Faculty of Engineering

University of Kragujevac

ADHESION AND ADHESIVE WEAR

SEMINAR PAPER

Professor:

Student:

Dr Sandra Stefanovi

Marina Arnautovi 363/2015

Kragujevac, 2015.

Marina Arnautovi 363/2015

Contents
1.

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 3

2.

MECHANISM OF ADHESION ............................................................................................. 4

2.1

Metal-Metal Adhesion...................................................................................................... 4

2.2

Metal-Polymer Adhesion ................................................................................................. 8

2.3

Metal-Ceramic Adhesion ................................................................................................. 8

2.4

Polymer-Polymer and Ceramic-Ceramic Adhesion ......................................................... 9

2.5

Effects of Adhesion Between Wearing Surfaces ........................................................... 10

2.6

Control of the adhesive wear .......................................................................................... 10

2.7

Lubricants ....................................................................................................................... 11

3.

SUMMARY........................................................................................................................... 12

4.

REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 13

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1. INTRODUCTION

Adhesive wear is a very serious form of wear characterized by high wear rates and a large
unstable friction coefficient. Sliding contacts can rapidly be destroyed by adhesive wear and, in
extreme cases, sliding motion may be prevented by very large coefficients of friction or seizure.
Metals are particularly prone to adhesive wear hence its practical significance. Most lubricant
failures in sliding metal contacts result in adhesive wear since this relates to a breakdown in the
lubricant's basic function of providing some degree of separation between the sliding surfaces. If
sliding surfaces are not separated adhesion and subsequent wear are almost inevitable. The
questions of practical importance are: which metals are most prone to adhesion and adhesive
wear? How can adhesive wear be recognized and controlled? In this chapter the process of
adhesion between surfaces is described together with the resulting wear mechanism (Stachowiak
& Batchelor, 2005).

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2. MECHANISM OF ADHESION

Most solids will adhere on contact with another solid to some extent provided certain
conditions are satisfied. Adhesion between two objects casually placed together is not observed
because intervening contaminant layers of oxygen, water and oil are generally present. The
earth's atmosphere and terrestrial organic matter provide layers of surface contaminant on objects
which suppress very effectively any adhesion between solids. Adhesion is also reduced with
increasing surface roughness or hardness of the contacting bodies. Actual observation of
adhesion became possible after the development of high vacuum systems which allowed surfaces
free of contaminants to be prepared. Adhesion and sliding experiments performed under high
vacuum showed a totally different tribological behaviour of many common materials from that
observed in open air. Metallic surfaces free of oxide films under high vacuum exhibited the most
dramatic changes and partly for this reason have been widely studied (Stachowiak & Batchelor,
2005).

2.1 Metal-Metal Adhesion

Apart from noble metals such as gold and platinum any other metal is always covered by an
oxide film when present in unreacted form in an oxidizing atmosphere. The oxide film is often so
thin as to be invisible and the metal appears shiny and pure. This film, which may be only a few
nanometres thick, prevents true contact between metals and hinders severe wear unless
deliberately removed (Bowden & Rowe, 1956).
It has been found in experiments conducted in vacuum that as the degree of surface
contamination is reduced, adhesion between metallic surfaces becomes very large (Bowden &
Rowe, 1956).
In these experiments the metal was first heated to melt off the oxide film. A schematic
diagram of the apparatus can measure the adhesion of clean surfaces under vacuum (Stachowiak
& Batchelor, 2005).

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It is evident from Table 1 that in all cases the adhesion or separation force is greater than the
contact force. The tendency to adhere does not discriminate between metals on the basis of their
mutual solubility or relative atomic size. The greatest adhesion occurs for a combination of like
materials, i.e. iron to iron, but many other combinations of unlike metals also show quite high
adhesions. The ratio of adhesion force to contact force can be very high, about 20 or more in
some cases. The bonding process is almost instantaneous and can occur at moderate or low
temperatures (Buckley, 1981).
Numerous tests on a wide variety of metal combinations have shown that when there is
strong adhesion, transfer of the weaker metal to the stronger occurs as illustrated schematically
in Figure 1 (Stachowiak & Batchelor, 2005).

Figure 1. Process of metal transfer due to adhesion (Stachowiak & Batchelor, 2005)
TABLE 1: Adhesion force of various metals against iron in vacuum (Buckley, 1981)

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The strong adhesion observed between metals can be explained by electron transfer between
contacting surfaces. Numerous free electrons are present in metals and on contact electrons may
be exchanged between the two solids to establish bonding. The electrons are not bound by a rigid
structure and providing that the distance between two bodies in contact is sufficiently small, less
than 1 [nm], they can move from one body to another. As a result the electrons can bond two
solids despite their differing atomic structures. It has been found that the calculated values of the
strength of adhesion between two metals are considerably in excess of experimental values
(Sikorski, 1963).
This is attributed to the difficulty in determining a true value of the contact area between
atoms of opposing surfaces. It is theorized that when different metals are in contact, the metal
with a higher electron density donates electrons to the other metal as illustrated in Figure 2
(Stachowiak & Batchelor, 2005).

Figure 2. Exchange model of adhesive contact between metals; x is equivalent to atomic

dimensions - less than 1 [nm] (Stachowiak & Batchelor, 2005)

All metals show a strong tendency to adhere on contact with another solid but there are
significant differences between particular elements. Metals mainly exist in four principal types of
crystal structure: face-centred cubic, body-centred cubic, hexagonal close packed and tetragonal.
It has been found experimentally that metals with hexagonal close packed structure show much
less adhesion than other crystal structures. High hardness, large elastic moduli and surface
energy of the metal also suppress adhesion (Sikorski, 1963).

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The graph of the coefficient of adhesion versus hardness for a number of pure metals is
shown in Figure 3, where the coefficient of adhesion is defined as the ratio of rupture force to
contact force (Stachowiak & Batchelor, 2005).
It can be seen from Figure 3 that for metals with similar hardness but different crystal
structure, like aluminium and zinc or lead and tin, there are significant differences in adhesion.
The reason for the difference in adhesion between metals of similar hardness is believed to lie in
the necessity for some degree of plastic deformation between asperities before a true contact can
be established. Hexagonal close packed metals have far less slip systems and are therefore less
ductile than face-centred and body-centred metals, which results in their lower adhesion
(Stachowiak & Batchelor, 2005).
Adhesion between metals is also influenced by the chemical reactivity or
electropositivity of the individual metals (Buckley, 1981). Chemically active metals, such as
aluminium, bond more readily and therefore show stronger adhesion than noble metals. This
suggests that face-centred cubic crystal lattice metal with a high level of chemical activity would
show a particularly strong adhesion. Such metals are usually unsuitable for unlubricated sliding
contacts (Stachowiak & Batchelor, 2005).

Figure 3. Adhesion coefficient of various metals versus hardness (Sikorski, 1963)

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Summarizing, the electron transfer between metals allows a strong adhesive bond to be
formed between two identical or different metallic elements. A limiting factor in adhesion is the
minimum load which causes plastic flow and therefore the establishment of a true contact
between surfaces (Stachowiak & Batchelor, 2005).
2.2 Metal-Polymer Adhesion

In the extensive series of experiments conducted into metal-polymer contact and

adhesion under high vacuum it has been revealed that metals and polymers can also show a high
degree of adhesion (Buckley, 1981).. Adhesion observed between a tungsten surface and
polymers such as polytetrafluoroethylene and polyimide, is strong enough to cause polymer to
transfer to the metallic surface when the two materials are separated. The strength of adhesion is
found to be related to the presence of reactive non-metals, such as fluorine, in the polymer (D.H.
Buckley, 1981).. Surface atoms of the polymer are believed to bond with surface atoms of the
metal and this can occur irrespective of the inertness of the polymer in bulk (Stachowiak &
Batchelor, 2005).
Most polymers adhere to other materials by van der Waals forces. In most wear
situations, this form of adhesion is not strong enough for lumps of material to be torn out on
rupture of the contact (Wake, 1982).
Strong adhesion between a metal and polymer based on chemical interaction forms the
basis for the mechanism of polymer on metal wear. Van der Waals forces, although they do not
directly cause adhesive wear, provide a significant component of frictional resistance for
elastomers such as rubber (Stachowiak & Batchelor, 2005).

2.3 Metal-Ceramic Adhesion

Under suitable conditions, quite strong adhesion between metals and ceramics can occur.
The common factor in adhesion between various ceramics and metals is their chemical affinity.

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It has been found, that only metals which do not form stable oxides exhibit low friction
coefficients against ceramics (Buckley & Miyoshi, 1985). In contacts with ceramics, metals such
as copper, aluminium and nickel show high friction coefficients while the coefficients of friction
of gold and silver (unstable oxides) are low (Stachowiak & Batchelor, 2005).
Although the oxygen ions present on the surface of aluminium oxide are already bonded
to aluminium, an additional interaction with contacting metal atoms is possible according to the
laws of quantum chemistry (Buckley & Miyoshi, 1985). The trend for contact between other
metals and ceramicsis similar Buckley & Miyoshi, 1984).
Metals usually have a cohesive strength lower than most engineering ceramics so that on
rupture of the adhesive contact, fragments of metal are often left adhering to the ceramic to form
a transfer film. Adhesion of ceramics to metals is greatly reduced by surface contamination in a
manner similar to metal-metal contacts (Stachowiak & Batchelor, 2005).
2.4 Polymer-Polymer and Ceramic-Ceramic Adhesion

Adhesion based on electron transfer is less likely to take place in contacts lacking a metal
counterface. Very little is known about the mechanisms of adhesion between non-metallic
materials. Attractive forces have been found between quartz surfaces and mica surfaces. Rubber
was also found to adhere to glass and polymer. In all of these cases van der Waals forces were
clearly the largest component contributing to adhesion (Stachowiak & Batchelor, 2005).
The markedly different mechanical properties of polymers and ceramics illustrate well
the difference between inter-atom attraction and bulk adhesion. Polymers have one of the lowest
elastic moduli of commonly used engineering materials whereas ceramics have one of the
highest. Most of the surfaces are rough and for the contacting surfaces to reach a proximity
similar to the size of an atom or less, the deformation of the surface asperities must take place.
Forces required to deform the asperities act in opposition to the adhesion forces and reduce the
overall net adhesion force. The adhesion therefore is strongly influenced by the size of the
asperities (Stachowiak & Batchelor, 2005).

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Summarizing, polymers and ceramics in contact show a similar adhesion mechanism
caused by van der Waals forces. The net adhesion force for ceramics contacting ceramics is
greatly reduced, however, due to their high hardness (Stachowiak & Batchelor, 2005).

2.5 Effects of Adhesion Between Wearing Surfaces

Strong adhesion between the asperities of wearing surfaces has two effects: a large
component of frictional force is generated and the asperities may be removed from the surface to
form wear particles or transfer layers (Stachowiak & Batchelor, 2005).
2.6 Control of the adhesive wear

If adhesive wear is allowed to proceed uncontrolled various undesirable consequences

can follow. High friction with the possibility of seizure and the growth of transfer particles can
result. In some cases transfer particles can jam the sliding contact, e.g., if it is annular. A further
problem caused by adhesive wear is an extremely high wear rate and severe surface damage as
illustrated in Figure 4 (Stachowiak & Batchelor, 2005).

Figure 4. Al-Si alloy surface worn by adhesive wear (Stachowiak & Batchelor, 2005)
Experimental results have shown a much higher probability of wear particle generation
due to asperity contacts during adhesive wear compared to, for example, abrasive wear. The
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probability ranged from 10-2 for a mild steel/mild steel contact, to 10-7 for a tungsten
carbide/tungsten carbide contact. Successful operation of machinery, however, relies on far
lower ratios of wear particles to asperity contacts, e.g. a ratio of 1/106 is typical of mild wear
(Archard, 1961).
Rapid wear is therefore a main reason why adhesive wear must usually be carefully
controlled and suppressed. Fortunately it is a relatively simple matter to reduce or even eliminate
adhesion between solids. Contaminant layers of surface oxides and material impurities contribute
to the reduction of adhesive wear. Adhesion can also be controlled by the application of specially
formulated lubricants and careful selection of sliding materials (Stachowiak & Batchelor, 2005).

2.7 Lubricants

The primary purpose of a lubricant is to suppress adhesive wear by providing a superior

form of surface contamination. Fatty acids and other polar organic substances are usually
blended into lubricating oils. If these fatty acids adsorb on the top of the existing oxide layers,
further reductions in friction and wear are obtained (Bowden & Tabor, 1964).
Certain oils also contain additives rich in sulphur, phosphorus or chlorine. Metal surfaces
can form sulphide, phosphide or chloride films just as readily as oxide films. These films are
intended to form when oxide films break down to provide a protective surface film against very
high friction or seizure (Stachowiak & Batchelor, 2005).
The importance of minimizing adhesive wear is such that lubricants are specially
formulated to control it even at the cost of promoting other forms of wear or surface damage like
corrosive wear (Stachowiak & Batchelor, 2005).

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3. SUMMARY

Adhesive wear is a very serious form of wear characterized by high wear rates and a large
unstable friction coefficient. Most solids will adhere on contact with another solid to some extent
provided certain conditions are satisfied. Adhesion between two objects casually placed together
is not observed because intervening contaminant layers of oxygen, water and oil are generally
present. The strong adhesion observed between metals can be explained by electron transfer
between contacting surfaces. Numerous free electrons are present in metals and on contact
electrons may be exchanged between the two solids to establish bonding. The electron transfer
between metals allows a strong adhesive bond to be formed between two identical or different
metallic elements. A limiting factor in adhesion is the minimum load which causes plastic flow
and therefore the establishment of a true contact between surfaces.
Adhesive wear is the fundamental cause of failure of most metal sliding contacts and
therefore its effective prevention is essential to proper functioning of engineering machinery.

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4. REFERENCES

Gwidon W. Stachowiak, Andrew W. Batchelor (2005), Engineering tribology,

University of Western Australia, Perth
Bowden F.P. and Rowe G.W., (1956), The Adhesion of Clean Metals, in London, Proc.
Roy. Soc., London
Buckley D.H. (1981), Surface Effects in Adhesion, Friction, Wear and Lubrication,
Elsevier Scientific Pub. Co, Amsterdam,
Sikorski M.E., (1963), Correlation of the Coefficient of Adhesion With Various Physical
and Mechanical Properties of Metals, Transactions ASME, New York, N.Y. : American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, Series D - Journal of Basic Engineering, New York
Wake W.C., (1982), Adhesion and the Formulation of Adhesives, Applied Science
Publishers, 2nd edition, London
Buckley D.H. and Miyoshi K. (1985), Tribological Properties of Structural Ceramics,
NASA Technical Memorandum 87105, Lewis Research Centre, Cleveland, Ohio
Buckley D.H. and Miyoshi K., (1984), Friction and Wear of Ceramics, Wear, Lewis
Research Centre, Cleveland, Ohio
Bowden F.P. and Tabor D., (1964), The Friction and Lubrication of Solids, Part 2,
Oxford University Press, Oxford
Archard J.F., (1961), Single Contacts and Multiple Encounters, Journal of Applied
Physics, Melville, NY

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