they are on the brittle side. Unlike castings, extruded Al and similar will bend a fair amount before cracking. Any way to make castings more malleable? Most of the parts I have in mind are strictly ornamental. I shy away from stuff that life and limb depends on. But I would consider some parts that I wouldn't o therwise consider, if I could make the parts less brittle. Heat treating? Or? It depends on why they're brittle in the first place. First thing to check is the alloy. Some alloys are more brittle than others. Hig h-Si alloys (the really good casting alloys, like 356) tend to be fairly brittle (circa 5% elongation before fracture) whereas extrusion alloys like 6061 might have 20-30% elongation as cast. (I believe it's about 10% for 6061-T6, but I don 't remember exactly. In any case, heat treating is kind of a pain, though it is possible to do in a BYMC setting with reasonable results.) Second thing to check: Iron contamination! If you're melting in a steel crucible , your castings are going to be more brittle than the alloy you started out with . If you're casting something like 6061 and not doing a heat treat, then you may actually desire a little more hardness, because as-cast 6061 with no contaminat ion is super soft and gummy (you can practically tie the vent wires into knots), but if you want to form it after casting, then that's where to start. If you're just worried about an alloy being excessively brittle and cracking during usage , then you should start with a known good alloy (356 et al. is fine even though it's not particularly malleable, because it's not so brittle that effective stre ngth is reduced) and then not contaminate it. 356 plus iron contamination is alm ost certain to be weaker than uncontaminated 356 ("too brittle"), whereas as-cas t 6061 plus iron contamination might actually be stronger than the uncontaminate d ("not brittle enough"), though it will certainly not respond to heat treatment properly with contamination. Fractography is an active research area and has benefited from a clos ely related interest in quantitative assessment of load carrying capability as predicted by fracture mechani cs (and vice versa). The coupling probably first became obvious when Griffith's model for brittle fracture was app lied to the study of cleavage fracture in metallic materials in 1954. It was then realized that cleavage fract ure in crystalline materials could not be based simply on a normal stress criterion (e.g., see Honeycombe (Ref 2). Many new tools and techniques for studying fracture surfaces have become availab le and made possible a more complete understanding of fracture processes. A 1948 fracture text and symposium (Ref 3) focused heavily on macroscale phenomenological mechanics and multiaxial failure surfaces. An important conference on fracture held in 1959 (Ref 4) included no fractographs using an electron beam fo r illumination. A subsequently published conference proceedings on fracture in 1962 (Ref 5) contained only a fe w electron fractographs. The rapid development of both the transmission electron microscope (TEM ) and soon after, the scanning electron microscope (SEM) during the 1960s provided new and very power ful tools to examine fracture surfaces with significantly improved resolution and depth of field. The TEM was available first, and most of the early fractographs were obtained with the TEM. These replicas are reversed image s of the fracture surface. The differences in appearance between fractographs obtained from replicas and by dir
ect observation can also be
striking. Because of the early use of the TEM in microfractography, a substantial amount of fractographic images via TEM replicas have been published. In 1966, for example, Cedric Beache m published the results of an extensive study of fractographic features and interpretation at the Naval Res earch Laboratory (Ref 6). This report also contains a detailed discussion of artifacts that can be created by r eplication of the fracture surface and handling of the replica. Reference 6 was soon followed by an ASTM Symposium on Electron Fracto graphy in 1967 (Ref 7). At essentially the same time, La Microfractographie was published in France (Ref 8) . In 1971, a second ASTM book (Ref 9) was published, followed in 1975 by second major compilation of frac tographic information (Ref 10), which contained extensive direct SEM images of the fracture surface. The us e of SEM had advantages over TEM. The availability of the SEM obviated the necessity of replicating the fract ure surface for examination and also provided the capability to examine larger areas of the fracture surface but at decreased resolution. The ability to place large sections in the microscope is of considerable importance, because incomplete examination of the fracture surface may result in not obtaining critical information. The co rrect procedure is to document the fracture surface in a series of photographs obtained at increasing magnification , each time indicating the region of the higher magnification in the previous photograph. This is not easy to do u sing the TEM for examination due to the size limitation of the replica (approximately 3.2 to 6.4 mm, or 1 8 to 1 4 in., in diameter.) Since the 1970s, the SEM has become the most common instrument of use for high-m agnification examination of the fracture surface today (variable pressure SEM for polymeric materials). O ptical light fractography is still used today for examination of glasses, but th e common tool of choice for metallic materials is the SEM, in part because of the increased depth of field and higher magnification. Although optic al light fractography produces important information regarding fracture surface features, the ability to examin e detail on the fracture surface is limited by a maximum magnification of 1000 to 1500 diameters, small depth of fie ld, and limited resolution. In some ways, ready availability of the SEM also has limited detailed examinatio n by TEM, because of the ability to place large sections in the microscope for examination in conjunction with reasonably high resolution and without the difficulties in preparing and using fracture surface replicas. H owever the higher resolution of the TEM still remains the tool of choice for examination of fine detail on fract ure surfaces and to obtain a more complete understanding of fracture processes such as cleavage (Ref 11). Nonethel ess, it is still important to remember that the higher resolution capability of the TEM does not guarantee bet ter understanding. It is the
self-consistent data gathered over a range of magnifications that provides under
standing. Additional tools and techniques also have become available, including energy dis persive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS or WDS), the Auger microscope, the variable-pressure SEM, the atomic-force microscope and others. These tools have made possible answers to several long-standing questions of imp ortance, such as an improved understanding of temper embrittlement in steels. Advancement in the quantitative understanding of fracture also continues. For example, two relatively recent symposia on fracture in 1996 and 1997 (Ref 12 and 13) demonstrate the continued close coupling between fracture mechanics, mac roscopic and microscopic continuum mechanics, finite element analysis, dislocation theory, and fr actography. Better quantitative understanding of fracture progression and of its microscale appearance and mechanism facilitate potential scaling to fabricated engineering components. Several compilations of fractographic information (albeit dated in some instance s) are also available for metals, polymers, ceramics, and composites. Examples include Ref 14, 15, 16, 1 7, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24. References 14 and 18 contain polymers. References 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 (including Fractography, Volume 12 of ASM Handbook) contain metals, and Ref 18 contains com posites. Although not an atlas of fractographs, another text (Ref 25) contains several fractographs of me tals, polymers, ceramics, and composites, as well as discussion of the relationship between microstructure and fractographic appearance. Also ensure that you're fluxing properly to remove dross inclusions. Inclusions in a casting will weaken it and make it easier for cracks to propagate. You may not see the inclusions (unless you have a huge dross problem) but you'll be able to tell the difference in ductility between fluxed and unfluxed aluminum. Along with fluxing is degassing (if you flux, you'll probably have to degas too, beca use the flux will promote gas), because a severe gas problem will weaken the cas ting. The degassing action also helps the flux do its job removing inclusions. As far as heat treatment goes, it depends heavily on the alloy. Alloys like 6061 are usually heat treated to make them harder and stronger, and thus more brittl e (because as-cast 6061 is almost uselessly soft), but if you have an alloy that 's particularly sensitive and was cooled fast during casting for whatever reason , you might be able to anneal some of the stresses out of it to make it softer. In general though, as-cast temper is pretty much an annealed temper, so heat tre atment isn't going to help if you want more ductility. Also, many good cast allo ys don't respond much to heat treatment or aren't intended to be heat treated, p recisely because it's an extra manufacturing step that can be avoided by the use of an alloy that doesn't need it.