wan-1-.

\II

I-I

Q A-I-my

I lllnhlulul

an

Written by
-X

SHAHZAD AHMAD KHAN

LECTURER (Mathematics)

:A

'

z~r~ 1;1'

l
~

"\Z

fl

valued fifmcti011.

'

'll;

;l=
1|,

Real Valued Function

A, in other words
A -> R be a function. Clearly domain of
l ct
is d<-:fi.nd On A. Slinc0fc."o-clo1lnai11 of "f is R, ""~-/\/6' can say that f.isA1rcalll
'

G.C.KOT SULTAN (LAYYAH)

G,

Ll\/AJNIL

an-gnu IQ-A

'1

L":

Mwiyl

Let X
;;-

lav.

inon-empty set and

be

d_:__X_ ><
4

be a function

'

\2l.,
-l (ll

d( X11952 )

=.

15

V X1X2.=' X

= d(X2,X1)

V XPX2

Cl(X],-X3) V

>=\I'.v:..'l:y".l|l1Tlel']'ll(.

,.=~-I

*"
_, -\---O-'--'0
X
99 ,3? S

('I'riangul.rlngqualil\')L7

rl

"R

-/X

'

"lJ_L1_aJ_liItr_i9_<111_B.

let d'.R><R

._l

Then
'

ci

'

calledi

15

'

"lhcn

'

-.\

-"--l'x1 -x2ll

Y2)

anu (R, d) ls called usual metnc

1

'

'

-ll
.

'

<

'

d .1$,Jc'allecl a

'

'

,,-

Inetric on

be

4+ R

5@'.l.{x1_.f)1.)1

I?

(xzz/2)l

usual
.

Ix? ;;i\/-";:;'
_.._.-..._..-. .-___._....
-. "
_/'
.

)?

>=
.

n1et1'1c

'

on R and (R,

"

'""

1"

'"' v

ill

Ir

'

u.ual n).0t1'1c space.

./.2

;|iii;'
l\
F;

Usual Mlffic on R3
dz R3

l..=;:-t_

-A

R3

>4

'll".jcn "cl"

he

---> I-3

Called a u.su.al

is:

'

a 1.nc-2l:ric "011

by

giv:-ten

5Y3

.l

_..__._-..._.. .__......._. ...-.-_._.._..i_._.._......_.--__....-....,--_.._-

"

\.-[U1

67-ll_(.x_13_'1771.)1(x2'3"2'Z'27.l

2:116-"L::.'"il.:

Ii am}

on

"

53/2)? + (Z1 Z2)2

is usual n"v:tr1cs;pa.ce.'

_,>1.

9'-"-1,)"

(I-3"

')

ll?

Nata;

1.

~~1~

d ( x,

3
R y"iv<~n"'t.'

-A

\
|

'

-1

betw'e<2n__

_h

.-I

amctric on
-

Usual 'Ml.ri_g_g_11_{<_
Let ld: R2 X R"
{\%)/p;,,)

/_

usual me'cr1c_0n

clistancc:

c21.'=led.

'

P. be

>

'

sPace.

.,

fr

metnc space.

(X, d) IS czllmcl

13811

The non-negative '21-:a.l nu..1nl.".~;-':-.1." d(x,,x-Z) is

points xi and x2 in the metric

:15:

X-~~

.,

that

v_\l1en.we

xxx-:*.1:"ut :e";~v.e:li= 1 lr%==:...-..zi.

1_s >1

.1

We-1ul<.c-2 'Cl.lL(".?lS()f

3:51

am

R2

is

"=.|:-;u;;=-E

I56.

un.<_1l

'

---A

-~~---

-~-

-'

-' .

1
%

'

A'

2,111

on

Mil;
.
ll

$11ll

~.

'

'
P1

Avallable

.-\

'
--L

--

'

;___"_l':'T:::-"":'':.?'7:""~W

n~.et:"1c

g-1;

.-_'----- - ->_--
"
ff _ W"

t"h<-.,ni1. i$;1SSl.1:Tl(K.l tl1a'r1n>t1iir."o1,1 R

.3im;ilarlv

... ,_ .l V_-~..-.._.
"'"-'*'-.._._

__.
-

Note;

-5>?__m

___*

PT()Plt)/)

Xl,.'-Y'2_.I7C3 E

,-

l)

~-_.__n_:'
.

metr1c on X tlwen the

"

2-

"d"

ll"

_._._

=x;:'

X1

=7

(i(Xl, }Cv-Z) + d(X3,X3)

"

V-Y-13\'2

f*_id(X;1,X2)

each of the followmg four

'

s;-1t1.:=f1es

Ld(.x'1-X2)

"

11

(M1)

>

11

a/<rea"l uur11be1"s.
l

Let

u
/1
'-5
Then "d" _1s_callecl mgtnc on X, 1f d
'
\
conditions;

(M3)

M4

at

.7

A@l\'lll'-"!3afhlir9
H
U
-1;;
.;:

_-,,,,

____-

l',__'

_..'_-

'

--1

---..-W

-1ms.~_'_____

ljls

,._
44

'\

\
2

on a plane geographically map

Let X be the set of all towns marked
the shortest 1."-out from town x1 to x2.
of
length
the
be
x2)
d(x1,
let
and
"
X
Show that "d" is a metric on

13_>s2i1u?.1.e

v.

Solution

defined as
Here function d.X >< X > R IS
lfr_o])1l[tQw_n__gc1_c2_x2.
d(x1, x2) =Length of shortest route
from towny to x2) 2 0
Since (Length of shortest route
(M1)
d(x1,x2) 2 O
route from town x1 to x2 =
=> Length of shortest
=
x2)
d(x1,
Let
(M2)

.l

l
v

-'

rou{Q ljrom town x1 to 2;; =

Let x1 = x2 => Length of shortest
:> d\(x1Ix2) = O
Ii
W
route From town x1 to x2
x2) = Length of shortest
Since d(x1,
'
4.:
\
x2 to x1
= Length of shortest route -from town

=>x1=2

"

l
l

O<

_"

r
1
1

(P-/I3)

Z d(x2x1)
Let x1,x2,x3

(M4)

or collinear
Then x1,x2,x3 are non-collinear
they forynua triangle and we know
If x1,x2,x3 are non-collinear, then
than the
a4triangle_ 15' always greater
that sum of-length of two sides of
'

third side.

-- (i)

d(x1,x2) + d(x2,x3) > d(x1,x3) --------------Let x1,x2,x3 are collinear.

d(X1', X3) """""" "Thn d(X1, X2) + d(X2, X3)
From (i) and (ii), we get

l
l

d<x1.x7.>+d<x2.x3>zd<x1,ix3>
l-lence d is a metric on X.

ll
.

Example

number: and let d:R >< R > R be

Let X = R be the set of all real
the absolute value of the
- xzl denotes
lxl
=
x2)
d(x1,
by
defined
d) is a metric spagxa.
number x1 'x2. Show that (R,

11

l
l

Solution

'

Here function dz R >< R

dlxnxz) =' lx1"' xzl

>

lxl

- X2 2

(M1):

Since

(M2)

d(x1,x2) 2 O
Let d(x1,x2) = O

1-1
_.

is defined as

'

=>

\x1g >52]

=>

x]-x2=0

O.

X1:
X1=X2 =>'X1#-X2:
:>

ill

LQL
515

v.-I}

"

'

\X1;X2\

Thus d(x1.'x2) =

Ill
Will
C;

ll;

1]";
Hm

ll

ill?

<=>"

x1

==

X2

'

/'

(M3)
L

3
1

/rs

.,

{Y
1

"iv

1/

( M4,)

a
z

Since d(X1:X2)=\X1'X2\
=|"(X2 '."X1)|
= X3-_-X1
= d(X2X1)
d(X1,X2) = X1
Si11C
d(Xz_,X3) = \X2__' X3
am.-x3) = x1 x3

1*,

"

'

'

iv

Ll

dx1v~2<;+"X2+X3l_
"""'__
.r.""*
<, X1 =1 Xi; _+ \X2. '.'X3l
d(X{'.,.x.2) + d(x21x;)-

'

..

NOW 'd(X1'_X3)= X1X31

__

'-_

/;g.-/

"

Thus(R; d) is a metric space.

A"

'

JGR. Let
of all ordered pairs(x,y); -x,y
non-negative real -valued.
e R2. Show -that the
R3.
P1(x1,y1),P2(x2,y2)
x2\-+ iylf-~yg1 is a metric on
F
lxl
=
d(P1,iP2)
by
furretion "d" defined

Exarn1;1_

'1

a set

Let X=R2 be

V.

'

.
lutmn

.4

Here function

=1
>

(M1)

'

dz R2

R2

><

is defined

>

an )1,P2):lX1 "X2\ +

W1

/Si11Ce

|X1" X21
d(P1,P2)

-Q-..

_{ O

:>\X1"X2\+\}/1")/2\=O
\X1"X2|=0, U 1 * y2 = O

(M2)- La d(P1iP2):0
=1

ex 1

,=>
=1

3
2

'

X2

0,

v
5

" Y2 =

3'1

(X1V1) '1 (X2}2)

'

_____,

7: P2

P-L

;A

X1=X2' }1:)2

Y2

W1

iii

*3/21

'

Let

P1

P2

(X1}1)=(X2-Y2)
X1=X21 3'1-M1

=>

=>

Xx ='
\X1 -12!

X1

=>

=*

Ir "X":

:>

X-

_\

ll

0-

"Y1? 4

Y1

0,-_

'

1/~.

'

/-1.=-1
7:

"' E)/1
'

Z?

Thus 'd(P1,P2) =

=>

P-_,

P2
r

(M3)

since d<P1,P2>=\x1x2!+mwzl
X1): + i"(3'2
' = ]"(X2

X1!'+ Y2 '" 3'1

='-'

= dll.
(M4)

Si-TC?

"

'-

1X2

"'

X14 *1

W1

}::\

d(P1:1X1.,"

1,/1

"

d(P2P3) :

P1)

CKP1, P2) '3 X1;

'

" )1)|

ix):

3:721

.3/I21

Y/".~r5
\
-

'

\
1

\__.|l.4-1-.1-~

.-

"""""_"T'.__

7.- ._-~.-==;-.;=.=._-..;:4;;~;.;==_'<--1:
---- - ~- _ :-_=:=~__E--_
-
-

.1

"'

" "" ~~~-- '_

*1 .._,_ ,.,;-.=w1-:'.'a_..-;-.:--r::1r;s>r;_:-;;
>'

.. r. M314

'

'

\
4

d(P1,P3) = \x1 x3 + \y1

Since

y3\
r
r

=Xix2+x2"'X3"")"1"')2+}2")3

X1

=\x1

"'

X2

X2

"X3 +

\-

.
v

)2 + Y2

_)3

1X3\ + W2

)3

Y1

+ly1 y2\ +

><2i

= d(P1,P2) + d(P2,P3)
Hence

"d"

is metric on R2.

Example

Let
of all ordered pairs(X.)); x,yeR.
that the n01--negative real valued
P1(x1,y1),P'z(x2,y2) ER2. Show
(xi x;| lyl yzi) is a metric
function"d" defined by d(P1, P2) = max

on R2.

"Here function dz R2

Z1

S01uti9_n_

'4

a set

Let X=.R2 be

d(P1P2)

is

,.

R2

>

is defined as

X2 + Y1 " Y2)
Y1 Y2) Z

= max (X1

+1

Since max (X1

(M1)

><

X2 F

(""x1"'x2Z0&)'1)2?-O)
d(P1,P2)

Let d(P1P2)=0

(M2)

>3

m_aX(X1-x2"y1".Y2)=0

=>

w.-y21=0

=>

lxl-><21=o.

:>

x1x2=0,

-y2=0

2*

x1:x21

T-Y2

=>_

(X1,Y1)=(x2-Y2,

;*>

P1:-P2

"

Let

7'

"r

P1

P2

I:

"

; (xvyi) = (x2:}2)
=9

}1=Js-.

x1=x2-

<

E4

I
11
.

ThLlS

max (x1

:>

d(P1P2)=O

d(P1,P2)-T-O

.5

w
\

(M3)

Since

d(p1 P2)

ti

= max<\<x2

=
\

d(P2 P1)

Y2)

P1-7P2

: max (xl
= m(lX(x2

x29)'1

=>

X2

Y1

"

><1>1,+1--

x1]' Y2 "'

5'2)

1 y1>\>

M)

'i

U.

- ><2\,+\y1- mi =

(M4)

since d<P1,P2> = max cm

(Say )

Xzi

_\X1 -X

(say)

d(P2.P3)=maX(\Xz-X3l7\y2y3\)=\X2X3\
Xsiij W1 "}3\) = \X1 X3
d(P1-P3) = maX(|X1 "

d(P1IP3):\x1

NOW

(SEW)
ii

X3\.

=\X1X2+X2"X3\
- X "X2\+\X2X3\

'

'

:d(P1P2)+d(P2P3)
cases.)
the same results in the remaining
.

(We can get

'2

,,a

I
i

Hence

d"

is metric on R2.'

i\_

Egmk
et

X=Ix;be

P1(x1,y71P2(x2,/g

function "d" defined by

a-

>

//

'
.

pairs(x,y); _x,yeR. Let\

set of all ordered

real Vvalued
Show that the non-negative
(y1 y2)2]% is a metric
d(P1,P2) = [(x1 - x2)? +
"L

'

On R2.

_Q1uti0n_-

Here function

'

"M '

dc R3'>< R'B'i R

is defined as

'

d(P1.P2)=.[(X1X2)2+(y1-312?]?

" X2)? + (Y1 " Y2); Z

'

(M1)

Since

'

[CX1

" X2)2 + (Y1

'

'

(Mzj

Let d(P1P2) ='.0

KX1

=5

ll

1'-.

" Y2); =

=>

:>

X1"X2=O'

}1)?=O

_:>

X1=X2:

)'1=)2

.=>

(X11)1)=(X2)2)

<><1-x2>2+<y1y2>2=0n,
Y2)2 =
(Y1
X2)2 = 0.
(X1

=-

i___,.:..

ummgz0

"@

"

0
1

1"
4

Let

P1

P2
A

=>

P1=P2

(X1-Y1) 1: (X2!)/2)

=7

)1:)2
-)1"}2=0

X1=X2

=>,X1"'X2=O1

=9

Z 0' (Y1 "-Y2)2A=

"
=0
(X1 " XQ2 4 (J/1 " )2)Z
= 0
KX1 " X2)2 +(.)'1' );)2]5

=>

d(P1,P2) =

:>

(X1

F *1
~

I-_;__.=iff

1-411;;;;t"'":r:::_"-7-"1

~~~~

--~~~~-

7-

-V

~--~33---'~'-A~~~~--e-*-,"';j:'__*-_;";ll?""

ii

____,

...-___.__._,..________~_

'

--M

~~

-~

W
A

-~

..

rig-

._

_:.__,, '"

"_ '

1;
f_;;:.~.:~'.-:1\;;__{:7:'
"""""

d<P1.P2>=t<><l><2>2+<y1>2>1%

since

(M3)
4

- X1)? +

= l{(Xz
=

[(952

"y1)}2l2

{(_>/2

" x1)2 + (Y2 _ IV1)2

= d(P2P1)

i
=

Let P1(x1,y1), P2(x2,y2), P2(x3,y3)

(M4)

are collinear

e R2_lfl'18] P1, P2, P2

or non-collinear.

If P1, P2, P3
1

are collinear, then

d(P11 P2)

+ d(P2P3)

1.

d(P1' P3)

K "K ,1

""""""""" " (1)

'
t
1

If

are non-collinear, then they ft

P1, P2, P3

know that, we know that sum of length of

triangle and we

:"m a
-vo

sides of

triangle is

always greater than the third side.

""""" " l'" (2)

d(P1' P2) + d(P2 P3) > d(P1iP3)

From (1) & (2) we get,

V

"

+ d(P2, P3) 2 d(P1,P3)

d(P1,_P2)

Hence

Example
,Let

"d"

is metric on R2.
,
A

,
.

of all ordered pt ;.rs(x,y); x,yR. Let

Show that the non- tegative real valued

X=%be

a set

P1(x1,y712J?,lP2(x2,)/2

function "d" defined

by"

d(P1, P2) =[(x1

Solution
ll

dz R?

d(P1P2)

>

><

Sin!

[(751

(M2)

x2)2 + (Y1

K-X1

_ };z)2+

Let

d<P1.P2>

'

\.

(Z1

" x2)2 + (Y1 * Yzlz + (Z1 " Zzilzlii 2

" Zzlzlg

'

=>

t<x1

=9

(X1

xm

(Y1

>2

<21

z2>*1%= 0

" Xzlz + (Y1 "'" Y2); + (Z1 Z2)2 :

0, (Y1 }2)2 Z
(Z1 " Z2)2 =0
(X1 X2)2

73>

x1_X2:0,

3'

X1

'=

>

d(P1'P2)ZO

ll

(M1)

- y2)2]5 is a metric
1

-l- (L1/1

defined a.

'T.(,iT2;)

R%> R 1s

Here function

x2)2

Y1 2 Y2

X2

(X1-Y1-Z1)

:>

P1:P2

y]":_:0,

Z1'_Z2?0
Z1

Z2

(x2l.V2-4 Q
t

5,

1.

1
1

Let-.

P1

P2

(X1-)1Z1)=(x'2'}2Z2)

=7

"

Z1"'Z2=0

)1")2=O/

=>

x1"'x2=O/
(x1x2)2 =

(X1

KmxQ2+UrwY+%a-Qh=0,

d(P1rP2) =

=7

3'1

X1"-'x2

=>

'Z1=Z2

=lY2/

O1()1

X2)2 + (Y1

'

"')2)2 = O|(Z1Z2)2 =
)2)2'+ (Z1 Z2)? = O

"

'

O
1

Since

(M3)

" x2)2 + (Y1 )2)2 'l (Z1 " Z2)2l5

=u+aanH++-mn+++@-aW_
= l(X1

d(P11P2)

i
1

mm%WrmYH%J_
=

d(P2-P-1)

(M4).

'

it

ll

lg then P11_P2 P3 are

ll

~-

Let P1(x11}1-Z1):P2(x2'32Z2)/PalxslyslZ3)
collinear or non-collinear.
If P1, P2, P3 are collinear, then
~m
d(P1_,P2) + d(P2P3) = d(P1P3) -----------a triangle and we. j
/If P1, P2, P3 are _non-collinear, then they, form
of two sides of a triangle is
know that, we know that sumgofy length
always greater thanthe third side.

4"

s
1

1
\

t
H
H

[I

_,

'

ii
it

"""""" '4

d(P1,P2) +d(P21P3) > d(P1,P3)

11

'

I
l

"Iw-K

From (1) & (2) we get,

_-1~

..4.?==r

===-.-===

- ~~

_r=~.--~=~.~.n--~~<-

l
I

+ d(P2P3) Z d(P1,P3)
Hence d" is metric on R5.
d4(P1P2)

Example

'

'

S 0

<~.
4.

ll

metric and hence can

V;

il

xv

Q-pf"

"14

Solution

Let X be any non-empty set.

Let d,,:X >< X > R be defined by
0

d( "1"2)=l1
l

do

dQ(x1,x2)

l-lere

(M2)

Let d,(x1,x2) =

x2

=A

__1----<~_~:
X " "*"="~' nn*~ "

it
1

=1

('-' d@(x-,,x2) = 0 or d(x1,x2)-= 1)

x, =x2

d,,(x,,x-3) =

(Bydefinition)
(By definition)

xi:

<=>

_,-_____._.________.._....i._.
at-__A _._
-==-f_
""1_"{,~,,:-,j""=?-<~---.=e,,~--1--ii:
*"'_"
=>,,,,-'i
_

l
-

is a metric on X.

d,(x1,x2)'=O

{Thus

ifxllixi

(M1)

Let_ x1

ifx =x'

We shall prove that

'

be given
Show that every non-empty set can
be converted into metric space.

>

"4

'

-4

._i.__,_i___4____,_,___,__,__,_____

L,

--j ~--~~~~-~------~-J--V------1

\
s

Let

(M3) (i)

d(x1,x2)

x1

= xz (By ckefinition)

=>

x2

= xi

=>

d=(x2:xi) = 0

=>

x1 zt x2

=>

x2:/=x1

=>

d,(x2,x1) =

Let

(ii)

it

"i;He11ce

(M4)

>

i
i

\_A

.1

r
1

5
2

d,(x1,x2) = Q

then

(i) Let x1 = x2 = x3
t

(B; definition)

\\

in both the cases d(x1,x2) = d(; ,|,x1)

Let x1,x2,x3

dO(_x1,x2y)

=>

.d(x2,x3)

81

'

=0

d,(x1,x3) =

also

d(x1,x2) + d(x2,x3) = d(x1,x3)

(ii) Let x1 vex;

at x3_
-

then

do(x1,x2) =1_

&

d,,(x2,x3) =

also

d,,(x1,x3} = j_

d(x1-X2) + d(x2'x3) > d(x1.x;l=)

:1.
$

.
l'
the conclusion
Similar type of verificagionin all remaining cases 1Qi;1dS us to
_V )(1,x2,x3 e X
d(x1,x2) d(x2,x3) 2 d(x1,x3)
that
.

Hence (X, do) is

metric space.

Note

Let X be any non-empty set. Let

iii

'

do(x1lx2) _'

wen

-r
F

r
1

do: X

><

/K be defined by
1:

ifx1= X2
xi

x2

discrete metric on X.

do is called

Question

\
I

Let C be the set of allcomplex num t were'andletd:C><C+Rbe

defined by d(z1, Z2) = lzl - zzl dis a metric on C
H

Solution

I
>

\
s

ii!

(M1)

(M2)

Vt

It

1,!

Here function

dz

EX

d(Z1'Z2):iZ1 " Z2
Since I21 - zzl 2 0
d(Z1'Z2) 2 0
iL9t

d(Z_1Z2)

C_>

=3

is defined as

'

izi

Zzi =

2 Z1"'Z2=O
2 Z1322

Let 21:22

=>

=0
=0

"_Z2l

I21

d(Z1,Z2)

Thus d(z1,z2) = 0 <=> 21 = 22

Since d(Z1'Z2) = Z1 Z2.
=1-(Z2 -Z1)!

"

(M3)

(M4)

Since

d(Z1 Z2)

Now

d(Z2lZ3) =
d(Z1,Z3) =
d(z1,z3) =

'_.

H4

;';"~

Z2

"

Z1

_ Z3

*1?g

"M~_#_~w-~'

Z3

f~

21 23

'

=21-z2+z2-+z3\

5 Z1_Z2.+|Z2_Z3\

'

Mergjngjwan and maths

Z2

Z1

___

Ir" "'"-~*>-+-=-..._.,....,.*.,,__.____.

= Z2 " Z1
= d(Zz.Z1)

z1z2=0

=>

d<Z1rZ2:,

d(ZZ_I Z3)

(C_,d)isametric space.

Th

by
Let d be a metric on X and let d:X >< X Z-> R be giyen
d'(x1,'x2) = min (1, d(x1,x2)). Is d a metric on X?

'

'

Solution"
____.i.__i

function d: X >< > R be given by

d(x1,x2) -= min (1,d(x1,x2))
Since min (1,d(x1,_x2))20
d,(X1,x2) Z O
-'Let d(x1,x2) = O => min (1,ci(x1,x2)) = 0'

'

He/re

(M1)

;
I

(M2)

'

'

Let

H.

x1

= x2

=>

d(x1,x2) =

=>

x1=x2

=>

d(x1,x2)

=>

min

A;

'

I-'dismetric0nX.
dis metric on X.

_O

(1,c'i(xA-1,x2))

-= O

d'(x1|x2) = O
Thus _d(x1,x2) = O <=> x1 = x2
.

d(x1,x2) = min (1,d(x1,x2))

= min (1, d(x2,x1))

Since

(M3)

=>

metric on X.

d is

'

= dI(x2x1)
Since d(x1,x2) = min (1,d(x1,x2)) = d(x1,c2)
d(x2,x3) = min (1,d(x2,x3)) = d(x2,x3)
d(x1,x3) = min (1,d(_x1,x3)) = d(x1,x3)

(M4)
4

Since d is a metric on X.

(Say)
i

(Say)

1
x

d(x1/X2) + d(x2*x3) 2 d(x1/X3)

Z d'(x1|X2) + d/(X21373) Z dI(X1/X3)
cases.
We get the same result in the remaining
d is a metric on X.

'

C"i"i.._.

(Say)

-~~'--~;="f~

.._. T

c"

.'_

_s

_;i:,

__

__-~_;'-=~;=_'_;::-=f='1*f*-'7;-if-f=fifj;ij
Z

'"i' "7--- ..:.';"_._

~"=1a=

\\

<

1
1

Question
Let (X1, d1) and (X2, d2) be two metric space:

: z?=1 d1(X1,)/1).

Define d[(x1,x2),(y1,y2)]
F

Solution
Here function d: X1

X2

>

dr 8

metric

d1(X1,)/1) + d2(X2,)/2) Z

SinC

On X1-X X2.

is defined as

5
>
x

d'[(x1x2) ()1')2)] = Z?=1 di(xi-Vi)

= d1(x1-X1) '*' d2(1(2y2)

><

d1(x1'J1)Z 0- 'd2(x2|)2) Z 0
d1, d2 are metrics on X1 and X2 respectively.

-'

d((X11x2)| (Y1-)2)) Z

Let d'((x1,x2), (}1')2)) =

(M2)

'

'

=>

d1(X1-IV1)+ d2(x2)2) = 0

=>

d1(.x1-Y1)--" 0' d2(x2-Y2)

X1

=>

V11

d1, d2

f
1

= Y2
3 re metrics on,X1

}
V

x2

1
r
V

X X5

\'q;;"

= Wzlyz)
X2 = Y2
3 2x1 = Y1
Let (951,952) = (ypyz)
d1(x1-5;) = 0 d2(x2I)2) = 0
=>
('1 d1, d2 are metrics on X1& X2 respectively)
d1(x1')1)+ d)_(xz-3'2) = O
=>
:> d'((X1Ix2:',(}r/3/2)) = O
Thus d'((x1'x2),(Y1J2)) 0 <3 (xzwxz) = W1.)/2)
X

(X1-X21)

1.

Xi

>

1
\

d'(<x1.x2>, <y1.y2>) = d1<x1,y1>

since

(M3)

'

.=d'(()1}2):':x1-X2))

'

Silme d'((x1x2)' (}11AV2)) 2: d1(x11)1) + d2(7;z/Y2)

(M4)

d ((y1'y2)'(Z1/Z2))'=.d1()1'Z1)+d2()@z-Z2)

'

I!

d2<x2.y2>

= d1()1,x1)+ d2(IV21x2)

-+1

d'((x1:x2)(Z1'Z2));-*7 d1(x1:Z1) + d2(Xz-Z2)

i
l

NQW d'((X1'x2)| (Y1'Y2)) + d'(()1-Y2); (3112)) = d1(.x1')1) + d2(x;:)2)

"1'

'

d] KY1! Z1) + d2()2' Z2)

d1(x1')1)+d1()1Z1)

+d2x2'J2) + d2()21-Z2)
I

23:

d1, d2 are

'

8*

d is

metric on X1

><

X2.

d1(x1,z1) + d2 (x2,z2_)

mefcs on X1 &

X2 resp._

d1(x1'Y1) '+ d;()11Z1) 2 d1(x1'Z1)

d2(x2)2) 4 dl()2Z2) Z d2(x2Z2)
'

==

d<(x1x2), (21:32))

11

.4

Question

'

Let (X1, d1) and (X2, dz) be iyve inetric spaces.

Let d[(x1'x2)-()1)2)] = ma-X < d1(x1,)'1),d2(x2,)2) >

Is d ametric0nX1><X2.

4
i

'

Solution

Here function d": X1

X2

><

->

is defined as

W
i

d-[(X1x2)(31')2)] 5
1

since

(M1)

max (d1.(X1';V1)1d2(-52)2))

._.----""'G"~_

+ d2<x2.y2> 2 0)

max<d1<x1i_y1>

d1(x1)1) Z

-5

-I

(M2)

Let

ii

d~(4(x1-X2) (~)1V2))
'

'

I, ,,.>

:9

X1

d1, dz are

'

d2(x2)2) =

il

31'
\

Ki

ii

2;

}1/

X2

3'2

i-W

metrics on X1,X2 respectively)

\

=>

:7 d1(x1-./1):

~...---""""'

;_~_

Hwx. ,(i1(x1-v_}1)'d2(x2')/2))

:4
A

O.

?-

0.

metrics on X1 and X 2 respective1i

d((x1'x2),()1')2))

1*

d1} dz. are

d2(x232) Z

';

.g~'.\

~.

(951,942)

(.)1I.V2)4

113;

if

(351,952)

L/Qt

= ()1')2)
I

d1, dz are

Y2

O d2(X2f/2)

~r

metrics on X1,AX2 respectively)

max (d1(x1)"1)d2(-X2-)2)) =

I
I

X2

Y1

d1(x1')i) =

=>

x1

=9

'

>_d('(x1_'x2)'()i-3/2)) =

=>

(M3)

S3159

d((.x1'X2):()1y2))=
<=>

ll

= ()1')2)\

(X1-X2)

'd[(x1|x2)' (y1'.V2)] = max ('d1(x1i)1), d2(Xz,}z))

'
max (d1(yi1x'1)dz.(}'2x2))
11,612 are metrics on X1, X2 respectively)

'

'

=' d(()/1-Y2) ($1,952))

].t

ii:
-

=d1<X1'..v1)

(Say >

d[(Y'1-)2)(Z1,Z2)] = max(d1(Y.i1Z1)- d?v(":i-Z2)) = d1(.y1Z1)

(5aY)

max. (\d1xvZ]_): d2(X2'VZ2)) ,2 d1_(x1i_Z1)

(5ay

(M4) Let.d"[(><i_.xz).(>'1_.yz)]=max(i1(r1,>/1),d2(>r2,)/2))

dII[(x1lx2)| (Z1,Zz)]

V:

Since d1 is a metric on X].

\

:
V

'

1"

i1i(x1')1)

IL

d-1()1I Z1)

5}

Z d1(Xi=?51)

15
H

dir(x1x2)I(LV1Y2)]

'1

\!

Q!

d-"ii-"'1'-$2-=

(We get the same result in the remaining cases.)

d i a metric on X1 >< X-,_.

L. :7.-5:;
I

~.A,,.--

_-=:.~k,_._-;'_j=Vf

:3
ii)

T.~v

..

J:1-"ig1;i_Q;{I3lZ',:;_,,.,,1I;ZIII;;;T;-

1.

-.

.._.

...=..=>@'..= :-. =_,

...___

.2.

.-

_.-.. ===-,=-.--~.- +1?

-_=.-

1:-.-=.->~

<1

r
I

r
*

gi

.\
12

on

Let (X, d) be

metric space and let d: X ><)(

d(x1 X2)

d'(x1,x2) =

Prove that d

Solution

1s me_tr;|<

~>

R be

given by

on X.

Here function d: X

i.

><

>

be defined by

d(x1'x2)

'(M)

Ei>O
1+d(x1,x2) '-

Since

'

d(x1x2) 2

"
d

d is a metric

(xvxz) Z

onX

ii-i=0
*

(M2)Letd(x,x)=O=>

1+d(X1,X2)

d(x1,x2) =

=>

'

0
k

Let x1 f-' x2

.
.1

=x2

('-'

=>

x1

=>

d(x1,x2) =

a!isI\metTiconX.)

/u

disametric onX.)

Ml

xv

d(X1x2)
I

dl

Thus d (x1,x2) =
(M3)

xi =

<=>

Smce d(x1,x2)-;:d(;1j?

x_1x2

X2

d(x,x)

1+d(x1,x2) -_

_-_

6%

1- >)1?!/4&0

,.
I_\)

'

d(x2,X1)

1*'d(x2.x1)

= d'(x2'X1)
d(X1,X2) =

~/

>d'(x1,x3) =

ii
1+d(X1.X2)
d(X2'X3)
1+d(X2,X3)

1+Cl(X1,X3)

NQW d

(951,942)

Ci

_4 d(x1/X2)
(752,963) 1-m+d(x1|x2)

>

"

w
|

>A):(z,X3)

+(-x2'x3)

d(x1-x2)_
+ d(x,,x2) + cl(x2.'>()

d(x1,x2) + d(;'2,x3_1
+ d(x1,x2) + @:(x2,x,)

+
1

d(Xz,X3)
+ d(x1,x2) +,d(x2,x3)

>

- l(iZ_
1+d(X1-X3)

d(x 1 x 2 )+ d(x 2 ,x 3 ) >

*5

'

.d(X1,>(z)_+ d(1'fj)
d 1S3

1;

d is a metric on X.

2 d(X1-X3) )

metnc on X.

= dI(x1'x3)
I

\
1

\
Mu.

13

Question
LetX =

and d(x1,x2) =A|x1| + lxzl. Show that d is not a metric on R.

Solution
=>

|x1|+|x2|=0

,.

=>

lx1l:

=>

x1.=

X1

Letd(x1,x2)=O

t
1

I
>

lX2l

0,

~
1

x2=

0,

gl

O
l

'

Z x2

=>- lX1l

LP-'t'X1=Xz

=| X 2|

I-.1

J
"

=>

|x1| + |x2|

=>

d(X1,Xz) = 2lx2l

=>

d(x1,x2);=

IXZI

+ lxzl (Adding
-

Ixzl =

if

Ixzl both sides)

d(x1, x2) is not always rero

d is not a metric on

X;
1

Question

Let X = R and d(x1,x2) = max (|x1|,|x2|). Show that d is not

metric on R.

'

'

Solution

1'

Let d(x1,x2) =

max (|x1|,|x2|) =

V=>

|
K

*\
$

"

Let

=>

'=>

x1

=7

0,

X2

mm..-q.,,,_,,___~_______
I

X1:

:>

X1 '4: X2

=04

=
'

...-.~-..._...-_.,...._.-__

lx1l:lx2l

F
.

=>

max (\x1l,{x2|) = lxzl

=>

d(x1X2) =

if lxzl

*-~'--~"__n___\M_W'%KP

"

i.e. d(x1, x2) is not always zero.

Tius d is not a metric on X.

ll1:
1!.

hf
1
1

H
t

4.

Suestion

i
~

.
,,
Let (X, d) be a metric space and let d :)i >< X R be given by
1* K-1'1 12) Prove that d 1; isKm eI1 ic on X.
d"(x 1' x2) = '.
1+ d(x1,x2}

Solution
Let d(x,x)=O
2
1

l" d(X1X2)

=>

~---

=>

1-

d(x'l|X2.)

='>

x1x2

1,1

->

+ d(x1,x2)

l
>

L.

a'(x1,x2) =

ml
.

Fr

;!

'

t.

metric onX and d(x],x2) =

Thus d(x1,x2) = 0 vb x1 = x2
-cl is a

<:>

xi =

all

x3

Thus d is not a metric on X.

11

I?

xi5;
I

_'

._

_ __

___ ___- -

'

~----

"~-

1
I

\l

;i
>

14

OPEN SPHERE
1

li

Open sphere
Let (X, cl) be a metric space. Let xo G X and r > 0, then open sphere
with ce ntre at x,, and radius equal to 1" is denoted by Sr (xo) and is defined
S,(xP) == {xix E X. d(x,X.) <-T}
as
j

rt

llll
.

ll
ll

Note

Let X = {x,x1,x2,x3,x4,x5,x6,x7,x8} and

l
I

r>

Sr(x) =?

._

(x )
T

l
l

(i)
I

X3,-.--1...

I-=

ts;

1%

X0

ll
ll

.X7

.X2

.XS

~;

H ,.|,

|,

"

>

(ii)

1:

"

Then by definition of open sphere Sr(x->) =

5r(X.,) X
-

l Xe x1Ix6 }

>

<1

(iii)
l

'
(W)

5r(x<,)

<15

Here we shall study the open spheres of thetollowing shapes.

(a) Open interval (b) Open disc (C) Open ball
The shape of an open sphere depends upon the metric space (X, d)

xample

'

'

Let R be the metric space. Let xo ='

1,

r -find

S1(1).

==

lw
X!

-'5;

ll
ll
law,
ml!
;;v>:
Yr

S_()lution

Here metric space is (R, d), where metric; dz

defined as d(x1,x2) = Ixl xzl
VV e know that
S,.(x.,) = {xlx E X, d(x,xu) < 1'}
V

><

p>

is

q.

-.#i

Il

Put

**lj

X=R_,

xD:1-I

r=;

lxlx E R, d(x,1) <

=lx|xeR, |x1|<l l

53(1) =
Z

l|4'
1.

414

TIM

'
4

ll?

it

N
V

_Lil:'ER

hi
i.
,il!_

trim
$5.1

.'

Z2

L<I+//

z<x<2l

L5.

"vi

X/I31/5

[7U_;9\R'L>'/3\_

Open sphere in this case is an open interval.

I-

9!,/)4-""l
.<*'>,
t

=lx|xeR, x<1+ x>1

~
X;
2.5
,_
2

irill

aw

it

i.

ll. '

,4
l
til,/) 1

)>r//X/-/kl

=-~;x|xeR,x1<%?x'11>:+%}

"M
|Il;!

Y!

1S
ii

\\

Note

An open sphere in a usual metric space R is always an "open interval.

Example
Let the metric space be R2 and let Po 5 (a, b) and r = 1. Find S,(P,,).
'

'

Solution
E

Here metric space is (R, d), where metric

dz R

dened

dl(X1'Y1) (x2)2)l = \/(X1 " x2)2 + (Y1

as

We know that

><

is

" )2)2

;1<_5

Sr(Po):{P|PEX d<P,P@><r)
P=(x,y),
P=(a,b),
Put X=R2,

r=1

a$1<a,b>

b>) <

= {<><,y>|<x.y>

R2,

d(<x[y>.

=.{(><.y)|(x,>_')

R2,

\/(x - 601+

(<1,

o-

1}
by < 1}

= { (X,y)l(X,y) E R2, -(X ~a)2 + (Y " blz .<

This is an open disc with centre at (a; b) and radius

5
1

1.
I

'

'

l
u

ll

.\;

Nte
.

_/

An open sphere in a usual metric space

Example

R2 is

Ii

always an open disc".

i
l

Let the metrieglspace be R2 and d1 be the metric on R2 defined by

d1(P1,P2)=lx1 "x2| + |)1 )2lFind s,(x,,).
Let P, = (0,0) and r =

"

l
I

Solution

Pl

Here metric space is (R2-,d1), where metric d1: R2

= lx1~ xzl +. lxl "vX2l
d1[(x1,J1)'
as
We know that

><

R2

>

is defined.

"

'

S,(P,,)

={P|P eX,

Pat X =R2,

PO

d(P,~I-2,)

= (0,0),

= _<x.>>|<x,y>ER2,
=

<r}

P =

5i(O'O)={(x'y)|(x'y)ER2'
/5

_.

x.y>|<x.y>ER*,

ll

(x,y),

'

r=

d1o(<x,>->.<o.<>>)

<><.y)|<x,y>E~?.

={<x.y>|<><.>>eR2.
'

=-.

"

}
<
\/E

::x~:y<-5}

-"T:l<1}
i \/2

1,

"
"/ws//we

:E'i

4
\

I
1

3 and y-intercepts L

iii;

|x-@|+|y-0| <-j-5}
|xl+|y|<;} _/and
h I2

This is an open square with x-intercepts

'

'-A,-_T_-_?____.-V;-:~*==:

"

.\

ii

M6 ,

w
>

ii

1);!
>

.=='-

;-2:

A"T,'T7'-T-"=1=====--

____>:_-=;-.=.~'_,;;--V

-;=_.~M,_

J; ;-A;

~.-~-~-~'

I
1

16

.\
1'

(-7%-0)

/
\-_

<01

(110)

-.-.

.0

4-

->

~,

Kb

\ 5)

\\\

("H

Mi I.

yy

<0-s
Y!

%1ple

<

'

Let (X, do) be

Find Sr(x,,), when

(ii)

rl

(ii)

r >1

Solution

ill

Here metric space is (X, do), where

[ti

i x =x
O
<
d(x1'x2):l1l fjljxiaxj

l
1

do: X

S,(x) =

Whenr<1
If x

11
1-,

at xo

>

1"} *>-- (1)

d(x,x) <

VVhenr>1

If x

If x =
Thus

it

(1) we g

-t

x, then

from equation
e X,

gi

then from equation (1) we g

ST(x,,)

= {x|x

e X,

<

1"

(False)

Q< r

(True)

)1

x = xo]-=-1.x,,}

x, then from equation (1) we

x.,

is defined by

then from equation (1) we g

Sr(x,) = {xlx

Thus

e X,

be

If x =

{xlx

><

We know that

'1
kill:

r>

discrete metric space. Lei: x,Ye X and

x =

xa

1:

'L'

<

1"

(True)

<

(True)

or Xa x,,}

={x|xeX, x=x]U{_ l:\xeX, xixo}

={xo}UX{x,,}
Note

From above example we conclude that:

V,

'

~e.~

:1
.~.

An open sphere with radius less than or e ual to 1 in a discrete

metric space is always singleton.
w itl.1 1' adius g reater than ' in a discrete metric space
l
(ii) An open spqere
is always the full space X.
-

(1)
II

17

Solution
The given metric space is (C, d), where

9'

if
R bei""'

and let dz C >< C >

Let C be the set of all complex numbers
xo = 1, r = 0.01
defined by d(z1,z2) =_ lzl zgl. Find Sr(x.,) when

_,

Question

dz C

><

1: T

1..

1;;

'

defined by

R be

,->

Hi

.4-

'1

d(Z1'Z2) =4lZ1 _' Zzl

[x|x e X, d(x,x,,)h < 1"}

PutX=C, x,,=1 r=0.01

S,(x.,) =

Now

,1?

$@.o"1(1)={><\xEC.,d(x,1)<0-01}
= {xlx E c, Ix 1| < 0.01} -- (1)/u.-//4

=>

x-'1=a+ib1

=>

x1=(a'-l)+ib

5.

i
.

v
A

(1) =>s,,_,,1(1) = {

(Cl

\\\f

+ ib)|(a

00!

at!-'l-rv-*>!}""7'
x4,.ol} 1) 01:

+-'11) E

c,

./(a -

I.

b2

equal to
This is an open disc with centre at (1,0) and radius

~
I

,
-

0.0-1.

Question

giveniby
Let d be a metric on X and let d:X >< X > R be
..d(x1,x2) = min (1, d(x1,x2)). Describe S,.(x).
.

g,

ll;

if

Yr!

Solution

T?

< 0701}

z
={(a+ib)|(a+ib)eC,(af1)2+(b-O)2 <(.01)'}

],-'7"!,""'

192

liq

ll

Here given metric space is (X, d), where d':X

><

~.;,:

|x-1|=./(a1)Z+b2

14;

2-44 -0! ,--(1-I) 4-

3/7

i
1

I/.-'

I0-D 4-<>'

x=a+ib

Since~xeC

,3

,,,

>

be given by

'5

[ll

d'(x1,x2) = min (1,d(x1,x2)

\

Now

5r(x<>)

Tl

= {XIX

X, d(X"?) <

= {xlx

X, min (1_.d(x1,x2)) <-2"}

'

ii
lr,

This is the required open sphere.

Question

Let (X, d) be a metric space and let d: X

'

d'(_x1,xz)

d(X1,Yz)

=;+-;1(;';;5.

><

'>

R be

given by

<

Describe S,(x?).

ii?
Ti:

Solution

Here given metric space is (X, d), where d:X

('i(x1x'_)
'\
d rc x 2) --+
1+d-(x1,x"2J

1'

Now

ST(x,,)

= {x\x

X, d(x,x,,) <

><

>

be given by

ll!
.

'1.1
.,~
.\

.-l
l

r}

ll

: ixlxie

I '

+ d(x1,xz)
I

This is the required open sphere.

it
2

ll

"1
1+

---

"1;

-.~~'=--
V

-V

~-

~-

..

A....

-~

4-

~_2'_a_-:_.___.__--__
W,-_____.

--_
..

--

.__.__.
_,___
,_~__~
-- 7....-....
ran.-...
_

__.._

+-_-__-

i
_

---.__=.._7T"":"""IT1%".T'T:Tir'
.-,.
- ---2

1'
V

:.

~..._..'-'

,.-

_~

__,_____

.___:1,.._,_._

L
1

'

it

/J /'

. /

ml
7

~\

sT1<x1>n s,.2<x2>

Hi

Let x1, x2 _be any two distinct points of a nr rtric space X. Prove that
there exist t1/vo open spheres Sr1(x1) and 5 Z(xZ) in X such that

ill

18

heorem

eet
I:

Let S,1(x1) and Sr2(x2)

'

la

jl

be

,;l

'

x2

and radii

r1

and

r2

13

Ii;

r2

ii

We are to prove that

r

;.
.l'
rl:
"'

(xi) n srzcm =
We shall prove it by
ST

i.
ml
R

til
I

ls

lit
.

Suppose

Let x

ix

=>

Sr1(x1)

ST1(x1)

Since

r1

=>

T1

1'2

fl Sr2(x2)

qb

T2

and

ci(x,x2) < r2-

Sr2(x2)

[BY

(1_X,d)

P53

.|

Fl

(1)l

nu.

Sr2(x2)

M7 '/ave

:)- '1 *r\eIl'*r/'<. S'pa|q_

(U2; PW/3

'

at

qb

q'\1

'

1*

'

*\

>tf_-_,S_.z"(7(l) Sy.(>(_-)

wrong.

Nil Meza'a7

/Z

(ls,

DAWOQtD"MATH 3'i'UlD l' CENTRE $4,

NEAR G..P.O LAYYAH
Available at
a

l
W
A

Slit.
.

\/vww.mathcity.'org'l
'

-~,.-.-..~_.._,~_-Y-._.-~_..=..,.._._.

.._

..._._._.__._..__.....l__

.1

;
j

$;;0(r)/7.5'_xa)

4"/1):/1,+/1/L @

W.

72" 9/09.711) i d("x>*dA)g

4/ */L, 1 Lz "2/

<1)

i-'
J:
n-

KL $0.

z;:rS;<>|.)a4 s>1x)1@_
1}._ey, gwm, lb X

S,2(x2j '=

Fl

/X

'

s d(x1,x) + d(2g,:g)

Hence Sr1(x1)

7;,

isameiX"i

Thus our supposition S,1(x1)

\x
,,

< T1 + T2
lt is impossible.

and

d
r1

+r2_.= d(x1,x2) 5 d(x1,x)

=>

(x1)

Sr2(x2)

Fl

d(x,x1) < r]

=>p

if

X; tin

1"

<1

5r1(x1)

2,

L
<

contradiction method.

-l

'~

respectively.
Leta d(x1,x2)

_A

two open spheres with centers

xi and

em"?
~

ax) 0 S/1/(/XQ 9%

LA Subsot U

%/

Mamba)

for each x

El

1"

.:

ll

ill

6!/18?

PEN SET

i.

I.

@)(/3-q
197C./(
o/para! /Aaf K6.S',/Qt)

apem Svf

Let (X, cl) be

5Pa'~C)()d)

Qt Q 7"Zl@5/"

metric space. Let U

>

0, such

0|

The U is called an open set,

Q X.

that S,(x) E U.

if

..

"

the centre of some open

U is called an open set, if each point of U is

i.e.

sphere, which is contained in U.

'

xi ,i/
4

L.

f"

H-I

~
-.~

1
1

..

*~

E7'*"_x

.1

U is not an open set.

U is an open set.

//

I.

.,

Example

line) and
usual Inetric space (The ordinary real number
-,
let U=]0, 1[, then show that U is open.

Let R be

u
.

S0luti_o_11
~.

Here metric space is (R, d), where

is

l
-l
V

-, Let x,

1.
.1

<

'

dz

_R ><

is given by

>

d(x1_,x2)=|x1 xzll
U/i Let _r> 0

ii

"Then

ii

= {xlx

ST(x,,)

1.

ii: {xlx

ii

e R,

d(x,x,,) <

e R,

lx

xol

1"}

< r}

={x\xER, xx,,<r, xx,,">1"}

={x[xeR, x<x,,+r-, x>x.,-=r}
_={x|xeR,x,,r<_x<x,,+'"r}
........ -____,,.
i=]x,,-r, x.,+r[

"-

_.

can find a value of 1" for which Sr (xo) =]x,,

Thus U=]O, 1[ is an open set.

l/W.

r, xoi + r[

U=]O,1[

i.
l

,i.

lg

It

Note

In the above example if we take

'

Then

sU_O01(0..99)

=]0.99

X0

= 0.99. Let

= 0.00]

li

'

- 0001,09? + 0.001[=10.981,o.ss1[; ]0,1{

l
l
1

-"*""7*"*'innZiq

i~'~j~>~.m--ur"""'~---1

"

'"" .,-_,}

;}1i"3'_;--I_--V "--':~'-Team

";'""'

._,.j=.=

':=VPr:"1i:;;:2:;::t'-':---:-~'

F.

Example
ill/1
\;~
K 4)

Let R2 be a usual metric space (The ordinaryreal plane)

Let U= {(x,y)|(x,y) e R2,x2+y2'< 1]-.E1l1owthat U is
an open set

Solution

d)b&
.

Here metric space is (R2, d), where

,
K,
_(/451.,

Qt

/W1/e A!

3,3

U-

/as
auctw

is

4,,

4!

u;

it

.1.

~1

-'1)

d(P-;

'

ft

/-/'

1:

:(

'

-'

/R2
"

'

;-

.e:%._.1;;..!';,-__;.;/

r=1 /1

PeU

S'nce P e.S,(P,,)
.-.1
gr (11) g U

=>

P E U.
L

1-Q-.3

m0.@oIuti0n

Here metric space is (R, d), where

<0//)4

Y5

dz R

l.
xv;

AW
u

hilt/0/,)i

,g,~l\!

U={x|xe_R,<0x<l%}

.ip

={x|xER, |xO|<

= {xlx

g}

e R,

Ix!

>

R is

given By

'

<2

={x]xER,x<",

"

A/_/_/_p;/p

1}"

'

rj
1>~}

={x|xER, ?,<~::<'I'r
}
=]r +r['

"

.\,M95;
i

'

lhenS(O)={x|xeR,d(x,0)<r}
7
T

><

, ,.<>s
/[0/6) /6

/@4);/as/)d<x1,x2>=~-xzi

=[0,1[
)(-I/72Let.1c='0EU, Letbr>0

.51

eh

1 .*"I

'

J
-1:

-p

"

"vi

Hence U is an 0 en set.
41:11"Lxam 1 e
P
Q Let R be a usual metric space (The ordinarj
real number line) and
"1
let U: {xix E R, O S x < 1}, then show tliiatUis<;en.

'7.

1;.

,,..~,.

'

,-M"

R3!

0(_0.0)

r~>Z(V,/4)

21

'_'P,O)<1
-I)

lr;;;;~;~t:'

0) 2 d(P. 0)

> d(P, 0)
1',/i+A>d(P,0)

r_+

.-

*5?

11

d(P.

3&1 gs
\
"
' '?ll~5'i'~4"'f'.:

"

Since (R2, d) is a men-ic space,

C))
{I " =>

/5

r>

We shall prove that S,.(P,,) E U

P e Sr(P) => d(P, H) <

z.

ii,

'

*/"
p Let

re/>24"

[W

_ 3/ 2 )2

I\

then

1 /1,

+'(,;V1

c)7l/Q 0
Vi?)

r '-

Letd(0,R,)=/1
Let r_=

//"W
2

If-)R is given iby

R'2><

d[(x1'y1) ' (X2 )2)l = \/(Y1

I _ X2)?

W)

///5% 7'

dz

(/3)

We can find a value of 1" for which Sr (O) .=j

Thus U=[O, 1[ is not anopen set.

~--

+'r'[T. U=_[0 , 1[

'
L

ks-:::1.

._-,. T.=?f_L_.._.-.

_____.______..

_.__

g
1

e~
1

-A

ff:

21

Theorem

'

Every non-empty subset of

Proof

discrete metric .space is open.

'

Let (X, d,) be

discrete metric space.

11

lll

Let U <;'X'such that U

V"

<1

We shall prove that U is anopen set.

-Letx<,EU.

ST(x.,)

Then

'=.

-1

{xpc

X,

H
l.

d(x,x) <

_,:{x}_

ii

LetO<r<1
1

11

r}

whose radius is less

The open sphere in a discrete metric space,

D
1

=>

Let

R be a

line) and
usual metric space (The ordinary real number
,

let U= { 0 }, then show that U

Solution

Uisanopenset.

Example

5,05,)

Since

isZg{pen;

"

Here metric space is (R, d), where

dz R

isgiven by

R -> R

><

l'

'

d(x1-x2)=lx1- Xzl
Here U= {O}
Letx=0eU, Let"r>O

Then Sr(0)'= {xlx

E R-,

d(x_,0) .<

r}

={X\XER,lXO\<T}

.
_

={x|xeR, |x|<r}

={x|xeR,x<r,

kl

x>r}

={x|xeR, ~r<x<r}

=]r, +r[
We can find a value of r for which

I.
4=

ST(O)

=]

1",

>+r[

U= {O

It
V

Thus

U: { 0 }

is not an open set.

'

'

\
-

'---"--_'I>

er,,..

,1?-i-Y~1

l'.1I'_-

"

I
4

Sb
Z

Theorem
metric space, then
Union of any collection { Ua a e I } oft) pen sets is open.
Intersection of finite number of open. sets is open.
The VVhole space X and the empty set (pare both open.

Let (X, d) be

i.

A:

ii
()

(iii)

Proof

vi.

Let {

it

Ua

I } be any collection of open <3'ets in (X, d).

We are to prove that, Q3

2.

'

Ua.

is an open set.

Let x

ti

it

)1

Then

;g_

for some

e Ua

0,3 Ua

or

Since each

is an open set therefore there

U0,

e><ist~

r>

ST(x) Q Ua for some

Such that

5r(x)

=>

(ii)

Let {

'aeU,

Ua

cr

Ua

0ceUI

Ua is an

open set.

1,2, ..... .. n } be

finite collecticn of open sets in (X, cl).

oz

We are to prove that

U C, is

a =

an open set.

,
'

xe NU

Let

c:=1

=
it

va=t1 .... -n

xeUa

\,

Since each Ua is an open set therefore theie exist

v-

Such that

ii;

Sra(x) E

V a

U0,

= 1,2, .... ..n

is

*;

'

Let

,.._

:1

r>

= min { r1,r2,r3, .... urn}

1"

$r(x) E Sra(x)

Then

Vt

_\.

3:

...\
.,t.
iii?
11.!
Mr}

it

S,(x) E

=>

VA

'

v' cr

1,1,1

= 1,2, .... ..n

$09; nu

W.
4

V a = 1,l2,_.M.n

1'1

it

1,1

Mtg
hi

I1

(1:

tr

-,..'

Ua IS an

open set.

a
\

(iii)
X

rt}
<:

iv.
>.{=1i"1

To show that empty set (1) is an open set, we have to show that each
point in > is the centre of some open sphere which is contained in qb.
iC()f1<.i,ifi(\n is automaticall Y
, the
But since there is no P oint in

satisfied.
Hence c/J is an open set.
Since every open sphere centered at a point of
X is an open set.

(.5 ;.~
iI

It

=>

W?

..|\
HQ!

mi,
T:.~

it

Ni I.
W

W1
It
l

.1
1

1],.

ik

Mr;.....1~*.

~
-~

,'

...__,.____,__,
.

" :"7'.:_.:."_.,_Tv,?_.--1-;y_~_~_'_

X is

contained in X.

'

ll

s7

23

'

L
L

ii

pa

an open set.
An open sphere in a metric space (X, d) is

Proof

'

S,(x.,)

d(x,x.,) <

=>

Let

TI

..

1"

_-_

"

/1

then

)l,

rI

>

V;
_

W,

We shall prove that 5'r,(x) Q S,.(x,,)

- Let x

5./<x'>

Since (X d)

[.i"1:*.

1S

d<><.x'>

<

._

T
t<-~~w1- :..\'

metric space,

"}"s.~

#>

r +

=>

rA+,1>d(x,x.)

='>

d(x,x.,) <

> d(x,x,,)

"~

'

Sr (x ) 7 "~
\..

,..;?i1;e;g-,1,~,3g

,4,

-.

>

r ,)
5,9:

C1_,o)

V=>

"~

hr:-r'/1

><es.<x.>
Since x e Sr/(x)

+9
-,,i\
In

#3;

AA

,7

_.<,

~. ..

3!?"

P ,-;z~1i$i.t*>;~.-

-V

M.,;1~,. xlvptw...

1"

'

, I
d(< -X)

Let
.

be an open sphere in (X, d).

<

5,. (xo)

Let x

."~..

Let
-

x
e ST <.>

33

'

Sr(x )

Thus

ST

Sr(xo)

1!

111

(xo) is an open set.

xi.
.5

we

Hence open sphere in

metric space is an open set.

Ll
,.
\

l
'

heorem

A subset U of

'

w.

'

metric space X is open

if

if

and only

U is union of
'

open spheres.

Proof

Let (X, d) be

metric space. Let U

U is an open set

<=>

Q X.

We have to prove that

l
P

U is the union of open spheres.

each
is an open set. Since U is open therefore
is contained in U.
point of U is the centre of some open sphere which
.

We suppose that

UL

Thus U is the union of open spheres.

\
1

open spheres. Thus bis

Conversely suppose that U is the union of
Open spheres in metric space are open
union of open sets.
T

,1

1,
1

the

sets. )

Since the union of any number of open

open set. Thus U is an open set.

setsin

metric space is an

'
l

i
\

~1*-~--;~

"

'

"

'

>.-..1_. _,
_

~~.-~..:f;'L_-;~

;;;;_,~;.;;;-_~_r,_-;-.;;:*+__~~--

es W---<:;_?.__w__.:4

'

@,,
,

24

___._)_1'_.'L11
.

Let X be a metric space and let {xo} be

Then X {xo} is open.

Proof

1;.

Let x

-I

imde=

{ xo}
'

We shall prove that

f,

Sr

'

E Sr

=>

d (X, X) <

From

------- -4D

i_';.

singleton subset of X.

'

ti
L,
I

_____ _

7"

=>

d(x,x)

at

d(x,x,,)

=>

d(x,x,)

at

d(x,x,,)

=>

=>

xv

,:.'v2I..

~_.~'-1.

"

...

'

"

and (2) we get

('1)

*%@&$~

._

,.

'

disametric on X.

['1

d(x',x) = d(x,x)]_

So

If

=1

Hi;

vi

fggg

if

.
7,

.
.

ii

*
;

ii

Since x

'

ai

,.i
ti

contained in X

i::;i

it

iii
H

{x0}

'

'

~ {x}1s the centre of some open Spite

{xo}.

' Rt'

s'*

'

'

Hence X

{ xo}

1S

an open set.

Question K);
Can a finite subset of a metric space be
Solution

rt
r, ,
i=

Fl
,7!

1;

opn?

ii

iii

We know that

If

iii;
ll

,1,

HK r

55

'

=>

.1

e S,.(;_)

X {_Xo}

4
5

ll

{x,]

Since every point x of

V65

.=54@;X~gn}

1]

i,
ll,

at xo

(X, dc) is a discrete metric space, then ever/v subset of X is open.

Therefore

1;;
111%

ii

it

,_

mg,

,,

(ii) If (R, d)

finite subset of a metric space is open.

is a usual metric space then {O}

2"

R, is

it

not open.

.
i

i,

Therefore

finite subset {O} of R is not open.

,1

I
~.;::|

:1

Thus in general, we can say that, finite subset of

metric space may

M
NW

or may not open.

2

L,
~.,_,

'

Metric Topology
The topology determined by

,,.. 7,5,:33;.=,3,3_:if_{iy;+=|;1..=;...,.,~<_.~,.M-+a-..~,..,-...i....,,-.

..

metric iscalled metric topology.

.

..,__.__.._._......~.,...i,...i.i,.__.___.__.._,._,__

...,-__

25

C41-4J

Vat/)3/-c

The rem

T is a collection of all open sets in

at pology on X.
OR

Pro

I!
ic space is

A ll m

topological space.

(X, d).
Let be the collection of all open sets in a metric space
are to p ovepthat, T is a topology on X.
-Let

__(T1)

'-\

<

'

U0,

Vael

Uaiso

=>.

Ua

i=>"

5
V

V a = 1,2, ..._n

*2;

Q.)

Ua is an ope

set.

=>

>

-A

I.

Interse tion of fi ite number of open sets is open.)

(1

a=1

>

at

ET

'

1.

.2

it

vl

Let

(T2)

ti

nion of ny number of open sets is open.)

aE,Ua ET

=:~

.1

en.

ar

Vael

aisano enset.

.=>'

'

'

'

metric space (X, d), then T is.

definition of T)

Ua e T

a=1
Since ,X both are open.

(T3)

q,

( BY

X eT

definition of T)

Thus T is a topolog on X.
i.e.
'

..
'

(X, T) is a topolo ical space.

This shows that a

..-l

-~

etric space is

"topological space whose

topology is "metric top logy.

Theorem
l

'

Every non-empty se can be given imetric topology.

Proof

'

We know that

(i)
<

into
Every non-empty set can b given a metric nd can be converted
metric space.

V
1':

(ii) Every "metric

space" is

"to ological spac whose topology

"metric topology".
Thus from (i) and (ii) we conclu
given a metric topology.

is

ap

that every

on-empty set can be

.

-.--

\V

If NiK
,

26

_;-;

ig 1)

CLOSED
r

Closed Set
Let (X, d) be a metric space. Let F Q X.
Then F is closed => F = X F is open
Example
Ca W,-ll Ewxgls/"\\
LetX = R be the metric space and let A ;='Ca,
a < b. Show that A_ is closed set.

I
I

'

<1-~

,7

'

.|,i
,

ii

vi?
>:v
v:

iii
iii
ii

Solution

'

"

blwhere a,b

e R,

&

The given metric space is (R, d), where

at:

R;<R

>

is given by

d(xl'x2):ix1

x2i

= [a, b]
I
A =R[_a,

Since

=]",a[U]b-[
Z La

In order to prove A is closed; we will

:3

"00

'

~_->

ii

prove that A is openf

have-13>

=1!

ll

U2.

"1"
IF;

xeA

Let

'

<i'

iii
ii
i

=>

xeLaUR,,

=>

xeLa or

-"

2geRb

'

9:

y!\
I! i

M,
It

.
ii!

ii;
ii!

i i

31

il

If x

Case-I

Let

then x < d

e La

d(x,a) = r

ii
I
i

i:
1|

=>

:2

H
J

M
i

-Now

-a=r
M+T=a

--------------------------- -w4n

Sr(x) = {xlx

e R,

x<a

d(x,x) < r }

/ L,s'

-1

ti
HA;

M!

J,-*1,
I
1

I
Ni?!

={mxeRx~xw<r1
={x|xER,x-x<r,x;((>r}
i

'

/,~i
O\

={x|xER,x<x+r,_x_>7('_1f}
= {xlx e R, x_-_r <_xp<_Ix'-l~r}V

MU

,l
i

>

.;;\
iii!

A/O

'15

ii:
W-)

"

=] x

'_i',

=]x'fr, x'+r[

/\_/~

@155

<5

Thus

Sr(x) =] x

>1

tx)

[By

a[

K,
(1)1

<1

/'/-73
~x-/

'r, a

14

E La Q La U Rb

Hence in this case A is open.

---

=2:

>

45$

Q
9

'

>27

'

If x

Case-II

'

F
i

'

d(x,b) =1"

Let

'

then x >

e Rb

'=>

IX--b|=T

=>

x-b_=r

x>b

S,(x)'= {xlx

Now

={x|xeR,x-x<r,xx'>-1"]

A"

1"}

={'x|xeR,lxx'|<r}

d(x,x) <

E Rt,

'

={x|xe_R,x<x+r,x>x'r}
={x|xeR, xr <x<x+r~}

W"

"

.1:

'

=]xr,x+_r[v

\
Kx

[By(2)1

=]'b,X'+T[
I

/fi\\

If

\\

'

,___._..__._._>

!r-

S, (xi) 4;:-1] b, x +

/Thus
1.8,

s,(x');A'._

1"

FM-

"""j"""""--*~

[ Q Rb Q La U R? ,= A

"

"

-'

"

'

Hence III this case A'

0

also open.

~-

is closed set.
Since in both the cases A is open. Therefore A

i
I

1S

le

a.

'

Let Rzcbe the metric space.

Let F =4 (x,y)l(x.y) E R2. (x
Show that F is closed set.

Solution

'

av + (y - 11> $ 1}.

"

I
A

'

Here given metric space is (R2, d) where-dz R2

"

d[(x1Y1) (_X2)2)] = \/(X1

8iVe1'\ bY

R2

><

->

is

" x2)2 '*f'(Y1 _ )2)2

Her? F = i(X')).|(X;Y) E R2, (X 602 + (y .b)2 S1

Thus Fs'={<x,y>1<x.y>ER?. (X-a>2+<y-b>2>1}i
In order to p_rove thet F is closed, we will show that F is ogen.

Let

_P' e
_-

Let

r = /1

1,

clearly

1"

>

;F

""'""

=A
F. Let d(P',-Po)
.

\
-

,.

We

shal1_ prove

that

_T(1_?)

Let P

Sr(P)

=>

d(P,P ) <

T
.

.-

Since d is a metric on

"

Q F _

R2

'

d(P,P) + d(P,P.,),2 d(P,P)

~i-;._;I._.
.~,-- ~~:

'I

;5;\1,}3

'

-;,-\=~J".\.

'-

'

_-it

*"'

<

._~;..U.:_J:v

__

A"Sfi(Pf).i::?.v:\

EQ11 *3)

R2

.,.,<_-.-ex-1 gg

V::'-:;;::iVE

,.

.,~

?,.___._;_v-

,_

,1

s.

~,:-
---~,_

__;;
~ '
'
-Y->1-V-_--=---~~,s==_,G,-,,,---.__.;_._.._..,

..,v_,_..-_,
~~

____ _.

~~-V

11'

\"\

22.

M
1

4%
ill?

=>

d(P,P.,)>/1-1"

=>

d(P,R,)>

=*

Since

'5
yt>

l.

P e

=.~

=>

F is closed set.

Ewpe

r./(/1-/)

lll

F9

s_<>11:io_n

ll,.

w6ef ,/@491

S1}b.a subset of R2.

d)

dl(x1'}1),(X2')z)l = \/(X1

-'.

Let P

Let

r=

/1'-' Let
/1

d(P', 0) =/1

clearly

-1,

r>

whee ye d- R

c;,_)1*+(y1

><

A+/0

.4

R2 -> R is

y2)2

/i /4!

/'

,>.,1 wk):

dfe/p) i4(/%/P/)/'d(P/P)
age,/i)

(R2

it/d>3*(

Hre A-= { (X.y)l(X.y) E R2. X2 +y2_ 1}

L};
Thus /1 ='{ (x,y)|(x,y) e R2, x2 -I--y2_ > 1}
5:/[/;,)'/ll
.In order to prove that A is cl0sed,we will show that A is open.
1

7 mg

'

ll

/if/2t_,/_

WM

given bl

<7/(P2

fa;

_t

Here given metric space is

ll

>

ad/4'

IsAac1osedsetinR2?

la;

/cw /AM 5/(/1 P )4 w

2.

dorm)/I

7/aka

Let R2 be the metnc space.

L 9* A = (x-J)|(X, y) E R2, X2 + yz

F;

'

% /L-57/?%//_

,1-(,1-1)'=1

sr<P>/F
/Ti is anopenset.

/L 7 0((,,l7//F/C,,7jl//Cf an qven Sf Lea

7,/ed
/Qavr/A64/h<j
Ce)?

"

d(P,P;)>1

=.~

/I

+ d(p'p) >

Z,

.~>

_.

>.f$=A.i.;;_

+(J-4)
l

am, P)4V 1
QF

'

We shall prove that Sr (P) Q A

l
r
L

in

.:);i3il;f5 F gxp )
I

M.
|

Let

$,-(P)

=>

d(P,P) < r

Since d is a metric on

,(P')

R2

~F/(7)
F 1 01/WA

It

.,l

2
>

d<P P> + d<P'

ll
v

f
l,
H

=>

ll

@>

d<P'.

f.+ d(P,U)>/lp

'
I

l~
1|
l

vd(P,O)>/1-1"

4i

=>

d(P,0)>/l(/11)=1

=>

d(P,O) >1

i=>

Pe/1

/ .1 "\'\

0)

'

Since P e.:S,(P'),l

=>

P e A
1

5,(R)'"; A
is an open set.

l
i

is closed set

29

=_

1.

-'

Example

ii

Solution

LetR be the real line and let A = {xlx

of R. Show that A is not closed.

'

e R,

3x<

}, be a subset

'

The given metric space is (R, d), where

d(x1x2) =

dz R

><

is given by

->

" X2

[X1

xi

AV-={xlxeR,0$x<1}

Here

'

t
*

.
,

1
A

= [o,1[

A=RA
Note thatI

=1-<><=.<>[u[1.<><>i,
We take \ x,, ="1, and
e A.

"

>

7-
.

{xix

r}

X, d(x,x;,) <

Put x.,=1,

X=

and

>

_,.

51(1) = {XIX

R, d(X_l)

< T}

cw

-___.__

Thus -A is not open.

=>

A subset

-\/'

,
,

'0

ll

if X

(X

Then

U) -= (U)

=U

ii

Since (X
X
t

.9

U is closed.

;((..Y*?il.

'

XA4 " M

Conversely suppose that X U is a closeti set.

Then (X U) is an open set.
_X - U = U
=>
(U') is an Qpen set.
U is an Open set.
~

=_->

'

...t-_

._.

,-t__._;1-

(Openset)

U) is an open set.
U is a closed set.

Suppose Uris an open set.

i

1"

/
Sb'<tF
Let (X, d)be a metric space. We have to prove that
U is open :-> X - U is closed.

K J/~

of a metric space is open if and only

Proof An
1

_s,(1 )

Aisnotclosed. :00

Theorem
-

..-__;-.....-}
. at

;|

..

..

_.

=]1_"T11.+T[
ButST(1)=]1-r,1+r[$A vr>p0

'_

={x|xeR,1r<x<1+r}
/

"

={x|xeR, |x1|<r}
={x|xeR,xl_<r,x1>-_-1"}
={x|xeR, x<1+r, x>-1r}

.=_<v

:,,

1.

'

'

'

.-._......-...:..-..- m.-<w.-..-.-m-._-.__._ _.___.

7--

Then S,(x,)
'

..

....

..

..

ll
l

\\

r
,

1,

X
'-.

30

'

Theorem

Let X be a metric space.

i closed.
Intersection of any collection { F 0, a E 1} of closed sets s
Union of finite collection { F1,_iF2, .... .. , Fa} of closed set is closed.
X and are closed.
L

,.

Np

(ii)

L:

('1
1'i )

H;

,\

Proof

M;

R
1

,|r.

<1)

Union of any ninnb|:r of open sets is open)

n
Fa) -1S open.
(as,

..-

=>

( ii)

ael Fa

Let {Fa
Then

= 1,2,

gr

"

:En Fina

n} be any finite colleetion of closed sets in (X, cl).

is open. V a = 1,2,...,n

Fa

:>

'2

_ (e,n Fa)-

u
ael Fa

isclosed.

,
7:6
{fa-_

1:

,1
ael Fa is open.
u

:7

vi
r-

\_J

ll.

Let {Fa 0c E I } be any collection of closgdisets in (X, d). <

Then Fa is open. V oz e I

fini number oi

Intersection of

F O, lS open.

open

s.\';s

is open)

:c=1

=
ii

5% mogm.

< u
ct-=1.

@'=<

-=

'

Q)

u
1

ii
=>
a

(iii)
Hi
i .,.
k

Since . = X
=->

.i

Fa is closed.

gb

<1)

= X which is open.

is closed.

And X I = X

K l

iii
W
ll!

-e

X =

which is open.

<1)

H1

'1

=>
51'

X is closed.

'

Ql1StlO11

Is N close dinR?

Solution
,

~|'i

i
L

Here N = {1,2,3, .... .. }

:1 l
\-

ii

W ii
iii]

=R+N

I3-

iiill;
.j

.=] O<>,1[U]1,2[

ii

]2,3[U..,..

= Union of open intervals in R

= U11iOn

ii:

ii!

Of

open SfS

= OPGP. set

i~:

/in open intervalt in R is an open set)

Union of any number ol open sets is an open set )

Pr,

iii

Since N is an open set.

ii

-_~:

: '22

N is

aclosed set.

:'
:r

'_t::;_
in

K;

1"

|ll
ll
5..
I

Ihpms
'\~+~..

;
_

grew/**~*:*"*,1:~</'>*-<-wt-i~~.4<><, M;
-1? KO M r-7;-'~*<z)///" =97/4 m Z: 5!~/Q-2<.
/A
'

/f

t
l

.4.

LIMI'gOh;/I

i
a

metric space.'Let A

oft; .7/pug/6

Limit Point
Let (X, dy) be

X and

X. Then

xo e

xo

is

>

called limit point of A if each open sphere centered at

xo

contains at least

it

one point of A different from xo.

.1

1\

ti
H
'1
>

.S2(x)

s,1<x.,>

wet

Sr1(x)

it

5r,(XJ)

Va

.W?

/ ~"
-~f\

.
4

I-Q

- I I
__,,,

___

(Fig 1)

Sr3(xo)

(Fig

2)

*~v '1
\\\i____,,

'

\___

~_________

____

\
\_

Y?

'\

Sr2(x)

Sr1(x<>)

1' -1 ~\ ~i\\
I \
-x/'
\__/I

<1

:~

(Fig ~ 3)

ST3(-xv)

s,,<xr>

In Fig1, x, is a limit point of A.

InFig-2, x,
TIn Fig?>,

is also a

x,.is not a limit point of A.

3? Theorem

\/

limit point of A.

'

Let (X, d)tbe

7 point.

discrete metric space. Let A

Then A has-no limit

1;

Proof
Consider the discrete metric space (X, do).
Here do: X >< X + R is defined by
d<-(x'l.'x2)

tfx =x

|
.

We have to prove that, A E X has no limit poi'nt.-~

i

We shall prove

Suppose x,

Let

1
A

<

r<

it by contradiction method.

X such that

xo is a

limit point oi

then S,(x) = {X0}

21..

<1)

In a discrete metric space the open sphere with radiusless than 1 is

always singleton.

Here (1) shows that S, (xo) contains no point of A different from x Thus

xo

is not a

Hence A has no

--
-1".

>1

limit point of A.

limit point.

>-

~~

aaaaaaa

'

_J

<e-~*==*";-~

k\

32

Let R be the metric space. Let A = {xix

subset of R. Show that "0" is

1,

;.

:;;
4

ll;

'

iii

ll;

in
N

1.

l\lin
,1

in
:;~*

be defined by

e R, d(x,_O)

<

r>

1"};

=]r,+r[

Al

(ll
-J

if1::
fl

{"11

Clearly for every r > 0, Sr (O) =]

different from "O".
Thus "0" is the limit point of A.

"

,1
1'

011:1

iii!
1

ll

>

=[xxeR,x<r, x>r}
={xxeR, r<x<r}

4
la

={xxeR, |xO|<r}
'_={xxeR, |x|'<r}

ii

(1

><

234

Then S,(O) = {x x

Here A=<,l1,,,-, .... ..

1

H:

limit ptlint of A.

" xzl

d(x1x2) = lxl

H:

R x =:11,n e N} be a

Here metric space is (R, d), where dz R

Wx|\
\

ll?[Hll

1,

Solution

*1
l

tr

'\

,
R

1",

[cnntains a point of A

+:r"

I,

Q ue stion
i

Let R be the mei1"ic space. Let A = {x|x

R,x ==

5_0_111_!Yi2I1

Here

',n

1.

Rx R

->

be defined by

" xzl
L

Now

ll,
in
:i
.13

|,
k

2}
1

1
\

1
J
11

-1

1+

M
iill:
Ii

{xlx

l
e R,

d(x, 1) <

r}

=]1r,1+r[

1,.

1:1
ll

={x|xeR,1r<x<1+1"}

11

-={x|xER,|x1|<r}
={x|xR, x-1<r, x1>-~r}
={x|xeR,x<1+r, x>1y}

ifll

ST(1) =

y.

4-

- ll-2";

hf;

Clearly for every 1" > 0, S,(1)

different from "1".
Thus 1" is a limit point of A.

"-11.1,

(R, d), where dz

A={x|xeR,x=1orx=1+%,ne1\/E
={1}

\ 9'."

={x|xeR,x=1]U{x|xeR,x=1+1/n,neN}
1

";,

He metric space is

d(x1x2) = lxl
L

orlx =

Tl

limit poirt of A.

be a subset of R. Show that 1" is a

=]

1
-

'

r,

Y [

contains

point of A

/,

,/

as

.
~

Question

Let R be the metric space.,Let A = {xix e R, 0 < x <

of R. Show that O and "1" are the limit point of A.

,:

.
.

Solution

} be a subset

4:

Here metric space is (R, d), where d: R

><

>

R be

defined by

d(x1'x2)=|x1 _ xzl

0<;c<1}

iHere A={x|xeR,

i,

la

=1<>.1[

I
1

>

'

First we shall prove that "O", is the limit point of A.

Now Sr(0) = {xlx e_R, ti(x,O) < r}; r._> O

(i)
I

'

\.

_,

.'={x|xeR,-lx0|<r}

= {xlx
\

R, |x\

-~

< r}

N,/7

={xlxeR,_x<r, x>-r}
={x|xeR, -r<x<r]

'

v'

=]r,+r[

Clearly for every

different from

>

1"

O,

ST(0)

=]

-1",

'

_+r

[contains a point of A

Thus "O" is ia limit point of A.

<

Now we shall prove that "1" isthe limit point of A.

A

(ii)

1
1

Now

-_

= {xlx

.S',.(1)

e R,

d(x, 1) < 1"}

Ii
.

'1I

-p

={x|xER, |xp1l<r}
={x|x.eR,x1<r,x-1>r}

'1

.
1

',

i.

-~
1

it

i={x|x_eR,x<A1+r,x>1r}.
={x|xeR,1r<x<_1+r}

=]1_T',1+T[

Clearly for everypr >

O,

AS,(1)

>1
1

'

=i]

I,

r, ll

contains a point of A

|v|,

different from "1".

Thus 1vis

Question

_.
.

,1

A
A

limit point of A.
'

Let R be the metric space. Describe the limit points of the followings.

(a)N (b)Z
A

Here metric space is (R, cl), where

d(X1x_2)

'

ti!
,1

1_1_1Li(l1l

ill

~-:~:1__;,-_-;____

= ixl

d:

><

>

be defined by

" Xzl

~-~-;~--:~~--_;V-

\.

__

-,__'-___-~___.

___._...__._.

.,._.._._,..-_

34

'

A.

I
>

(a)

Here N = { 1,2,3,

Let a
Then
.\

aeN

Case-I When a

ii

Then $r(a) =

={x|xeR, x<a+r, )'>ar]_

l.

ii

H.
.;

|,l

'r

<

ll

l
i

a+r}

"-f{x|xeR, a-r<Ix<
=]ar, a+ r[

|1.
|

N.

or aEN

limit point of

{x|x e R, d(x, a) < 1-};

r>O
=,[x|xe R, |x4a| <1}
={x|xeR, xa<Ir, )a>-r}

Ii

R be a

lial
H

,.

point of N different from

irt I.1
.;.

Thus

liilii

.4

ll,

r > 0,

Clearly for every

[ll N
l

is not the

II

=]

S,(1)
a

r,

r[

contains no

II
.

limit point-of N.

I
:

Ll.

1,. I1!

Case -

I"'li*'l

1,

II

When a N, we can also prove that "4" is not a limit point

of N.
Thus N has no limit point.

'

lb

Let a

={ .... .. 3,2,-1,0,]'.,2,..

Here Z

(b)

53..

<

e R

be a

,.

limit point of

.I

Z.

llI,

1%

9!?

ll

In

.\I
my

Then

I.

aEZ or a6Z

E
I

"Case-I Whena

H
P

ll?

.I

{xlx e R, d(_X.a) < 1"};

r>0
={x|xeR,|xa|<1*'}
={x|xeR, xa<r, x-a>r}
={x|xeR, x<a+r, x7ar}
={x|xeR, ar<x<-ia I-r}

Then S,(a) =

1321

I.

.,

bi

lint

."4
I.

1/

is
.

If

ill

,,i

H
5.
iv

ar,a+r[

Clearly for every

r>

O,

point of Z different from a

.
.

.4

.45

..

-r

'a +

r[

contains no

1-I

,.

islm
|,;
'

=]l a

Thus "a" is not the limit point of Z.

rm;
l~

S,_(1)

Case

II

When a

Z, we can also prove that "'a IS not a

limit point of Z.

;\=

ii
.

Thus Z has no limit point.

nu
V

ll

;.

Iii

it

1.

ii

ik_\_\_

it

'w,,,"\._,..<..:~->=.-.=.;.a-:.

'

_.

_L

fef

W /J

/1/
/&*7/

T./aw
*

/1

441 W
f".
/
Yvo/""6/*7'371b/><f7//N z/oi/'~
'}
~
ooo
NEIGHBOUR
O?/'</
1' VH
7(o5r(/Y. gv
Neighbourhood

)/-I 7/.,

Let (X, d) be

metric space. Let x.

..
1

z
0')

'

e S, (xo). Q N.
.i

'

'

that] 4 1', r[,

R. Show

=0E
Let R-be the usual metric space. Let x.,
of 0.
r, r], [-1", r[, and [r, r],(r > 0 ) is a neighbourhood
L]

,}

-"

Solutio n

'1

We know that,

'

a
X. Let N Q X. Then N is called

ST (xo) such thatx,

neighbourhood of x,,, if E! an open sphere

Example

1/}

I-/T

is an open interval.
In a usual metric space R, the open sphere
T[isanopen sphere in
l\lO'WOE]-TV, T[S;]-T, T[ Where]T,

(Ll)

-r

=>
i

1"

is a neighbourhood of "IO".

[~

l\lOWOE]-T, r[<_Z.]r,

Li

1.

=>

,.

ii;

1"] is a

1",

1"]

(iv)

L/V.
F \

[-1"

NOW

[ is a

-7,

E]

[-1"

=>

1"

r]

Where]T, 1"[isanopen sphere in

R
N

Where]-1",

T[isanopen sphere in

neighbourhood of O.
Q[T, T]

T [

Where]

,
T

T,

7"[ is

anopensphere in R

is a neighbourhood of

Theorem
_

neighbourhood of "O.'

(ill) NOWOE]T, T[[-T, T[

~_

Let x,, .be' a limit point of A.

Let (X, d) be a metric space. LetA Q X:
infinitely many points of A.
Then every neighbourhood of x, contains
-

Proof

'

Let N be

'

'

neighbourhood of x, , then

an open sphere

ST (-x,,)

,3
.

(where

1"

>

) such that

nE$UJ;N

_,

-------------- m

We are to prove that N contains infinite points

it by contradiction method.

ii

<4

it

o__A_,,, ____ ..;-

in

~
1

"

:2

- ~

'

S,

*3

We prove

cg

<

i in

3'5
.

'

'

Suppose N contains finite points of A.

of A.
Then by (1) Sr (\x;,) also contains finite points

1/

.... ..,xn of A.
Suppose S,(x,,) containsn points x1,x2,x3,

Then

"

'

A O S,(x.,)

= {x1,x?_,x3,

i = 1,2,3, .... ..,n

Let

d(x.,,xi) =

Let

r = min (1"1,1"2,1"3,
I

1",,

...,xn}

<

..;,1",,)

._

<==::"i'"

-r------~.-~

1-

_*,~~..---

-FIX

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