have given

this value at once.

Many elaborate tables of logarithms may be purchased

at small cost which

make

interpolation almost unneces-

sary for practical purposes.

Now

let

we know

us work backwards and find the number

its

logarithm.

logarithm 3.6201.

Suppose we have given the

Referring to our table,

characteristic 3 tells us that there

to the left of the decimal point; therefore

is

we

see that

number 417; the

must be four places

the mantissa .6201 corresponds to the

3.6201

if

the log of 4170.0.

MATHEMATICS

QO

Now,

we have

for interpolation

the same principles

Let us find the number whose log is

aforesaid.

3.7304.

In the table we find that

log 7300 corresponds to the

number

log 7304 corresponds to the

number

log 7308 corresponds to the

number

Therefore

5370,
?

5380.

evident that

it is

7304 corresponds to 5375.

Now
this

the characteristic of our logarithm

we know

is

from

that there must be two zeros to the left

of the decimal point; therefore

3.7304

is

number

the log of the

.005375.

Likewise

Use

2.7304

is

the log of the

number

.05375,

.7304

is

the log of the

number

5.375,

4.7304

is

the log of the

number

53,750.

of the Logarithm.

Having

thoroughly under-

stood the nature and meaning of a logarithm, let us

investigate its use mathematically.
plication
volution

We

and

and

division into addition

It changes multi-

and

evolution into multiplication

have seen in algebra that

a2

a5

a 5+2 or a7
,

and that

8-3
,

or a5

subtraction; in-

and

division.

LOGARITHMS

91

In other words, multiplication or division of

like

was accomplished by adding or subtracting

ponents, as the case

may

a\

V& = a

or

In the

first

case a

it

we

5380;

its

number

to raise a

to a

exponent by that power; to find

exponent by the exponent

its

we multiply 336 by

then, suppose

find that

336

log of 5380

log of

Then 336

is

you divide

Now,

of the root.

power you multiply

of

squared gives a4 and in the second

case the cube root of a

any root

ex-

their

we have seen that

Again,

be.

(a2) 2

symbols

But io

5380
2-6263

is

io2

6263
,

37308

io

the same thing as io26263

3,7308

io

io

'

5263+3 7308
'

We have simply added the exponents,

io37308

6-2571

io

remembering that

these exponents are nothing but the logarithms of 336

and 5380

respectively.

Well, now,

what number

is

ing in a table of logarithms

io62571 equal to?

we

Look-

see that the mantissa

.2571 corresponds to 1808; the characteristic 6 tells us

that there must be seven places to the

left of

the decimal;

therefore

io62571
If the

1,808,000.

student notes carefully the foregoing he will see

that in order to multiply 336

by 5380 we simply

find

MATHEMATICS

92

add them together, getting another

their logarithms,

logarithm, and

then find the number corresponding

Any numbers may be multiplied

simple manner; thus, if we multiply

to this logarithm.

together in this

217

4876

3.185

.0438

=
=
=
=
=

log 217
log 4876
log 3.185

log .0438
log 890

We

we have

3.6880
.5031

-2.6415*
2.9494

8.1185

must now
8.

890,

2.3365

Adding we get

logarithm

number corresponding

find the

n 85.

Our

8.1185

tables

to the

show us that

the log of 131,380,000.

is

Therefore 131,380,000

is

the result of the above multi-

plication.

To

divide one

number by another we subtract the

logarithm of the latter from the logarithm of

former; thus, 3865

4-

the

735:

log 3865

3.5872

tog 735

2-8663
.7209

The

tables

show that .7209

is

the logarithm of 5.259;

therefore

3865
*

The 2

does not carry

735
its

5-259-

negativity to the mantissa.

LOGARITHMS

As explained above,
simply multiply

number the

its

if

we wish

to square a number,

logarithm by

and then

the logarithm

result is

wished to raise

93

9879

If

we

what

we had

to the third, fourth or higher power,

it

we would simply have multiplied by 3, 4

as the case

of.

rind

may

be.

or higher power,

Thus, suppose we wish to cube

we have

log 9897

3.9947
3

1 1. 9841

1 1. 9841 is

the log of 964,000,000,000;

therefore 9879 cubed

Likewise,

if

we wish

root, or fourth root or

divide

its

logarithm by

be; thus, suppose

964,000,000,000.

to find the square root, the cube

any root
2, 3,

we wish

of a

number, we simply

4 or whatever the root

may

to find the square root of

36,850, we have
log 36,850

4.5664

-s-

=
=

4-56642.2832.

2.2832

is

the log. of 191.98; therefore the square root of

36,850

is

191.98.

The student should go over

fully, so

as to

become

principles involved.

this chapter

very care-

thoroughly familiar with the

MATHEMATICS

94

PROBLEMS
i.

Find the logarithm of 3872.

2.

Find the logarithm of

3.

Find the logarithm of .00988.

4.

Find the logarithm of 41,267.

5.

Find the number whose logarithm

is

2.8236.

6.

Find the number whose logarithm

is

4.87175.

7.

Find the number whose logarithm

is

1.4385.

8.

Find the number whose logarithm

is

4.3821.

9.

Find the

number whose logarithm

is

73.56.

10.

Multiply 2261 by 4335.

11

Multiply 62 18 by 3998.

12.

'

3.36175.

Multiply 231.9 by 478.8 by 7613 by .921.

13.

Multiply .00983 by .0291.

14.

Multiply .222 by .00054.

15.

Divide 27,683 by 856.

16.

Divide 4337 by 38.88.

17.

Divide .9286 by 28.75.

18.

Divide .0428 by 1.136.

19.

Divide 3995 by .003,337.

20.

Find the square of 4291.

21.

Raise 22.91 to the fourth power.

22.

Raise .0236 to the third power.

23.

Find the square root of 302,060.

24.

Find the cube root of 77.85.

25.

Find the square root of

26.

Find the

fifth

.087,64.

root of 226,170,000.

CHAPTER

XIII

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF COORDINATE GEOMETRY

Coordinate Geometry may be
or equation drawing, in that

by means

tions not
of curves

and

machine

Nothing

lines.

more

by means

and data

of curves.

familiar to the

to see the results of

of

any kind shown

The same analogy

between an algebraic equation and the curve

exists

which graphically represents

many

its

actual photograph;

at a glance

more than could be

thousands of words.

Therefore the stu-

how important

that he master the

the photograph
said in

as between the verbal

it

and

description of a landscape

dent

is

any one, than

tests or statistics

graphically

depicts algebraic equa-

symbols and terms but by means

of

engineer, or in fact to

it

called graphic algebra,

tells

will realize

it is

few fundamental principles of coordinate geometry which

we

will discuss briefly in this chapter.

An

When discussing equations we remem-

Equation.

ber that where

two unknown

we have an equation which

quantities,

value to one of them

if

we

assign

contains

some numerical

we may immediately

find the cor-

responding numerical value of the other; for example, take

the equation

y
95

+ 4.

MATHEMATICS

96

In this equation we have two unknown quantities,

namely, x and y; we cannot find the value of either

unless

y =

we know

value, x

5; for

2,

=
y =
y =
y =
y =
y

The equation then

existing

we would

see that

If

1,

then

=
=

a;

a;

5,
6,

=
x =
a; =
*

3>
4,
S,

and

7,
8,

9, etc.

the relation in value

represents
y,

get a corresponding

6; thus:

2,

between * and

x we can

for

any

responding values,

of

specific value of

find the corresponding specific value of y.

Instead of writing down, as above, a

Draw two

Let us say that

the value of the other.

we

then

1;

we may show them

lines perpendicular to

them the *

line

Now

draw

of such cor-

graphically thus

each other;

and the other the y

lines are called axes.

list

line.

make one
These two

parallel to these axes

equi-spaced lines forming cross-sections, as shown

Fig. 28,

and

the axes

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc.,

Now

let

This

and

A
y

5.

us plot
will

5 spaces out

in the figure.

2,

6,

in

letter the intersections of these lines with

we

as shown.

the corresponding values, y

be a point

on the x

axis,

space

and

is

1,

up on the y axis
denoted by letter

In plotting the corresponding values

get the point B; the next set of values

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
gives us the point C, the next D,

we draw a

line

2nd

and so

through these points;

the curve of the equation,

tells

97
on.

Suppose

this line, called

everything in a graphical

quadrant

4th

quadrant

Fig. 28.

way

that the equation does algebraically.

has been drawn accurately

we can from

If
it

this line

find out at

a glance what value of y corresponds to any given value

of x,

see

and vice

versa.

what value

of

For example, suppose we wish

y corresponds to the value x

to

6|;

MATHEMATICS

98

we run our eyes along the x

we

then up until

axis,

strike the curve, then

where we note that y

Negative Values of

and counted

i,

axis,

we might

1,

2,

2,

x and

4,

etc.

we come

back upon the

z\.

the right along the

have counted to the

(Fig.

28),

3, 4,

etc.

The

left,

and likewise we

might have counted downwards along the y

2,

to 6|,

y. When we started at o

3, 4, etc., to

just as well

3,

axis until

axis,

1,

values, then, to the left of o

on the x axis and below o on the y axis are the negative

values of x and
let

Still

y.

using the equation x

=y

+ 4,

us give the following values to y and note the cor-

responding values of x in the equation x

If

0,

+4

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
y

= 4,

fore

at

seen

is

x = o
4 on
to

is

zero along the x axis,

below o on

and

there-

is

y 5, x =

Point

the y axis.

be 5

99

the y axis and

the left of o along the x axis (both x and y are

negative),
a;

= 2

is

namely, at the point H.

to

now

= 6,

Point y

at /, and so on.

The student

will

note that

all

quadrant have positive values

for

points in the

both x and

first

y,

all

points in the second quadrant have positive values for

y (being all above o so far as the y axis

but negative values for x (being to the
points
for

in

the

both x and

third

concerned),

left of o), all

quadrant have negative values

while

y,

is

all

points in the fourth quadrant

have positive values of x and negative values of

y.

Coordinates. The corresponding x and y values

a point are called

is

its coordinates,

called its ordinate, while the horizontal or

called the abscissa; thus at point

is

called the abscissa, while

is

the ordinate and

Straight Lines.

that

all

fallen

A, x

5,

x value

1,

is

here

called the ordinate of

Likewise at point G, where y

point A.

here

1 is

of

the vertical or y value

= 3,

1,

the abscissa of G.

The student has no doubt observed

points plotted in the equation x

on a straight line, and

where both of the unknowns

the equation only in the

not be a straight one

if

this will

either

+4

have

always be the case

(in this case

first

x and

power; but the

x or y or both

y) enter
line will

of

them

MATHEMATICS

IOO

enter the equation as a square or as a higher power; thus,

=y+

x?

4 will not plot out a straight line because

have x in the equation.

knowns

in the equation

and

(be they x

equation in the
linear equation,

thus,

^x

$y

-\-

b,

x and

it

20

is

will

enter the

a, etc.)

power, the equation

first

and

of the un-

which we happen to be plotting

a and

y,

Whenever both

we

called a

is

always plot a straight

a linear equation, and

if

line;

plotted

will give a straight line.

Conic Sections.

both of the unknown

If either or

quantities enter into the equation in the second power,

and no higher power, the equation

one of the following

parabola or an hyperbola.
conic sections.

= ^;

always represent

typical equation of a circle

xy

also,

It is

of

a hyperbola

x2

x2

+y

= \qx\ a
= r2 or,
,

noted in every one of these equations that we

is

is

is

have the second power of x or

These curves are called the

a typical equation of a parabola

typical equation

xy

will

curves: a circle or an ellipse,

y,

except in the equation

one of the equations of the hyperbola.

In this

equation, however, although both x and y are in the

first

power, they are multiplied by each other, which

practically

have

makes a second power.

said that

any equation containing x or y

in

the second power, and in no higher power, represents

one

of the curves of the conic sections

whose type forms

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

we have

just given.

IOI

But sometimes the equations do

not correspond to these types exactly and require some

manipulation to bring them into the type form.

Let us take the equation

2

and plot

it

as

shown

of a circle, namely, m?

+ y2 =

in Fig. 29.

Fig. 29.

We

see that it is a circle with its center at the inter-

section of the
tion (x

we

2)

see that it

coordinate axes.

+
is

(y

3)

first

Now

equation of the

take the equa-

Plotting

the same circle with

point whose coordinates are

and the

and

3.

its

this, Fig. 30,

center at the

This equation

circle are identical in

form,

MATHEMATICS

102

but frequently

it is difficult

identity, therefore

much

at a glance to discover this

ingenuity

is

frequently required

in detecting same.

Fig. 3-

In plotting the equation of a hyperbola, xy

(Fig. 31),

we

recognize this as a curve which

with very frequently in engineering practice,

knowledge

25

met

and a

of its general laws is of great value.

Similarly, in plotting a parabola (Fig. 32), y2

we

is

4 *,

see another familiar curve.

In

this brief chapter

we can only

conic sections, as their study

is

of

call

attention to the

academic more than

10

10

Fig. 31.

16*

MATHEMATICS

104

of pure engineering interest.

However, as the student

progresses in his knowledge of mathematics, I would

up the subject

suggest that he take

which

will offer

Other

known

much

in detail as one

fascination.

Curves. All

other equations containing un-

quantities which enter in h'gher powers than the

second power, represent a large variety of curves called

cubic curves.

The student may

engineering

find the curve corresponding to

laws whose

study.

The main point

chapter

is

to teach

equations
of the

he

hereafter

will

whole discussion of

him the methods

successful in this one point, this

is

of plotting,

as far as

we

this

and

shall

if

go

at the present time.

Intersection of Curves

and Straight Lines.

studying simultaneous equations

two equations showing the

known

we saw

relation

that

When

if

we had

between two un-

quantities, such for instance as the equations

+ y = 7,
x -y = 3,

we could eHminate one

these equations
will satisfy

of the

unknown

and obtain the values

of

quantities in

x and y which

both equations; thus, in the above equations,

eliminating y,

we have
2X =
*

10,
5-

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

*5

Substituting this value of x in one of the equations,

have

Now

we

each one of the above equations represents a

and each

straight line,

line

can be plotted as shown in

Fig- 33-

Fig. 33-

Their point of intersection

both

lines.

and y =

2,

The

is

obviously a point on

coordinates of this point, then, x

should satisfy both equations, and

already seen

this.

Therefore,

in

general,

we have

where we

MATHEMATICS

106

have two equations each showing a relation in value

between the two unknown quantities, x and

y,

by com-

bining these equations, namely, eliminating one of the

and solving

unknown

quantities

result will

be the point or points of intersection of both

curves represented

by the

for

equations.

the

Thus,

other,

if

our

we add

the equations of two circles,

x2
(*

and

if

2)

+y
+y

2
,

the student plots these equations separately and

then combines them, eliminating one of the unknown

quantities

and solving

for the other, his results will

be

the points of intersection of both curves.

Plotting of Data.

When

plotting mathematically

with absolute accuracy the curve of an equation, whatever scale

we use along one

the other axis.

axis

we must employ along

But, for practical results in plotting

curves which show the relative values of several varying quantities during a test or which show the operation of machines under certain conditions,

from mathematical accuracy

of convenience

each axis as

we were

in the curve for the sake

and choose such

we may deem

we depart

scales of value along

appropriate.

Thus, suppose

plotting the characteristic curve of a shunt

dynamo which had given

from no load to

full

the following sets of values

load operation

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
VOLTS
122

107

AMPERES
o

I20

Il8

10

Il6

15

114

19

III

22

107

25

MATHEMATICS

108

we choose

space that

our

for the

amperes along the ampere

However, we might have chosen

axis.

own

same

this entirely at

and the curve would have had the

discretion

significance to

an engineer.

PROBLEMS
Plot the curves and lines corresponding to the following equations

i.

2.

2x

3.

x-

2y =

4.

10 y

+ $x =

7,y

sy =

+y =

6.

16 y.

7.

x2

5.

8.

3x

10.

=
(y

15.

4.

-8.

36.

16.

2)

25.

Find the intersections of the following curves and

lines
1.

sx + y =
4# y =

+y =
2

2.

x2

3.

y =
ary =
3X + y =
x

10,
6.

81,
10.

40,
5.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

109

Plot the following volt-ampere curve

VOLTS

AMPERES

55

548

20

545
54i

39
55

536

79

529
521

91
102

510

US

CHAPTER XIV
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF THE CALCULUS
It

is

not

my

aim

in this short chapter to

do more

than point out and explain a few of the fundamental

ideas

the

of

calculus

may

which

practical working knowledge

advanced student no study can

and

to

some extent

vanced theories
that very

little

enter into the

practical

of calculus,

be of value to a

engineering.

of

offer

more

it

intellectual

must be admitted

beyond the fundamental

work

the

than the ad-

interest

but

To

principles ever

of the practical engineer.

In a general sense the study of calculus covers an investigation into the innermost properties of variable quantities,

that

is

quantities which have variable values as

against those which have absolutely constant, perpetual

and absolutely

(In previous chapters

fixed values.

we

have seen what was meant by a constant quantity and

what was meant by a

variable quantity in

an equation.)

By the innermost properties of a variable quantity we mean

finding out in the minutest detail just
originated;

what

parts go to

infinitesimal (that

make

it

up;

how

it

is,

how

this

exceedingly small)

increases or diminishes

with reference to other quantities; what

increasing or

diminishing

may

quantity

be;

what

of

its

rate

its

greatest

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF THE CALCULUS

and

least values are;

which

may

it

adding

all

what

III

the smallest particle into

is

be divided; and what

the result of

is

of the smallest particles together.

All of

the processes of the calculus therefore are either analyor synthesis, that

sis

into

smallest

its

these

together

We
we

parts

up a quantity

either tearing

or

building

smallest parts to

up and adding

make

the

quantity.

the analysis, or tearing apart, differentiation;

call

call

is,

the synthesis, or building up, integration.

DIFFERENTIATION
Suppose we take the straight
If

x.

we

divide

it

than a million or a

billion or

line (Fig. 35) of length

number

into a large

of parts, greater

any number

/dx

which we

=1

^-

t-

of

Fig. 35-

have any conception, we say that each part

mally small,
length.

by an

We

that

is,

it is

is infinitesi-

small beyond conceivable

represent such inconceivably small lengths

Ax or

expression

8x.

Likewise,

if

we have a

surface

and divide

we

a the area of the surface, the small infinitesimal

call

portion of

that

it

into infinitely small parts,

surface

we

represent

These quantities, namely, Sx and

differential of

x and a respectively.

Sa,

and

by Aa or

if

ha.

are called the

MATHEMATICS

112

We

have seen that the

length x

whose

sides

square

is

Now

is Sx.
is *,

suppose we have a square each of

The area

as

shown

Suppose now we increase the length

then x

differential of a line of the

-dX

in Fig. 36.

of that

THICKNESS

dX

THICKNESSs

Fig. 36.

of each side

by an

making the length

a square with this
will obviously

of each side

new

length as

its side,

The

actual area of the

The

the

new square

The area

of the old square

new square

be equal to the area of the old square

it.

we complete

If

5a;.

Sx,

be larger than the old square by a very

small amount.

to

amount,

infinitesimally small

will

the additions

was equal

to

addition consists of two fine strips each x long

x2

by

Sx wide and a small square having Sx as the length of

its side.

(x

The
Sx)

area of the addition then

(x

Sx)

(Sx

(The student should note

this

Sx)

is

additional area.

very carefully.)

There-

fore the addition equals

2xSx

Now

+ (Sx) = additional
2

area.

the smaller Sx becomes, the smaller

in,

more rapid

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF THE CALCULUS

proportion does 8x2
square, become.

do the

strips

which

the area of

is

Likewise the smaller 8x

is,

13

the small

the thinner

whose areas are x 5x become; but the

strips

do not diminish in value as fast as the small square

diminishes, and, in fact, the small square vanishes so

when

rapidly in comparison with the strips that even

the strips are of appreciable size the area of the small

square

by

inappreciable,

is

and we may say

practically that

increasing the length of the side x of the square

shown

in Fig. 36

by the quantity
Again,
length

by the length

we reduce
x

8x

we

increase its area

x 8x.

we reduce

if

8x,

amount

the side x of the square

by the

the area of

by

the square

This infinitesimal quantity, out of a

8x.

very large number of which the square consists or

be considered as

made up

of, is

that the differential of the quantity x

if

of a square,

we

we would have found

2

the cube X would have been 3 x

elaborate investigations

4X

we have

8x.

is

We

thus see

equal to

x 8x.

had considered the case of a cube instead

may

equal to the differential of

the square, namely, the differential of x 2

Likewise,

the

we

that the differential of

8x.

Likewise,

by more

find that the differential of

Summarizing, then, the foregoing results

*

= 8x,
=
of x
2 x 8x,
2
3
=
of x
3 x 8x,
4
3
of as = 4 z &*

differential of
differential

differential
differential

MATHEMATICS

114

From
nite

these

see that there

of x.

and place before the whole a

same number as the power

tiating; thus,

we

if

we

differentiate

X we

and I

x which we are

x we get
5

4
ic

is

by
the

is

differendx; also,

is

necessary for the student

what

is

meant by

differen-

also repeat that in differentiating

quantity our object

to find out

the very small parts of which

of growth).

multiply

which

get 6 5 8x.

to get a clear conception of

;

of

coefficient

differentiate
s

I will repeat here that it

tiation

differential of

Reduce the power of x by one,

Law.

if

a very simple and defi-

is

law by which we can at once find the

any power

Sx

we

it is

and get the value

all

of

constructed (the rate

Thus we have seen that a

structed of small lengths Sx

any

line is

con-

placed together; that a

square grows or evolves by placing fine strips one next

the other; that a cube

is built

up

of thin surfaces placed

one over the other; and so on.

Differentiation Similar to Acceleration.

We have just

said that finding the value of the differential, or one of

the smallest particles whose gradual addition to a quantity

makes the quantity,

rate of growth,

and

is

this is

ordinary term acceleration.

concretely just
differential.

over

all

what we

the same as finding out the

what we understood by the

Now we
are

can begin to see

aiming at in the term

The student should

stop right here, think

that has gone before and weigh each word of

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF THE CALCULUS

what we

are saying with extreme care, for

IIS

he under-

if

stands that the differentiation of a quantity gives us

the rate of growth or acceleration of that quantity he

has mastered the most important idea, in fact the keynote idea of all the calculus; I repeat, the keynote idea.

Before going further

Example.
of ten miles

and

If

let

us stop for a

a train

is

little illustration.

running at a constant speed

an hour, the speed

is

constant, unvarying

therefore has no rate of change, since

change at
fore x

all.

If

we

call

would be a constant quantity, and

equation

it

if

does not

train, there-

we put it in an

would have a constant value and be

called a

In algebra we have seen that we do not

constant.

usually designate a constant or

symbol

it

x the speed of the

*,

Now on

known quantity by

but rather by the symbols

the other

was changing; say

a, k, etc.

hand suppose the speed

in the first

hour

it

the

made

of the train

ten miles, in

the second hour eleven miles, in the third hour twelve

miles, in the fourth

hour thirteen miles,

dent that the speed

is

hour.

etc.

It

is evi-

increasing one mile per hour each

This increase of speed we have always called the

acceleration or rate of growth of the speed.

designated the speed of the train

see that

Now

by the symbol

if

we

x,

we

x would be a variable quantity and would have

a different value for every hour, every minute, every

second, every instant that the train was running.

The

speed x would constantly at every instant have added

MATHEMATICS

Ii6
to

it

more speed, namely

little

8x,

and

if

we can

find

the value of this small quantity 5x for each instant of

we would have

time

the differential of speed *, or in

other words the acceleration of the speed

repeat, x
to

would have to be a

have any

tity

differential at all,

and has a

us

variable quantity in order

and

if it is

a variable quan-

then that differential

the

is

growth or acceleration with which the value of

rate of

that quantity x

may

differential,

Now let

x.

is

increasing or diminishing as the case

We now

be.

the significance of the term

see

differential.

One more
is

illustration.

We

thrown straight up in the

all

know

air it starts

speed and gradually stops and begins to

it falls it
it

continues to increase

strikes the earth with the

thrown up with.

its

that

if

a ball

up with great
fall.

Then

as

speed of falling until

same speed that

Now we know

that

it

was

the force of

gravity has been pulling on that ball from the time that
it left

our hands and has accelerated

wards

until it

speeded

it

came

Prom

and

is

speed back-

to a stop in the air,

and then

This instantaneous change in

to the earth.

the speed of the ball

gravity,

its

we have

called the acceleration of

the rate of change of the speed of the ball.

careful observation

second per second.

we

little

find this to

further

be 32

on we

ft.

per

will learn

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF THE CALCULUS

how

to

express

117

concrete value of 8x in simple

the

form.
Differentiation of Constants.

that a constant quantity, since

cannot be
If,

Now
it

us remember

let

has no rate of change,

differentiated; therefore its differential is zero.

however, a variable quantity such as x is multiplied by

a constant quantity such as

6,

making the quantity

of course this does not prevent

you from

6 x,

differentiating

the variable part, namely x; but of course the constant

quantity remains unchanged; thus the differential of

6

0.

But the

differential of 3

the differential

of.

the differential of

and

4x
2

= 3 5a:,
= 4 times
= 2 times

= 8 x Sx,
2
3 x 8x = 6 x 8x,

x 8x
2

so on.

Differential of a

how

a;

Sum

or Difference.

We have seen

to find the djffierential of a single term.

Let us now

take up an algebraic expression consisting of several

terms with positive or negative signs before them; for

example

x2

+ 6 +3x

a;

In differentiating such an expression

we must
term

is

differentiate

it is

obvious that

each term separately, for each

separate and distinct from the other terms, and

therefore its differential or rate of growth will be distinct

and separate from the

terms; thus

differential of the other

u8

MATHEMATICS
The

differential of (x2

We

need scarcely say that

of an algebraic equation

other side; for

ation

is

we have

+6+3
2XSX 2 8X +
x

we

if

we must

ce

I2X3

differentiate

8X.

one side

also differentiate the

already seen that whatever oper-

performed to one side of an equation must be

performed to the other side in order to retain the

equality.

Thus

we

if

differentiate

+4 =
2 x 8x + o =
2

we

get

or

x 8x

10,
6 5x o,
6

6 8x.

Differentiation of a Product.

a rectangle whose sides are

In

Fig. 37

we have

x and y and whose area

is

dx

Rg-

37-

therefore equal to the product xy.

sides by a small

added

to

Now

increase its

amount and we have the

by two

thin strips

and a small

old area
rectangle,

thus:

New area =

Old area

+ y8x + 8ydx + x 8y.

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF THE CALCULUS

8y 8x

is

negligibly small;

we

therefore

119

that the

see

xy = x 8y

+ y 5x. This
can be generalized for every case and we have the law
differential of the original area

Law.
ables

is

" The

product of two vari-

differential of the

equal to the

multiplied

first

by

the second plus the second multiplied

of the first."

the differential of

by the

differential

Thus,

Differential x 2y

= x2 Sy

+ 2 yx Sx.

This law holds for any number of variables.

Differential xyz

xy

Differential of a Fraction.

- we

entiate the fraction

8z

+ xz 5y + yz Sx.
If

we

write

first

are asked to differin the

it

form xy -1

y
using the negative exponent;

now on

differentiating

we

have
Differential

xy~ x

+ y _1 8x

xy"2 By

_ x8y

8x

Reducing to a common denominator we have

4-T\-a
Differential
1

xy

-1

*
or y

x8y
1-

y*

_ y 8x

y8x
+ *-
.

-ir

x by

f
Law.

The

differential of a fraction is then seen to

be equal to the differential of the numerator times the

denominator, minus the differential of the denominator

120

MATHEMATICS

times the numerator,

all

divided by the square of the

denominator.
Differential of

Thus

far

One Quantity

we have

with Respect to Another.

considered the differential of a

variable with respect to itself, that

its

is,

rate of development in so far as

concerned.

we have
was

it

considered
itself

alone

Suppose however we have two variable

quantities dependent

on each

other,

that

is,

as one

changes the other changes, and we are asked to find the

rate of change of the one with respect to the other,

that

is,

to find the rate of change of one

rate of change of the other.

this should

knowing the

At a glance we

be a very simple process, for

if

we know

relation which subsists between two variable

this relation being expressed in the

see that

the

quantities,

form of an equation

between the two quantities, we should readily be able

to

tell

the relation which will hold between similar

deductions from these quantities.

Let us

for instance

take the equation

+ 2.

Here we have the two variables x and y

by an equation which
them.

for x.

we

y we

will find

seen,

if

we

between
give any

a corresponding value

Referring to our chapter on coordinate geometry

see that this

Fig. 38.

establishes a relation

As we have previously

definite value to

tied together

is

the equation of the line shown in

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF THE CALCULUS

121

Fig. 38.

Let us take any point

P on

nates are y and x respectively.

point Pi a short distance

line.

The

abscissa of this

this line.

Now

Its

choose another

away from P on

new

coordi-

the same

point will be a

longer than that of the old point, and will equal x

little

5x,

while the ordinate y of the old point has been increased

by

Sy,

making the

From

Fig. 38

ordinate of the

we

see that

_ 1
tana =
Sx

new

point y

+ dy.

MATHEMATICS

122
Therefore,
or 8x

we know

if

we can

the tangent a and

know

either 8y

find the other.

In this example our equation represents a straight"

line,

but the same would be true

sented

for

any curve

repre-

by any equation between x and y no matter how

complicated; thus Fig. 39 shows the relation between

Fig- 39-

8x

and Sy at one point

equation
circle

is

+y =

tan a or

25.

will

of the curve (a circle)

whose

For every other point of the

have a

different value.

5x

and

8x
Sy while

shown quite

large in the figure for

demon-

stration's sake are inconceivably small in reality; there-

fore the line

AB

in the figure is really a tangent of the

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF THE CALCULUS

curve,

and a

is

the angle which

makes with the

it

For every point on the curve

axis.

123

this angle will

be

different.

Mediate

we

ing

Differentiation.

see that

knowns

we know any two

in equation tan

Some textbooks
This

if

Summarizing the forego-

-**

we can

represent tan a or -^

a convenient notation and

is

Therefore

of the three unfind the third.

by yx and,

we

by xy

will use it here.

we have
5a:

tan a

Sy,

Sx,

Sy

tana
Sy

or

Sx

This shows us that

3

if

we

x2 as to x we obtain 6 *

=
=

Sx y x
Sy x y

the quantity

differentiate

5a;,

differentiate it with respect to

differentiate it with respect to

but

we had wished

if

y we would

first

to

have to

x and then multiply by

xv thus:
Differentiation of 3 x2 as to y

we have 4 y3 and we wish

with respect to x we have
Likewise

if

Differential of 4

This

is

as to

we can

to differentiate it

x = 12 y2 Sx yx

called mediate differentiation

primarily because

6 x Sy x r

and

is

differentiate a

.'

resorted to

power with

MATHEMATICS

124
respect to

itself readily,

but not with respect to some

other variable.

Law.
x as to

by x v

We

To

y, first differentiate it as to

x and then multiply

ty or vice versa.

need

this principle

several terms

if

we

we

find the differential of

some containing x and some

differentiate the equation

to x

any expression containing

differentiate

= y
3

we

if

10 with respect

get
2
4 x Sx = 3 y yx 8x

4* =

or

or

yx
tan a

or

this

we

y%,
AX

if
= 34X

see that

equation of the curve

+ o,

From

y; thus

we

3*

by

differentiating the original

got finally an equation giving

the value tan a in terms of x and

y,

and

if

we

fill

out the

exact numerical values of x and y for any particular point

of the curve

we

will

immediately be able to determine

the slant of the tangent of the curve at this point, as

will

numerically have the value of tangent

a,

we

and a

is

the angle that the tangent makes with the x axis.

In just the same manner that we have proceeded

here
of

we can proceed

to find the direction of the tangent

any curve whose equation we know.

ential of

y as to

*,

namely

Sy
-f-

or y x

The

differ-

must be kept

in

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF THE CALCULUS

mind

125

as the rate of change of y with respect to x, and

nothing so vividly portrays this fact as the inclination

which shows the bend

of the tangent to the curve

of

the curve at every point.

By elaborate pro-

Differentials of Other Functions.

cesses

which cannot be mentioned here we find that the

x as to x

Differential of the sine

Differential of the cosine x as to x

Differential of the log

x as

to x

cosine

Sx.

sin xSx.

- Sx.

x
Differential of the sine y as to
Differential of the cosine

y as

Differential of the log y as to

to x

cosine y

yx

Sx.

= sine y yx Sx.

= -yx Sx.

Referring back to the

Maxima and Minima.

Fig. 39, once more, we see
x

circle,

that

+y =
2

25.

Differentiating this equation with reference to x

we

have
2

x Sx

or

y y x Sx
2

y yx
y*

tan a

Therefore

=
=

o,
o,

= -

x
-

=
y

Now when
the curve

tan

is

a = o

it is

evident that the tangent to

parallel to the

axis.

At

this point

is

MATHEMATICS

126
either a

maximum

determined on

Therefore x

minimum which can be

or a

readily

reference to the curve.

= x

y
o.

o when y is maximum and in this particular

curve also minimum.

Law.

mum
we

If

we want

to find the

maximum

or mini-

value of x in any equation containing x and.

differentiate the equation with reference to y

solve for the value of

xv

this

we make

y,

and

equal to o and

then we solve for the value of y in the resulting

equation.

Example.
of

Find

maximum

the

or

minimum

value

x in the equation
y

14 x.

Differentiating with respect to y

2

Equating

this to

we have

y Sy

14 x v Sy,

2y

Xv

14

we have
2

14
or

~y

o.

In other words, we find that x has

its

minimum

value

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF THE CALCULUS

when y =

o.

We

can readily see that this

is

127

actually

the case in Fig. 40, which shows the curve (a parabola).

Fig. 40.

INTEGRATION
Integration

is

the exact opposite of differentiation.

In differentiation we divide a body into

parts, in

integration

we add

its

constituent

these constituent parts

together to produce the body.

Integration

is

indicated

by the

sign

thus,

we

if

wished to integrate Sx we would write

fsx.
Since integration

is

the opposite of differentiation,

are given a quantity and asked to integrate

it,

we

if

our

128

MATHEMATICS

answer would be that quantity which differentiated

will

For example, we

give us our original quantity.

detect Sx as the derivative of x; therefore the integral

JSx =
tial of

x.

Likewise,

we

x3

detect 4

x4 therefore the integral

;

8x as the differen-

J4 a? dx =

x\

Fig. 41.

If

we

consider the line

small parts 8x,

Sx

(Fig. 35) to

we could sum up

be made up of

these parts thus

+ Sx + Sx + dx + 8x + Sx
But

for millions of parts.

press this

AB

integration enables us to ex-

more simply and

of every single part Sx

But x

of indefinite length.

Sx

means the summation

which goes to make up the

AB, no matter how many

small each part.

is

parts there

between the points or limits

x =

how

portion of the line

1

would write
x

f.

be or

the whole length of the line

To sum up any

Sx

may

line

(*)

and x

4,

we

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF THE CALCULUS

Now

these are definite integrals because they indicate

exactly between

what

the length of the

Where no
will

120.

limits or points

This

line.

have a

shown the

only a general result, but

stated between which summation

to find

true for all integrals.

is

limits of integration are

yield

we wish

when

integral

to be made, then

is

we

may

whose precise value we

definite integral

are

limits

ascertain.

Refer back to the expression

solve

substitute

this,

inside

and subtract the value

namely,

we then

x,

of

to give

in order to

parenthesis

namely,

4,

the

and sub-

x at the lower

(4

1)

3 is the length of the line between

Thus

limit,

get

(x)

some

x =

the

of

value of x for the upper limit of

stitute

(x)

3.

and

4.

Or,

another illustration, suppose the solution of

integral

had given us

x =

then

&-

1)

2
(3

limit,

1)

(2

1)

='S-

Here we simply substituted

upper

for

in the parenthesis its

then subtracted from the quantity thus

MATHEMATICS

130

obtained another quantity, which

the lower limit of

By

had by substituting

is

x.

we

higher mathematics and the theories of series

prove that the integral of any power of a variable as to

itself is

obtained by increasing the exponent by one and

dividing

by the new exponent, thus

x?bx

3
s

/4 3
On

8x

close inspection this is seen to

law of

differentiation,

be the inverse of the

which says to decrease the expo-

nent by one and multiply by the old exponent.

So

many and

so few

that only a few type forms of integrals

integrated.

If

it

is

or device

be actually

Integral of

sum

it will

give that quantity.

an Expression.

The integral of an
is

equal

of the integrals of each of the separate terms;

2
J x Sx

is

by

brought into a form

is

algebraic expression consisting of several terms

to the

man

recognized as the differential of another

quantity, then integrating

The

may

of

the quantity under the integral sign

some manipulation
where

and

so complex are the laws of nature

and so limited the present conceptions

x 8x

+ 3 Sx

the same thing as

fx2 bx + 2 x bx + J3 5*.

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF THE CALCULUS

The most common

met with

integrals to be

1 31

practically

are:

The

(1)

integrals

some power

of

whose solution we have

The

(2)

integrals of the sine

cosine,

5x

which are

sine x,

cosine *.

integral of the reciprocal,

/;x

Areas.

and

f sine x Sx

The

the variable

just explained

J cosine x Sx

(3)

of

which

is

log, *.*

Up to the present we have considered only

the integration of a quantity with respect to

Suppose now we

itself.

integrate one quantity with respect to

another.

In Fig. 41 we have the curve PPi, which is the graphical

representation of some equation containing x and y.
If

we wish

to find the area

and the x

strips

Now we
,

would have a

yi Sx
is

base 10.

all

vertical lines

we

respectively,

drawn Sx distance

large

number

of small

having different heights,

yi, etc.

The enumeration of
* Log

and x

vertical lines

each Sx wide and

namely, y h y2 y 3

which

=a

up by

divide the space

apart.

between the curve

lies

and between the two

axis

at distances x

drawn

which

y-2,

all

Sx

these areas would then be

+y

Sx

+ yi Sx, etc.

means natural logarithm or logarithm

to the Napierian base e

equal to 2.718 as distinguished from ordinary logarithms to the

In fact wherever log appears in

this chapter it

means

log e

MATHEMATICS

132

Now

calculus enables us to say

ySx.
x=a
n x=b

jx 8x we

were

it

x=a

y Sx cannot be readily solved.

have seen that the

If

result

would be

We

must then

but

this is

find

some way

not the case with fy

J

Sx.

It is here then that

we

in the integral

having an integral of x as to
it.

Now,

one

this process

if

From

find the value of y in terms of

substitute this value of

we can

itself

the equation of the curve

becomes very

fy

PPi

difficult

ex-

we have to

PP\.

resort to the equation of the curve

equation

by some

to replace y in this integral

pression containing x.

a;;

5x,

this

we then
and then

readily solve
is

a complex

and sometimes

impossible.

simple case of the above

(Fig. 42).

area

If

we wish

is

the hyperbola xy

10

to get the value of the shaded

we have
12

Jr*:c=

1=5

From

10,

10

Sx.

ft.

the equation of this curve

xy

ft.

we have

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF THE CALCULUS

133

Fig. 42.

Therefore, substituting

we have

Jri=i2 IO
x=5

Area

=10

8x.

X
x

(log* x)

Area

Beyond

I0(l0g e I2

10(2.4817

8.740 sq.

=
=

12
5

l0ge5)
I.6077).

ft.

this brief gist of the principles of calculus

can go no further in

this chapter.

The student may not

understand the theories herein treated of at

fact, it will

take him, as

it

we

first

in

has taken every student,

MATHEMATICS

134

many months before the true conceptions of calculus

dawn on him clearly. And, moreover, it is not essential
that he know calculus at all to follow the ordinary
engineering discussions.

It

is

only where a student

wishes to obtain the deepest insight into the science that

he needs calculus, and to such a student I hope

this

chapter will be of service as a brief preliminary to the

and complexities

difficulties

of that subject.

PROBLEMS
x3 as

i.

Differentiate 2

2.

Differentiate 12 # 2 as to x.

3.

Differentiate 8

4.

x5 as

Differentiate 3 x

5.

Differentiate 4 y

6.

Differentiate 14

1.

Differentiate

x2

to x.

to x.

+4x +

10

x3 as

to x.

3 x as to y.

yV as to y.
as to x.

y
8.

Differentiate

4 qx as to

y.

Find yx in the following equations:

10.

+ 2y =
x* + y = 5.

11.

x2

12.

$xy =

13.

What

9.

x2
x

x2

+y =
2

2?

100.

25.

12.

angle does the tangent line to the circle

make with

the x axis at the point where

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF THE CALCULUS

What

14.

x2

the

is

minimum

135

value of y in the equation

153;?

15.

Solve

16.

Solve J 5 x2

17.

Solve

J 10 ax 5x

18.

Solve

3 sine

19.

Solve

f 2 3? Sx.
Sx.

+5x

Sx

+ 3 5*.

x Sx.

cosine

x Sx.

1=2
Jr*x=i

y 5*

if a;y

4.

22.

Differentiate 10 sine x as to x.

23.

Differentiate cosine

24.

Differentiate log x as to x.

25.

Differentiate

The

following tables are reproduced from

a;

sine x as to *.

Bliss's "

Manual

sion of the

y
as to #.
^
ar

Ames and

of Experimental Physics " by permis-

American Book Company.

LOGARITHMS

136

IOO TO IOOO
123 4

6 6

789

10 00000043 0086 0128 0170 0212 0253 0294 0334 0374 Use preceding Table
11 0414 0453 0492 0531 0569 0607 0645 0682 0719 o755 48

11

12 0792 0828 0864 0899 0934 0969 1004 1038 1072 1 106 3710

13 "39 "73

1206 1239 1271 1303 1335 1367 1399 1430 36 10

14 1461 1492 1523 1553 1584 1614 1644 1673 1703 1732
15 1761 1790 1818 1847 1875 I903 1931 1959 I987 2014

16

2041 2068 2095 2122 2148 2175 220I 2227 2253 2279 35

17 2304 2330 2355 2380 2405 2430 2455 2480 2504 2529
18 2553 2577 2601 2625 2648 2672 2695 2718 2742 2765
19 2788 2810 2833 2856 2878 2900 2923 2945 2967 2989

20

3010 3032 3054 3075 3096 3118 3139 3160 3181 3201

21 3222 3243 3263 3284 3304 3324 3345 3365 3385 3404
22 3424 3444 3404 3483 3502 3522 3541 3500 3579 3598

23
24

37" 3729 3747 3766

3802 3820 3838 3856 3874 3892 3909 3927 3945
25 3979 3997 4014 4031 4048 4065 4082 4099 4116
26 4150 4166 4183 4200 4216 4232 4249 4265 4281
27
28
29

369
368

3617 3636 3655 3674 3692

4314 4330 4346 4362

4472 4487 4502 45i8
4624 4639 4654 4669
4771 4786 4800 4814

3784
392
4133
4298

4378 4393 4409 4425 4440 4456

4533 4548 4564 4579 4594 4609
4683 4698 4713 4728 4742 4757
4829 4843 4857 4871 4886 4900

30
31 4914 4928 4942 4955 4969 4983 4997 501 5024 5038
32 5051 5065 5079 5092 5105 5119 5132 5145 5159 5172
33 5185 5198 5211 5224 5237 5250 5263 5276 5289 5302
34 5315 5328 5340 5353 5366 5378 5391 5403 54i6 5428
35 5441 5453 5465 5478 5490 5502 5514 5527 5539 5551
36 5563 5575 5587 5599 5611 5623 5635 5647 5658 5670
37 5682 5694 5705 5717 5729 5740 5752 5763 5775 5786
38 5798 5809 5821 5832 5843 5855 58665877
5899
39 59" 5922 5933 5944 5955 5966 5977 5988 5999 6010
40 6021 6031 6042 6053 6064 6075 6085 6096 6107 6117
41 6128 6138 6149 6160 6170 6180 6191 6201 6212 6222
42 6232 6243 6253 6263 6274 6284 6294 6304 6314 6325
43 6335 6345 6355 6365 6375 6385 6395 6405 6415 6425
44 6435 6444 6454 6464 6474 6484 6493 6503 6513 6522
45 6532 6542 6551 6561 6571 6580 6590 6599 6609 6618
46 6628 6637 6646 6656 6665 6675 6684 6693 6702 6712
47 6721 6730 6739 6749 6758 6767 6776 6785 6794 6803

19 23
17 21

3 34
28 31

16 19

26 29

15 18

14 17

>

24 27
22 25

13 16

21 24

257

12 15

20 22

2 S 7

12 14

19 21

247
246
246

11 13

10 12

16 18

2 4

10 12

15 17

"

15 17

11 13

246

2 4 5
2 3 5

9
9 10

14 16

2 3 5

13 15

235
235

12 14

3 4

12 13

3 4

14 15

13 *4

3 4

11 12

3 4

11 12

10 12

3 4
3 4

10 11

2 4

10 11

2 4

10 11

9 10
9 10
9
9 10
5

48 6812 6821 6830 6839 6848 6857 6866 6875 6884 6893

49 6902 691 6920

50 6990 6998 7007

6928 6937 6946 6955

70l6 7024 7033 7042
51 7076 7084 7093 7IOI 7IIO 7"8 7126
52 7160 7168 7177 7185 7193 7202 7210
53 7243 7251 7259 7267 7275 7284 7292

6964 6972 6981

7050 7059
7135 7143
7218 7226
7300 7308

7067
7152
7235
7316

64 7324 7332 7340 7348 7356 7364 7372 7380 7388 7396

LOGARITHMS

100

TO

1000
123 4

137

5 6

55 7404 7412 7419 7427 7435 7443 7451 7459 7466 7474
56
57
58
59

7482 7490 7497 7505 7513 7520 7528

7559 7566 7574 7582 7589 7597 7604
7634 7642 7649 7657 7664 7672 7679
77097716 7723 7731 7738 7745 7752
7782 7789 7796 7803 7810 7818 7825
7853 7860 7868 7875 7882 7889 7896

7536 7543 7551

7612 7619 7627
7686 7694 7701

4
4

7760 7767 7774

7839 7846
7910 7917

4
4

7980 7987
8048 8055
8116 8122

60
7832
61
7903
62 7924 7931 7938 7945 7952 7959 7966 7973
63 7993 8000 8007 8014 8021 8028 8035 8041
64 8062
8075 8082 8089 8096 8102 8109

65 8l2g 8136 8142 8149 8156 8l62 8169 8176 8182 8189
66 8i95 8202 8209 8215 8222 8228 8235 8241 8248 8254
67 8261 8267 8274 8280 8287 8293 8299 8306 8312 8319

68
69

70
71
72

73
74
75

8325 8331 8338 83448351 8357 8363 8370 8376 8382

8395 8401 8407 8414 8420 8426 8432 8439 8445

8451 8457 8463 8470 8476 8482 8488 8494 8500 8506
8513 8519 8525 8531 8537 8543 8549 8555 8561 8567
8573 8579 8585 8591 8597 8603 8609 8615 8621 8627
8633 8639 8645 8651 8657 8663 8669 8675 8681 8686
8692 8698 8704 8710 8716 8722 8727 8733 8739 8745
8751 8756 8762 8768 8774 8779 8785 8791 8797 8802

4
4

82 9138 9*43 9149 9 I 54 9 I 59 9i65 9170 9175 9180 9186

83 9191 9196 9201 9206 9212 9217 9222 9227 9232 9238

84

3
2

76 8808 8814 8820

8825 8831 8837 8842

8854 8859
89IO 8915
77 8865 8871 8876 8882 8887 8893 8899
78 |2I 8927 8932 8938 8943 8949 8954 8960 8965 8971
79 8976
2 8987 8993
9004 9009 9 r 5 9020 9025
80 9031 9036 9042 9047 953 9058 9063 9069 9074 979
81 9085 9090 9096 9101 9106 9112 9117 9122 9128 9133

9 2 43 9248 9253 9258 9263 9269 9274 9279 9284 9289

9294 9299 9304 9309 9315 9320 9325 9330 9335 9340

85
86 9345 9350 9355 9360 9365 9370 9375 9380 9385 9390
87 9395 9400 9405 9410 9415 9420 9425 9430 9435 9440
88 9445 945o 9455 9460 9465 9469 9474 9479 9484 9489

89 9494 9499 9504 95099513 95i8 9523 9528

90 9542 9547 9552 9557 9562 9566 957i 9576
91 9590 9595 9600 9605 9609 9614 9619 9624
92 9638 9643 9647 9652 9657 9661 96669671
93 9685 9689 9694 9699 9703 9708 9713 9717
94 9731 9736 9741 9745 975o 9754 9759 9763

9533 9538
9581 9586
9628 9633
9675 9680
9722 9727
9768 9773
9b 9777 9782 9786 979i 9795 9800 9805 9809 9814
96 9823 9827 9832 9836 9841 9845 9850 9854 9859 9863
9886 9890 9894 9899 9903 ggoS
97 9868 9872 9877
98 9912 9917 9921 9926 9930 9934 9939 9943 9948 9952

99

9956 9961 9965 9969 9974 9978 9983 9987 9991 9956

138

NATUKAL SINES

NATURAL SINES

139

140

NATURAL COSINES

NATUBAL COSINES

45

141

142

NATURAL TANGENTS

NATUBAL TANGENTS

143

0'

6'

12'

18'

24'

30'

36'

42'

48'

54'

12

46'

1.0000 0035 0070 0105 0141 0176 0212 0247 0283 0319

12

46
47
48
49
50

1-0355 0392 042S 0464 0501 0538 0575 0612 0649 0686
1.0724 0761 0799 0837 0875 0913 0951 0990 1028 1067
1.1 106 "45 1184 1224 1263 1303 1343 1383 1423 1463

12

13

19

13

20

51

52
63
54
55
66
67

1.1504 1544 1585 1626 1667 1708 175 1792 1833 1875
1.1918 1960 2002 2045 2088 2131 2174 2218 2261 2305
1.2349 2393 2437 2482 2527 2572 2617 2662 2708 2753

1.2799 2846 2892 2938 2985 3032 3079 3127 3175 3222
1.3270 3319 3367 3416 3465 3514 3564 3613 3663 3713
I-3764 3814 3865 3916 3968 4019 4071 4124 4176 4229

70
71
72
73

15

23

16

23

16

25

17

26

11

23

13

1.8807 8887 8967 9047 9128 9210 9292 9375 9458 9542
1.9626 9711 9797 9883 9970 6057 6145 0233 0323 0413
2.0503 0594 0686 0778 0872 0965 1060 "55 1251 1348

14

27

41

15

29

44

16

31

47

2.1445 1543 1642 1742 1842 1943 2045 2148 2251 2355

17

34

51

i.8o4<

2.2460 2566 2673 2781 2889 2998 3109 3220 3332 3445 18 37 55
20 40 60
2.3559 3673 3789 3906 4023 4142 4262 4383 4504 4627
2.4751 4876 5002 5129 5257 5386 5517 5649 5782 59i6 22 43 65
2.6051 6187 6325 6464 6605 6746 688g
2-7475 7625 7776 7929 8083 8239 8397
2.9042 9208 9375 9544 9714 9887 6061
3-0777 0961 1 146 1334 1524 1716 191c

3-7321 7583 7848 8118

76 4.0108 0408
77 4-3315 3662
78 4-7046 7453
79 5.1446 1929
80 5-67I3 7297
81 6.3138 3859
82 7-54 2066
83 8.1443 2636

0713
4015
7867
2422
7894
4596
3002
3863

1022

4374
8288
2924
8502
5350
3962
5126

7034
8556
6237
2106
3544 3759 3977 4197
5816 6059 6305 6554
8391 8667 8947 9232
1335 1653 1976 2303
4737 5107 5483 5864
8716 9152 9594 6045
3435 3955 4486 5026
9124 9758 0405 1066
6122 6912 7920 8548
4947 5958 6996 8062
6427 7769 9152 0579

7179 7326
8716 8878
0415 595
2305 2506
4420 4646
6806 7062

24
26

47
52

7i

29

58

87

9812

46

9520
2635
6252
0504

78

32

64 96
36 72 108
41 82 Z22

94139

2972 53 107 160

6646 62 124 186
0970 73 146 219
5578 6140 87 17s 262
1742 2432
9395 0264
9158 0285
2052 3572
Difference - col10.20 iQ-39 10.58 10.78 io- 99 11.20
umns cease to be

J54 9 5144J9.677 9-845

_85 H-43 11.66 11.91 12.16 12.43 12.71 13.00 13.30 13-62 13-95

89

22

34
24 36
26 38

75

8.

21

14

12

3.2709 2914 3122 3332

3-4874 5105 5339 5576

J?

14

7391 7461 7532 7603 7675 7747 7820 7893 7966

8115 8190 8265 8341 8418 8495 8572 8650 8728

1. 7321

74

86
87

7
7

1.428 4335 4388 4442 4496 4550 4605 4659 4715 4770 9 18 27
1.4826 4882 4938 4994 5051 5108 5166 5224 5282 5340 zo 19 29
1-5399 5458 5517 5577 5637 5697 5757 5818 5880 5941 10 SO 30
1.6003 6066 6128 6191 6255 6319 6383 6447 6512 6577 11 21 32

58
59 1.6643 6709 6775 6842 6909 6977 7045 7"3 7182 7251

60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69

18

useful, owing to
rapidity with

the

14.30 14.67 15.06 15.46 15.89 16.35 16.83 17-34 17.89 18.46 which the value
.02 22.90 23 8624. go 26.03 27.27 of the tangent
19.08 19.74 20.45 21.:
changes.
28.64 30-14 31-82 33 69 35 80 38.19 40.92 144-07 47-74 52.08

57.29 63.66 71.62 81.85 95-49

1 14.6 143-2 igl.O 286.5 573-0

ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS

ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
CHAPTER
i.

2.

3.

2a+66 + 6c 3d.
ga-\- b 6c.
30" z+ 146 100.
7.

3X + 6y+ 4-Z + a.
86+90 2
6. 8a; 60 + 46+11 y.
2X 2y+ 28 z
4.

5.

c.

ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS

148
8a

,I3

+ 6 + 4c
2

12 a

6*

'

120 a2c

+ 3 6c 6

IS-

3a6

I4

4!

+ d?c

+ 2 6^

6a;

126c

ac+ 26"

2 a

2
5 a

sa

4 aft

CHAPTER

26

+ sa6

IV

- 3 y) (2 z - 3 y).

1.

3, 2, 5, a, a, 6.

11.

(2

2.

3, 2, 2, 2, 2, a, a, a, a, c.

12.

(9a

+ 56) (9a + 56).

3, 2, 5, *, *, y, y, y, y,

z 3-

(4c

- 6a) (4c- 6a).

3.

z,z,z.
4.

5.

3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2,

3, 2,
1

11
,-,
a,

a;, a;,

a, a.

11,
a,-, -1

6,

a
x

*
6.

8.

9.

10.

(a-c)( 2 a +

6).

+ y) (x +
(2a; + sy)(a; +
(3

(a

S*(6a +

l6

(9*y-s)(9y +

6)

(a

6).

z).

+46

3ac

c).

18.

(i22y+80)(i2

2)(

s)-

a+26) (a _ 26)<

i7

2
3c

y 8z).

24.

2 ac + c) 2, 2.
^y + z) (4? + *)(3y + 2a;) (2y 3a;).
4a+s j)(a _ 2 j).
33,_ 2a.)( 2y _ 3 ).
(2 a + 6) (a - 3 6).

25.

(2a+

2 "
21.

22

c).

10 z).

#, y,

'

7.

(4^ + 523;

14.

*5-

19.

2,5,i,a;,i, i >y,y,--"-"-y
'2
'a; a;
y

a;

23-

(a2

(
(

56)

(a+

26).

ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS

CHAPTER
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

= 4=
x
2$.
* = 4.
z = -A.

VI

jc=^.

14.

= -ioy

7.

x=6tfi-

30.

9g+9&-y-*y

+2

+ 3 = * + + 3-

*5-

5<*

l6,

6*-5:y=5-">*-

J 7-

iSZ2

18.

6a

I0

3*-* = 3^-y.

6.

149

20.

<*

+ 4*= 12-ioy.
+ 2 = 4.
<f

8s -10^=203,.
X?

X?

21:
'

'

a5-_

'

2a(a-J)(a+i)"
!!

IO

11.

12.

x 3'

(3 0+6)
=2fl+6.

(a-6)+ 2g

io(fl

-6

22 - *

2
)

23.

^ + "* = cy "t"^~

Gun
24.

"

+3

Coat costs $28.57.

Hat

costs $57.14.

costs

* I 4.9-

Horse costs $671.66.

Carriage costs $328.33.

"J

= ~i

2d*x+2db-aX*-bx=
<*-fc+io-io&.
"T

3 (c-d)

(e-<9

25.

Anne's age

26.

24 chairs

is

18 years.

and 14

tables.

CHAPTER VH
1.

x=2.

6.

a;

2.

a;

=5, y=2.

7-

a;

3.

a:

8.

a;

45.

4,

1,

*=5> y=
x = 3, y =

2.

2.

3-

9-

a;

2,

4.

10.

a;

= -15, y = 15.
= --084, y= -10.034.
= 5^, y = rfV= -i.i, y = 6.1.
= i&, y = 2^.

ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS

iS

Vm

CHAPTER

i.

2.

2 2V19
X=

3.

4.

a;

5.

a;

=
=
=

2 or

i.

6.

4 or 2.

a;

13.

a;

14.

a;

IS-

3 a=fc

V51

26

6a

3 (a

+ 6)V8(a + 6) + o(a+&)
17.

18.

2
,

3'
=

:VT

16.

= - azfcV^aff + a
/i-l

205
=*
= 3.
= 4(2V 3~).

14 a

3 or 1

10.

12.

V^6.

2 or

,__i^S.

8.

2.

11.

a;

4a

+b
27 V2425
x =

19.

a;

20.

a;

299
== 63.
= 100 a2 301 a+ 225.

21.

a;

22.

"^52.
-53
=

a2

a Va + 4
2

16

CHAPTER IX

= 50.
2.6= V,
1.

3.

&

4.

=
=

60.

5-

192.

CHAPTER X
1.

96

2.

180 sq.ft.

o3.

254.469
-1
3* t y sq.

sq. ft.

4.

Hypotenuse

5.

62.832

ft.

= V117

ft.

long.
ft.

long.

6.

V301

27.6

ft.

ft.

long.

long.

.,

7
gS7' 7' miles.
/vo
.

9-

Altitude

10.

Altitude

=
=

7.5 ft.

ft.

5-

ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS

CHAPTER

=
=

.5349;

cosine

.9888;

cosine

=
=

25 36'.

7.

4-

79 25'-

8.

5.

36

59'.

9.

6.

28

54'.

10.

1.

sine

2.

sine

3.

I5i

XI

.1495; tangent

=
=

519.57

.8456;

tangent

600ft.;

.6330.

6.6122.
ft.

= 591.01 ft.
a = 1231 ft.; b = 217 ft.
a = 6i 51'; a = 467.3 ft.
j.a

57 47'; c

ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS

152
3-

4.

o;

o;

=
=

o;

o;

o;

-y

5.

=
y=
x=
x=
a;

7.

2.

= - tV
= - 2

4;

x=

5;

o;

4;

6;

o;

y==fci;

straight line.

straight line.

This

1;

2;

=6.
x=6.

= v 32.
y = V27.
y = V 20.
y = V11.

6.

o;

=
= 4.

32.
8.

=V96.

x=4.
x=vi7.

with a radius of

y
x

=
=

=
x =
x

o;

x=db V7.

1;

2;

its

6.

is

a parabola and

to plot

it

correctly a great

many
of

corresponding values

x and y are

This
a great

is

necessary.

an hyperbola and

many corresponding
and y

are neces-

sary in order to plot the

curve correctly.

This

is

center at

o;

with

This

values of x

y=3; x=S.
y =5; x= V4T.

circle

the intersection

x and y axes and

of the

o.

=
x =

is

center at

an

ellipse

+2

with

on the y

its

axis.

=+7 or 3 A great many corresponding

y = 2 V22. values of x and y are necescorrectly.
y = 2 V 13. sary to plot

it

ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS

153

Intersections of Curves

*=
2

y
x

3.

2?;

&

This

= ~ 5 v^;
= 5 V^.

The

is

This

is

the intersection of a

straight line

and a

circle.

roots are here imaginary showing that the

curves do not touch at

all,

which can be

plotting them.

CHAPTER XIV
I.

the intersection of

straight lines.

easily

two
shown by

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