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AcademicWritingStyleOrganizingYourSocialSciencesResearchPaperResearchGuidesatUniversityofSouthernCalifornia

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OrganizingYourSocialSciences
ResearchPaper:AcademicWritingStyle

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Thepurposeofthisguideistoprovideadviceonhowtodevelopandorganizearesearchpaperinthesocial
sciences.
PurposeofGuide

TypesofResearchDesigns

2.PreparingtoWrite
6.TheMethodology

3.TheAbstract
7.TheResults

1.ChoosingaResearchProblem

4.TheIntroduction
8.TheDiscussion

10.ProofreadingYourPaper

11.CitingSources

GivinganOralPresentation

GradingSomeoneElse'sPaper

WritingaBookReview
WritingaPolicyMemo

WritingaCaseStudy

5.TheLiteratureReview
9.TheConclusion

AnnotatedBibliography
HowtoManageGroupProjects

WritingaFieldReport

WritingaResearchProposal

Acknowledgements

Definition

WritingTip

Academicwritingreferstoaparticularstyleofexpressionthatresearchersuse
to define the intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and their areas of
expertise.Characteristicsofacademicwritingincludeaformaltone,useofthe
thirdpersonratherthanfirstpersonperspective(usually),aclearfocusonthe
researchproblemunderinvestigation,andprecisewordchoice.Likespecialist
languages adopted in other professions, such as, law or medicine, academic
writingisdesignedtoconveyagreedmeaningaboutcomplexideasorconcepts
foragroupofscholarlyexperts.

SeekHelpfromthe
USCWriting
Center!
The Writing Center is a service
supported by the university
that

provides

oneonone

consultations and smallgroup

workshops to help students of
all

abilities

improve

their

AcademicWriting.WritingCenter.ColoradoTechnicalCollegeHartley,James.AcademicWritingandPublishing:

critical thinking and writing

APracticalGuide.NewYork:Routledge,2008.

skills.

ImportanceofGoodAcademicWriting

If

you

are

having

problems

writing

your

research

papers,

take

advantage of this service! The

Center is located in Taper Hall,

Althoughtheacceptedformofacademicwritinginthesocialsciencescanvary
considerable depending on the methodological framework and the intended
audience, most researchlevel papers require careful attention to the following
stylisticelements:
I.TheBigPicture
Unlike fiction or journalistic writing, the overall structure of academic writing is
formalandlogical.Itmustbecohesiveandpossessalogicallyorganizedflowof
ideasthismeansthatthevariouspartsareconnectedtoformaunifiedwhole.
There should be narrative links between sentences and paragraphs so the
http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/academicwriting

room 216.

AnotherWritingTip

Consideringthe
PassiveVoicein
AcademicWriting
In the English language, we
are able to construct sentences

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readerisabletofollowyourargumentandallsourcesareproperlycited.
II.TheTone
Theoveralltonereferstotheattitudeconveyedinapieceofwriting.Throughout
your paper, it is important that you present the arguments of others fairly and
withanappropriatenarrativetone.Whenpresentingapositionorargumentthat
you disagree with, describe this argument accurately and without loaded or
biasedlanguage.Inacademicwriting,theauthorisexpectedtoinvestigatethe
researchproblemfromanauthoritativepointofview.Youshould,therefore,state
thestrengthsofyourargumentsconfidently,usinglanguagethatisneutral,not
confrontationalordismissive.
III.Diction
Dictionreferstothechoiceofwordsyouuse.Awarenessofthewordsyouuse
is important because words that have almost the same denotation [dictionary
definition] can have very different connotations [implied meanings]. This is
particularlytrueinacademicwritingbecausewordsandterminologycanevolve
a nuanced meaning that describes a particular idea, concept, or phenomenon
derived from the epistemological culture of that discipline. Therefore, use
concretewords[notgeneral]thatconveyaspecificmeaning.Ifthiscannotbe
done without confusing the reader, then you need to explain what you mean
withinthecontexthowthatwordisusedwithinadiscipline.
IV.TheLanguage
Clear use of language is essential in academic writing. Wellstructured
paragraphs and clear topic sentences enable a reader to follow your line of
thinkingwithoutdifficulty.Yourlanguageshouldbeconcise,formal,andexpress
precisely what you want it to mean. Avoid vague expressions that are not
specificandpreciseenoughforthereadertoderiveexactmeaning["they,""we,"
"people,""theorganization,"etc.],abbreviationslike'i.e.'["inotherwords"],'e.g.'
["forexample"],andcontractions,suchas,"don't","isn't",etc.
V.AcademicConventions
Citing sources in the body of your paper and providing a list of references as
eitherfootnotesorendnotesisaveryimportantaspectofacademicwriting.Itis
essential to always acknowledge the source of any ideas, research findings,
data, or quoted text that you have used in your paper as a defense against
allegationsofplagiarism.Citingsourcesisalsoimportantbecauseitallowsthe
readertoidentifythesourcesyouusedandindependentlyverifyyourfindings
andconclusions.

are able to construct sentences

in the following way:

1. "The policies of Congress

caused the economic crisis."
2. "The economic crisis was
caused by the policies of
Congress."

The

decision

about

which

sentence to use is governed by

whether you want to focus on
Congress and what they did,
or on the economic crisis
and what caused it. This choice
in focus is achieved with the
use of either the active or the
passive voice. When you want
your readers to focus on the
"doer" of an action, you can
make the "doer"' the subject of
the sentence and use the active
form of the verb. When you
want readers to focus on the
person, place, or thing affected
by the action, or the action
itself, you can make the effect
or the action the subject of the
sentence by using the passive
form of the verb.

Often in academic writing,

scholars don't want to focus on
who is doing an action, but on
who

is

receiving

or

experiencing the consequences

of that action. The passive

VI.EvidenceBasedArguments
Assignments often ask you to express your own point of view about the
researchproblem.However,whatisvaluedinacademicwritingisthatopinions
are based on a sound understanding of the pertinent body of knowledge and
academic debates that exist within, and increasing external to, your discipline.
You need to support your opinion with evidence from scholarly sources. It
should be an objective stance presented as a logical argument. The quality of
yourevidencewilldeterminethestrengthofyourargument.Thechallengeisto
convince the reader of the validity of your opinion through a welldocumented,
coherent,andlogicallystructuredpieceofwriting.
VII.ThesisDriven
The writing is thesisdriven, meaning that the starting point is a particular
http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/academicwriting

voice is useful in academic

writing

because

it

allows

writers to highlight the most

important

participants

or

events within sentences by

placing them at the beginning
of the sentence.

Use the passive voice when:

You want to focus on
the person, place, or

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the person, place, or

perspective,idea,orthesisappliedtothechosenresearchproblem,suchas,
establishing, proving, or disproving solutions to the questions posed for the
topicsimplydescribingatopicwithouttheresearchquestionsdoesnotqualify
asacademicwriting.

thing affected by the

action, or the action
itself
It is not important

VIII.ComplexityandHigherOrderThinking
Oneofthemainfunctionsofacademicwritingistodescribecomplexideasas
clearly as possible. Often referred to as higherorder thinking skills, these
includecognitiveprocessesthatareusedtocomprehend,solveproblems,and
express concepts or that describe abstract ideas that cannot be easily acted
out,pointedto,orshownwithimages.

who or what did the

action
You

want

to

be

impersonal or more
formal.

Form the passive voice by:

AcademicWriting.WritingCenter.ColoradoTechnicalCollegeHartley,James.AcademicWritingandPublishing:
Turning the object of

APracticalGuide.NewYork:Routledge,2008Murray,RowenaandSarahMoore.TheHandbookofAcademic

the active

Writing:AFreshApproach.NewYork:OpenUniversityPress,2006Silvia,PaulJ.HowtoWriteaLot:APractical

sentence

into the subject of the

Guide to Productive Academic Writing. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2007 Style,

passive sentence.

Diction,Tone,andVoice.WritingCenter,WheatonCollegeSword,Helen.StylishAcademicWriting. Cambridge,

Changing the verb to

MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2012.

a passive form by
adding

the

appropriate form of

Strategiesfor...

the verb "to be" and

UnderstandingAcademicWritingandItsJargon
Theverydefinitionofjargonislanguagespecifictoaparticularsubgroup
of people. Therefore, in modern university life, jargon represents the specific
languageandmeaningassignedtowordsandphrasesspecifictoadisciplineor
areaofstudy.Forexample,theideaofbeingrationalmayholdthesamegeneral
meaning in both political science and psychology, but its application to
understanding and explaining phenomena within the research domain of a
discipline may have subtle differences based upon how scholars in that
disciplineapplytheconcepttothetheoriesandpracticeoftheirwork.
Giventhis,itisimportantthatspecialistterminology[i.e.,jargon]mustbe
used accurately and applied under the appropriate conditions. Subject
specificdictionariesarethebestplacestoconfirmthemeaningoftermswithin
thecontextofaspecificdiscipline.ThesecanbefoundbysearchingintheUSC
Libraries HOMER catalog. It is appropriate for you to use specialist language
withinyourfieldofstudy,butavoidusingsuchlanguagewhenwritingfornon
academicorgeneralaudiences.

the past participle of

the main verb.

NOTE: Consult
with your professor
about using the
passive voice before
submitting your
research paper.
Some strongly
discourage its use!

Active and Passive Voice. The

Writing Lab and The OWL.
Purdue

University

Diefenbach, Paul. Future of

Digital Media Syllabus. Drexel
University Passive Voice. The

ProblemswithOpaqueWriting
Traditionalacademicwritingcanutilizeneedlesslycomplexsyntaxorjargonthat
is stated out of context or is not welldefined. When writing, avoid these
problemsinparticular:
1.Excessiveuseofspecializedterminology.Yes,itisappropriateforyouto
usespecialistlanguageandaformalstyleofexpression,butitdoesnotmean
using"bigwords"justforthesakeofdoingso.Overuseofcomplexorobscure
words or writing complicated sentence constructions gives readers the
impression that your paper is more about style than substance it leads the
reader to question if you really know what you are talking about. Focus on

http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/academicwriting

Writing Center. University of

North Carolina.

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reader to question if you really know what you are talking about. Focus on
creating clear and elegant prose that minimizes reliance on specialized
terminology.
2. Inappropriate use of specialized terminology. Because you are dealing
with the concepts, research, and data of your subject, you need to use the
technicallanguageappropriatetothediscipline.However,nothingwillundermine
thevalidityofyourstudyquickerthantheinappropriateapplicationofatermor
concept.Avoidusingtermswhosemeaningyouareunsureofdon'tjustguess
or assume! Consult the meaning of terms in specialized, disciplinespecific
dictionaries.ThesecanbefoundbysearchingtheHOMERcatalog,entering,for
example,thephrase"sociologyanddictionaries."

OtherProblemstoAvoid
In addition to understanding the use of specialized language, there are
otheraspectsofacademicwritinginthesocialsciencesthatyoushould
beawareof.Theseinclude:
Personalnouns.Excessiveuseofpersonalnouns[e.g.,I,me,you,us]
may lead the reader to believe the study was overly subjective. Using
these words may be interpreted as being done only to avoid presenting
empiricalevidenceabouttheresearchproblem.
Directives.Avoiddirectivesthatdemandsthereaderto"Dothis"or"Do
that." Directives should be framed as evidencebased recommendations
orgoalsleadingtospecificoutcomes.
Informal, conversational tone using slang and idioms. Academic
writing relies on excellent grammar and precise word structure. Your
narrativeshouldnotincluderegionaldialectsorslangtermsbecausethey
canbeopentointerpretationbedirectandconcise.
Wordiness. Focus on being concise, straightforward, and writing that
doesnothaveconfusinglanguage. By doing so, you help eliminate the
possibilityofthereadermisinterpretingtheresearchdesignandpurpose
ofyourstudy.
Vague expressions (e.g., "they," "we," "people," "the company,"
"that area," etc.). Being concise in your writing also includes avoiding
vague references to persons, places, or things. While proofreading your
paper,besuretolookforandeditanyvaguestatementsthatlackcontext.
Numbered lists and bulleted items. The use of bulleted items or lists
should be used only if the narrative dictates a need for clarity. For
example,itisfinetostate,"Thefourmainproblemswithhedgefundsare:"
andthenlistthem1,2,3,4.However,inacademicwritingthismustthen
befollowedbydetailedexplanationandanalysisofeachitem.Giventhis,
thequestionyoushouldaskyourselfwhileproofreadingis:whybeginwith
alistinthefirstplaceratherthanjuststartingwithsystematicanalysisof
eachitem?
Descriptive writing. Describing a research problem is an important
meansofcontextualizingastudyand,infact,somedescriptionisneeded
becauseyoucan'tassumethereaderknowseverythingaboutthetopic.
However, the content of your paper should focus on methodology, the
analysisandinterpretationoffindings,andtheirimplicationsastheyapply
totheresearchproblemandnotbackgroundinformationanddescriptions
http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/academicwriting

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oftangentialissues.
Personalexperiences.Drawinguponpersonalexperience[e.g.,traveling
abroadcaringforsomeonewithAlzheimer'sdisease]canbeaneffective
way of engaging your readers in understanding the research problem.
Usepersonalexperienceonlyasanexample,though,becauseacademic
writing relies on evidencebased research. To do otherwise is simply
storytelling.
NOTE:Rules concerning excellent grammar and precise word structure
donotapplywhenquotingsomeone.Aquoteshouldbeinsertedinthetextof
yourpaperexactlyasitwasstated.Ifthequoteisespeciallyvagueorhardto
understand, consider paraphrasing it or using a different quote to convey the
same meaning. Consider inserting the term "sic" in brackets after the quoted
wordortexttoindicatethatthequotationhasbeentranscribedexactlyasfound
in the original source, particularly if you are quoting from a source that has
grammarorspellingerrorsandyouwanttoinformthereaderthattheerrorsare
notyours.

AcademicWriting.TheWritingLabandTheOWL.PurdueUniversityAcademicWritingStyle.FirstYearSeminar
Handbook. Mercer University Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Cornell University College
Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina Murray, Rowena and Sarah Moore.TheHandbookof
Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach. New York: Open University Press, 2006 Oppenheimer, Daniel M.
"Consequences of Erudite Vernacular Utilized Irrespective of Necessity: Problems with Using Long Words
Needlessly." Applied Cognitive Psychology 20 (2006): 139156 Pernawan, Ari. Common Flaws in Students'
Rsearch Proposals. English Education Department. Yogyakarta State University Style. College Writing. The
Writing Center. University of North Carolina Invention: Five Qualities of Good Writing. The Reading/Writing
Center.HunterCollegeSword,Helen.StylishAcademicWriting.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2012
WhatIsanAcademicPaper?InstituteforWritingRhetoric.DartmouthCollege.

StructureandWritingStyle

I.ImprovingAcademicWriting
Toimproveyouracademicwritingskills,youshouldfocusyoureffortsonthree
keyareas:
1. Clear Writing. Thinking about precedes writing about. Good writers spend
sufficienttimedistillinginformationandreviewingmajorpointsfromtheliterature
theyhavereviewedbeforecreatingtheirwork.Writingdetailedoutlinescanhelp
youclearlyorganizeyourthoughts.Effectiveacademicwritingbeginswithsolid
planning,somanageyourtimecarefully.
2.ExcellentGrammar.Needlesstosay,Englishgrammarcanbedifficultand
complexeventhebestscholarstakemanyyearsbeforethayhavecommand
ofthemajorpointsofgoodgrammar.Takethetimetolearnthemajorandminor
points of good grammar. Spend time practicing writing and seek detailed
feedbackfromprofessors.TakeadvantageoftheWritingCenteroncampusif
you need a lot of help. Proper punctuation and good proofreading skills can
significantlyimproveacademicwriting[seesubtabforproofreadingyoupaper].
Invest in and always refer to these three basic resources to help your
http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/academicwriting

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grammarandwritingskills:
A good writing reference book, such as, Strunk and Whites book, The
ElementsofStyleortheSt.Martin'sHandbook
A collegelevel dictionary, such as, MerriamWebster's Collegiate
Dictionary
ThelatesteditionofRoget'sThesaurusinDictionaryForm.
3.ConsistentStylisticApproach.Whetheryourprofessorrequiresyoutouse
MLA,APAortheChicagoManualofStyle,chooseonestylemanualandstickto
it.Eachofthesestylemanualsprovideguidanceonhowtowriteoutnumbers,
references, citations, footnotes, and lists. Consistent adherence to a style of
writinghelpswiththenarrativeflowofyourpaperandimprovesitsreadability.
Notethatsomedisciplinesrequireaparticularstyle[e.g.,educationusesAPA]
soasyouwritemorepaperswithinyourmajor,familiaritywillimprove.

II.EvaluatingQualityofWriting
A useful approach for evaluating the quality of your academic writing is to
consider the following issues from the perspective of the reader. While
proofreading your final draft, critically assess the following elements in your
writing.
Itisshapedaroundoneclearresearchproblem,anditexplainswhatthat
problemisfromtheoutset.
Yourpapertellsthereaderwhytheproblemisimportantandwhypeople
shouldknowaboutit.
Youhaveaccuratelyandthoroughlyinformedthereaderwhathasalready
been published about this problem or others related to it and noted
importantgapsintheresearch.
You have provided evidence to support your argument that the reader
findsconvincing.
Thepaperincludesadescriptionofhowandwhyparticularevidencewas
collected and analyzed, and why specific theoretical arguments or
conceptswereused.
Thepaperismadeupofparagraphs,eachcontainingonlyonecontrolling
idea.
You indicate how each section of the paper addresses the research
problem.
Youhaveconsideredcounterargumentsorcounterexampleswherethey
arerelevant.
Arguments, evidence, and their significance have been presented in the
conclusion.
Limitations of your research have been explained as evidence of the
potentialneedforfurtherstudy.
Thenarrativeflowsinaclear,accurate,andwellorganizedway.

Boscoloa, Pietro, Barbara Arfb, and Mara Quarisaa. Improving the Quality of Students' Academic Writing: An
InterventionStudy.StudiesinHigherEducation32(August2007):419438AcademicWriting.TheWritingLab
andTheOWL.PurdueUniversityAcademicWritingStyle.FirstYearSeminarHandbook.MercerUniversityBem,
DarylJ.WritingtheEmpiricalJournalArticle.CornellUniversityCollegeWriting. The Writing Center. University of
NorthCarolinaStyle. College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina Invention: Five Qualities

http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/academicwriting

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NorthCarolinaStyle. College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina Invention: Five Qualities
of Good Writing. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012 What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric.
DartmouthCollege.

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