Subject CSE30301:

Structural Analysis
Prof. Y.Q. Ni (Prof. Ngai)
Office: ZS930 (CEE)
Phone: 2766 6004
E-mail: ceyqni@polyu.edu.hk

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Week 3:
Principle of Virtual Work

Principle of virtual work

Method of virtual work: trusses
Method of virtual work: beams and frames
Virtual strain energy caused by axial load,
shear, and temperature*

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3.1 Principle of virtual work

3.1.1 Work
The work done by a force acting on a structure is simply
defined as the force times the displacement of its point
of application in the direction of the force. Work is
considered to be positive when the force and the
displacement in the direction of the force have the same
sense and negative when the force and the displacement
have opposite sense.
Let us consider the work done by a force P during the
deformation of a structure under the action of a system
of forces (which includes P), as shown in Figure (a). The
magnitude of P may vary when its point of application
displaces from A to A.
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The work dW that P performs as its point of application

undergoes an infinitesimal displacement, d, can be
written as

dW P(d )

The total work W that the force P performs over the

entire displacement is obtained as

W 0 Pd

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The work is equal to the area under the force-displacement

diagram as shown in Figure (b). In this subject, we are
focusing our attention on the analysis of linear elastic
structures, so an expression for work of special interest is
for the case when the force varies linearly with
displacement from zero to its final value, as shown in
Figure (c). The work in this case is given by

1
W P
2

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Another special case of interest is depicted in Figure (d). In

this case, the force remains constant at P while its point of
application undergoes a displacement caused by some
other action independent of P. The work done by the force
P in this case is given by

W P
It is important to distinguish between the above two
expressions for work. Note that the expression for work for
the case when the force varies linearly with displacement
contains a factor of , whereas the expression for work for
the case of a constant force does not contain this factor.
These two expressions for work will be used subsequently
in developing different methods for computing deflections
of structures.
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The expressions for the work of couples are similar in form

to those for the work of forces. The work done by a couple
acting on a structure is defined as the moment of the
couple times the angle through which the couple rotates:

W 0 Md
When the moment of the couple varies linearly with rotation
from zero to its final value, the work can be expressed as

1
W M
2
and, if M remains constant during a rotation , then the
work is given by

W M
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3.1.2 Principle of virtual forces for structures

The principle of virtual forces for structures can be
stated as: If a structure is in equilibrium under a virtual
system of forces (and couples) and if it is subjected to
any small real deformation consistent with the support
and continuity conditions of the structure, then the
virtual external work done by the virtual external forces
(and couples) acting through the real external
displacements (and rotations) is equal to the virtual
internal work done by the virtual internal forces (and
couples) acting through the real internal displacements
(and rotations).

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In the above statement, the term virtual is associated with

the forces to indicate that the force system is arbitrary and
does not depend on the action causing the real deformation.
To demonstrate the validity of this principle, consider the
two-member truss shown in Figure (a). The truss is in
equilibrium under the action of a virtual external force Pv
as shown.

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The free-body diagram of joint C of the truss is shown in

Figure (b). Since joint C is in equilibrium, the virtual
external and internal forces acting on it must satisfy the
following two equilibrium equations:

Fx 0

Pv FvAC cos 1 FvBC cos 2 0

Fy 0 FvAC sin 1 FvBC sin 2 0

in which FvAC and FvBC represent the virtual internal forces
in members AC and BC, respectively.
Now, let us assume that joint C of the truss is given a
small real displacement, , to the right from its equilibrium
position. Note that the deformation is consistent with the
support conditions of the truss; that is, joints A and B,
which are attached to supports, are not displaced.
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The total virtual work done by the virtual forces with the
real displacement is

Wv Pv FvAC ( cos 1 ) FvBC ( cos 2 )

( Pv FvAC cos 1 FvBC cos 2 )
As indicated in the previous two equilibrium equations
about the virtual forces, the term in the parentheses on
the right-hand side of the above equation is zero; Hence,
the total virtual work is Wv = 0. Thus the above equation
can be expressed as

Pv FvAC ( cos 1 ) FvBC ( cos 2 )

In the above equation, the left-hand side represents the
virtual external work (Wve) done by the virtual external
force acting through the real external displacement.
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The right-hand side in the above equation represents the

virtual internal work (Wvi) done by the virtual internal
forces acting through the real internal displacements.
That is

Wve Wvi

which is the mathematical statement of the principle of

virtual forces for deformable bodies.
It should be realized that the principle of virtual forces
as described here is applicable regardless of the cause
of real deformations; that is, deformations due to loads,
temperature changes, or any other effect can be
determined by the application of this principle.

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The method of virtual work is based on the principle

of virtual forces for deformable bodies, which can be
rewritten as
or, more specifically, as

Note that because the virtual forces are independent of

the actions causing the real deformation and remain
constant during the real deformation, the expressions
of the external and internal virtual work do not
contain the factor .
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3.2 Method of virtual work: trusses

Consider an arbitrary statically determinate truss shown
in Figure (a). Let us assume that we want to determine
the vertical deflection, , at joint B of the truss due to
the given loads P1 and P2. The truss is statically
determinate, so the axial forces Nj in its members can
be determined from the method of joints described
previously.

j = NjLj/AjEj

nj

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After obtaining the axial force Nj in an arbitrary member j

of the truss, then the axial deformation j of this member
is given by

N jLj
Aj E j

in which Lj , Aj , and Ej denote, respectively, the length,

cross-sectional area, and Youngs modulus of member j.
To determine the vertical deflection, , at joint B of the
truss, we select a virtual system consisting of a unit
load acting at the joint and in the direction of the
desired deflection. Note that the (downward) sense of
the unit load in Figure (b) is the same as the assumed
sense of the desired deflection in Figure (a).
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The forces in the truss members due to the virtual unit

load can be determined from the method of joints. Let nj
denote the virtual force in member j. The virtual external
work performed by the virtual unit load as it goes through
the real deflection is equal to

Wve 1
The total virtual internal work done on all the members of
the truss can be written as

Wvi n j j
j

By equating the virtual external work to the total virtual

internal work in accordance with the principle of virtual
forces, we obtain the following expression
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1 n j j
j

When the deformations are caused by external loads, we

have
n N L

1
j

Aj E j

(1) Temperature Changes.

In some cases, truss members may change their length
due to temperature. If is the coefficient of thermal
expansion for a member and Tj is the change of
temperature in member j, the change in length of the
member j is j = TjLj . Hence, we can determine the
displacement of a selected truss joint due to this
temperature change as
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1 n jT j L j
j

where 1 = external virtual unit load acting on the truss

joint where the displacement needs to be
determined;

nj = internal virtual force in member j caused by

the external virtual unit force;

= external joint displacement caused by the

temperature change;

= coefficient of thermal expansion;

Tj = change of temperature of member j;
Lj = length of member j.
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(2) Fabrication Errors.

Occasionally, errors in fabricating the lengths of the
members of a truss may occur. If a truss member is shorter
or longer than intended, the displacement of a truss joint
from its expected position can be determined directly as

1 n j L j
j

where 1 = external virtual unit load acting on the truss

joint where the displacement is desired;

nj = internal virtual force in member j caused by

the external virtual unit force;

= external joint displacement to be determined;

Lj = Known difference in length of member j

due to the fabrication errors.

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Example 1: Determine the vertical displacement of joint C

of the steel truss shown below. The cross-sectional area of
each member is A = 300 mm2 and E = 200 GPa.

Solution:
a) Virtual Forces nj . Only a vertical 1-kN load is applied at joint

C, and the force in each member is calculated using

the method of joints. The results are shown in Figure
(b). Positive number indicates tensile forces.

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b) Real Forces Nj . The real internal forces in the members are

calculated using the method of joints. The results are

shown in Figure (c).

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c) Virtual-Work Equation.

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Example 2: Determine the vertical displacement of joint C

of the steel truss shown below. Due to the radiant heating
from the wall, member AD is subjected to an increase in
temperature of T = +60oC. Take = 1.0810-5 /oC and E
= 200 GPa. The cross-sectional areas are indicated below.

Solution:
a) Virtual Forces nj . Only a vertical 1-kN load is applied at

joint C, and the forces in the members are calculated

using the method of joints and shown in Figure (b).

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b) Real Forces Nj . The real member forces are calculated

using the method of joints and shown in Figure (c).

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c) Virtual-Work Equation. As both the applied loads and

temperature affect the displacement of the truss, the
right-hand sides of the corresponding equations should
be added together (the left-hand side keeps same).

1
j

njN jLj
Aj E j

1 n jT j L j
j

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3.3 Method of virtual work: beams and frames

The method of virtual work can be applied to deflection
problems involving beams and frames. Since the strains
due to bending are the primary cause of beam or frame
deflections, we will discuss their effects first. The effects
of shear and axial loadings, and temperature will be
considered in the next section.
To develop an expression for the virtual work method for
beams, consider a beam subjected to an arbitrary loading.

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Let us assume that the vertical deflection, , at point B is

desired. To determine this deflection, a virtual unit load is
applied at this point in the direction of the desired
deflection, as shown in Figure (b), and the virtual internal
moment m is determined by the method of sections at an
arbitrary location x.
According to the elastic-beam theory, the element dx
deforms or rotates d = (M/EI)dx where M is the real
internal moment at x caused by the real loads.

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Consequently, the virtual external work done by the

virtual unit load is 1, and the virtual internal work done
by the virtual internal moment m is md = m(M/EI)dx
Summing the effects on all the elements dx along the
beam requires an integration, and the expression for the
virtual work method for beams becomes

L
0

mM
dx
EI

where 1 = virtual unit load acting on the beam in the

location and direction of ;

m = virtual internal moment expressed as a function

of x and caused by the virtual external unit load;
= external displacement of the beam caused
by the real loads;
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M = real internal moment expressed as a function

of x and caused by the real loads;
E = Youngs modulus of the material;
I = moment of inertia of cross-sectional area.
Similarly, if the tangent rotation or slope angle at a point
of the beam is to be determined, a virtual unit couple
(moment) is applied at the point as shown below, and the
virtual internal moment m , expressed as a function of x,
has to be determined.

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After obtaining the real internal moment M and the virtual

internal moment m, both being functions of x, we have
the expression of the virtual work method as

L
0

m M
dx
EI

For a frame consisting of beams and columns, if we only

consider the bending effect of the beams and columns, the
above two expressions for the frame become

L
0 j
j

Lj
0
j

m jM j
E jI j

mj M j
E jI j

dx j

dx j
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When applying the above four formulae, it is important to

realize that the definite integrals on the right side actually
represent the amount of virtual strain energy that is
stored in the beam or frame.
To facilitate the computation of the definite integrals in the
above formulae, a structure can be divided into several
regions and different local x-coordinate systems can be
adopted to obtain the expressions of real and virtual
internal moments at different regions.
For some typical moment diagrams, a table is available to
directly obtain the results of the definite integrals (see
next page). To do so the moment diagrams are drawn for
both the real and virtual loadings and match them with
those given in the table.
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Example 3: Determine the slope at point B of the steel

beam shown below. Take E = 200 GPa, I = 60106 mm4.

Solution:
a) Virtual Moment m . The slope at point B is determined
by placing a virtual unit moment of 1 kNm at B as shown
in Figure (b). Here two x coordinates are selected. The
x1 coordinate accounts for the virtual strain energy
within segment AB, while the x2 coordinate
accounts for that within segment BC.
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The virtual internal moment m for the two segments is

computed using the method of sections and is shown in
Figure (b).

b) Real Moment M . Using the same coordinates x1 and

x2, the real internal moment M is computed by the
method of sections and is shown in Figure (c).
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c) Virtual-Work Equation. The slop at B is obtained by

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We can also evaluate the integrals mMdx graphically,

using the table given previously. To do so it is first
necessary to draw the moment diagrams for the beam
under the virtual unit moment and under the real loading,
respectively. Figures (d) and (e) show the diagrams of the
virtual internal moment m and the real internal moment
M. As m = 0 for the segment AB, we only need to use the
shaded rectangular and trapezoidal areas for the segment
BC to evaluate the integral.

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After obtaining the shapes of the moment diagrams under

the virtual and real loadings, and finding these shapes in
the appropriate row and column of the table, we have

The negative sign indicates B is opposite to the direction

of the virtual moment shown in Figure (b).

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Example 4: Determine the horizontal displacement of

point C on the frame shown below. Take E = 200 GPa,
I = 235106 mm4 for both members.

Solution:
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a) Virtual Moment m . The coordinates x1 and x2 are used

here. A virtual horizontal unit load is applied at point C.
The corresponding support reactions and virtual internal
moment m are computed and shown in Figure (b).

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b) Real Moment M . Under application of the real loading,

the support reactions are first obtained, and then the
real internal moment M is computed with referring to
the same coordinates x1 and x2. The support reactions
and real internal moment M are shown in Figure (c).

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c) Virtual-Work Equation. The horizontal displacement at

point C is obtained by

The positive sign indicates Ch is in the same direction

with the given virtual unit load (rightward ).
If desired, the integrals mMdx can also be evaluated
graphically using the table given previously. The moment
diagrams for the frame under the virtual unit load and
under the real loading, are shown in Figures (d) and
(e), respectively.
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Thus, using the formulae for similar shapes given in the

table yields

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3.4* Virtual strain energy caused by axial load,

shear, and temperature (for self-learning)
Although deflections of beams and frames are caused
primarily by bending strain energy, in some structures the
additional strain energy of axial load, shear, and perhaps
temperature may become important. Each of these effects
will now be considered.
(1)* Axial load. Frame members can be subjected to axial
loads, and the virtual strain energy caused by these
loadings has been established in the analysis of trusses.
For members having a constant cross-sectional area, we
have

nNL
Un
AE
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where n = virtual internal axial force in the member

caused by virtual external unit load; N = real internal
axial force in the member caused by real loads; E =
Youngs modulus of the material; A = cross-sectional
area of the member; and L = members length.
(2)* Shear. The shear distortion dy of element dx caused
by the real loads is dy = dx = (/G)dx = (KV/GA)dx,
where is the shear strain, is the shear stress, V is the
shear force, K is the form factor, A is the cross-sectional
area, and G is the shear modulus of elasticity.

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Hence, the virtual internal work done by a virtual shear

force v, acting on the element while it is deformed by dy, is
dUs = vdy = v(KV/GA)dx. For the entire beam, the virtual
strain energy is determined by integration.
vV
U s 0L K
dx
GA

where v = virtual internal shear force in the member,

expressed as a function of x and caused by virtual external
unit load; V = real internal shear force in the member,
expressed as a function of x and caused by real loads; G =
shear modulus of elasticity for the material; A = crosssectional area of the member; and K = form factor for the
cross-sectional area. K = 1.2 and 10/9 for rectangular and
circular cross sections, respectively. K 1 for wide-flange
I-beams, where A is taken as the area of the web.
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(3)* Temperature. Previously we have considered the effect

of a uniform temperature change T on a truss member and
indicated that the member will elongate or shorten by an
amount L = TL. In some cases, however, a structural
member can be subjected to a temperature difference
across its depth, as in the case shown in Figure (a).
If this occurs, we must first compute the amount of rotation
of an infinitesimal element dx of the beam caused by the
thermal gradient that acts over the beams cross section.

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For the sake of discussion we choose the most common case

of a beam having a neutral axis located at the mid-depth of
the beam. If we plot the temperature profile as shown in
Figure (b), it is noted that the mean temperature is Tm =
(T1 + T2)/2. If T1 > T2, the temperature difference causes
strain elongation at the top of the cross-section, and strain
contraction at the bottom of the cross-section.

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In both cases the difference in temperature is Tm =T1 Tm

= Tm T2. Since the thermal change of length at the top
and bottom is x = Tmdx as shown in Figure (c), then the
rotation of the element is

Tm dx
c

If we apply a virtual unit load at a point on the beam where

a displacement is to be determined, or apply a virtual unit
moment at a point where a rotational displacement of the
tangent is to be determined, then this loading creates a
virtual moment m in the beam at the point where the
element dx is located. When the temperature gradient is
imposed, the virtual strain energy in the beam is

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U temp

L
o

mTm
dx
c

where m = virtual internal moment in the beam, expressed

as a function of x and caused by virtual external unit load;
= coefficient of thermal expansion; Tm = temperature
difference between the mean temperature and the
temperature at the top or bottom of the beam; c = middepth of the beam; and L = members length.
In the above, we have derived the formulations for all the
three effects. If these effects are to be considered for the
analysis, we just need to simply add their virtual strain
energy to the right-hand side of the equation of virtual
work (unless otherwise stated, we usually consider
beam and frame deflections only due to bending).
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Example 5*: Determine the horizontal displacement of

point C on the frame shown below. Take E = 200 GPa, G
= 80 GPa, I = 235106 mm4, and A = 50103 mm2 for
both members. The cross section is rectangular. Include
the internal strain energy due to axial load and shear.

Solution:
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a) Virtual moment m, axial force n, and shear v. A virtual

horizontal unit load is applied at point C. The
corresponding free-body diagram is shown in Figure (b).

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b) Real moment M, axial force N, and shear V. The freebody diagram under application of the real load is
obtained and shown in Figure (c).

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c) Bending. The virtual strain energy due to bending has

been determined in Example 4. There it was shown that

d) Axial force. The virtual strain energy due to axial force

is obtained by

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e) Shear. The virtual strain energy due to shear (K = 1.2

for rectangular section) is obtained by

f) Virtual-work equation. Applying the equation of virtual

work yields

It is seen that including the effects of axial force and shear

contributed only a 0.8% increase in the displacement.
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Example 6*: The simply supported beam shown below is

used in a building subjected to two different thermal
environments. If the temperature at the top surface of the
beam is 25oC and at the bottom surface is 70oC, determine
the vertical deflection of the beam at its midpoint due to
the temperature gradient. Take = 11.710-6 /oC.

Solution:
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Since the deflection at the centre of the beam is to be

determined, a virtual vertical unit load is applied there
and the virtual internal moment m in the beam is
computed and shown in Figure (b).

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The mean temperature at the centre of the beam is

(70oC+25oC)/2 = 47.5oC, so that Tm =47.5oC 25oC
= 22oC. Also c = 250 mm/2 = 125 mm. Applying the
principle of virtual work, we have

The result indicates a very negligible deflection.

End of Lecture 3

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