Overview of Current Development in Electrical Energy Storage Technologies and The Application Potential in Power System Operation

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Overviewofcurrentdevelopmentinelectricalenergystoragetechnologiesandtheapplicationpotentialinpowersystemoperation
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AppliedEnergy
Volume137,1January2015,Pages511536
Overviewofcurrentdevelopmentinelectricalenergystorage
technologiesandtheapplicationpotentialinpowersystem
operation
XingLuo
,JihongWang,MarkDooner,JonathanClarke
Showmore
doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.09.081
Getrightsandcontent
OpenAccessfundedbyEngineeringandPhysicalSciencesResearchCouncil
UnderaCreativeCommonslicense
OpenAccess
Highlights
AnoverviewofthestateoftheartinElectricalEnergyStorage(EES)isprovided.
AcomprehensiveanalysisofvariousEEStechnologiesiscarriedout.
AnapplicationpotentialanalysisofthereviewedEEStechnologiesispresented.
ThepresentedsynthesistoEEStechnologiescanbeusedtosupportfutureR&D
anddeployment.
Abstract
Electricalpowergenerationischangingdramaticallyacrosstheworldbecauseofthe
needtoreducegreenhousegasemissionsandtointroducemixedenergysources.The
powernetworkfacesgreatchallengesintransmissionanddistributiontomeetdemand
withunpredictabledailyandseasonalvariations.ElectricalEnergyStorage(EES)is
recognizedasunderpinningtechnologiestohavegreatpotentialinmeetingthese
challenges,wherebyenergyisstoredinacertainstate,accordingtothetechnology
used,andisconvertedtoelectricalenergywhenneeded.However,thewidevarietyof
optionsandcomplexcharacteristicmatricesmakeitdifficulttoappraiseaspecificEES
technologyforaparticularapplication.Thispaperintendstomitigatethisproblemby
providingacomprehensiveandclearpictureofthestateofthearttechnologies
available,andwheretheywouldbesuitedforintegrationintoapowergenerationand
distributionsystem.Thepaperstartswithanoverviewoftheoperationprinciples,
technicalandeconomicperformancefeaturesandthecurrentresearchand
developmentofimportantEEStechnologies,sortedintosixmaincategoriesbasedon
thetypesofenergystored.Followingthis,acomprehensivecomparisonandan
applicationpotentialanalysisofthereviewedtechnologiesarepresented.
Keywords
ElectricalenergystorageOverviewPowersystemTechnicalandeconomic
performancefeaturesApplicationpotential
1.Introduction
Globalelectricitygenerationhasgrownrapidlyoverthelastdecade.Asof2012,the
annualgrossproductionofelectricityreachedapproximately22,200TWh,ofwhichfossil
fuels(includingcoal/peat,naturalgasandoil)contributearound70%ofglobalelectricity
generation[1],[2]and[3].Tomaintainthepowernetworkstability,theloadbalancehas
mainlybeenmanagedthroughfossilfuelpowerplants.Toachievethetargetofreducing
CO2emissions,futureelectricitygenerationwillprogresswithdiminishingrelianceon
fossilfuels,growinguseofrenewableenergysourcesandwithagreaterrespectforthe
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306261914010290
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environment[3].However,mostrenewableenergysourcesareintermittentintheir
nature,whichpresentsagreatchallengeinenergygenerationandloadbalance
maintenancetoensurepowernetworkstabilityandreliability.Greateffortshavebeen
madeinsearchingforviablesolutions,includingElectricalEnergyStorage(EES),load
shiftingthroughdemandmanagement,interconnectionwithexternalgrids,etc.Amongst
allthepossiblesolutions,EEShasbeenrecognizedasoneofthemostpromising
approaches[4]and[5].
EEStechnologyreferstotheprocessofconvertingenergyfromoneform(mainly
electricalenergy)toastorableformandreservingitinvariousmediumsthenthestored
energycanbeconvertedbackintoelectricalenergywhenneeded[4]and[5].EEScan
havemultipleattractivevaluepropositions(functions)topowernetworkoperationand
loadbalancing,suchas:(i)helpinginmeetingpeakelectricalloaddemands,(ii)
providingtimevaryingenergymanagement,(iii)alleviatingtheintermittenceof
renewablesourcepowergeneration,(iv)improvingpowerquality/reliability,(v)meeting
remoteandvehicleloadneeds,(vi)supportingtherealizationofsmartgrids,(vii)helping
withthemanagementofdistributed/standbypowergeneration,(viii)reducingelectrical
energyimportduringpeakdemandperiods.
Inmanyscenarios,demandforEESandselectionofappropriateEEStechnologieshave
beenconsideredtobeimportantandchallengingincountrieswitharelativelysmall
networksizeandinertia.Forexample,theUKelectricpowernetworkcurrentlyhasa
capacityofPumpedHydroelectricStorage(PHS)at27.6GWh[6].AlthoughPHS
facilitieshavebeenbuiltworldwideasamatureandcommerciallyavailabletechnology,it
isconsideredthatthepotentialforfurthermajorPHSschemesisrestrictedintheUK[6].
Therefore,itisofgreatimportancethatsuitableEEStechnologiesinadditiontoPHSare
explored.Derivedfromthestudyofrecentpublications,Fig.1illustratesvariousEES
technologieswithpotentialstoaddressthechallengesfacedbytheUKenergysystems
[4],[6],[7],[8]and[9].Manycountriespotentiallyneedtoaddresssimilarchallenges
whichcanbesolvedorimprovedbysuitableEEStechnologies.
Fig.1.
ElectricalenergystoragetechnologieswithchallengestotheUKenergysystems[4],[6],[7],[8]and[9].
Figureoptions
DuetothegreatpotentialandthemultiplefunctionsofEES,intheliteraturemany
authorshavereviewedandsummarizedtheEESresearchanddevelopment,
demonstrationsandindustrialapplicationsfromdifferentperspectives,particularlyin
recentyears.ThepaperpresentedbyIbrahimetal.highlightedtheneedtostoreenergy
forimprovingpowernetworksandmaintainingloadlevels[10].Agroupofcharacteristics
ofdifferentEEStechnologiesisgiven,whichcanhelpimproveperformanceandcost
estimatesforstoragesystems.Howeverrelativelyfewreferencesarecitedin[10].Chen
etal.providedawellorganizedandcomprehensivecriticalreviewonprogressinEES
systems,whichcoveredvarioustypesofEEStechnologiesandtheir
applications/deploymentstatus[4].ThediscussionontheselectionofappropriateEES
candidatesforspecificapplicationswasrelativelybrief.Halletal.alsopresenteda
reviewarticleconcentratingonseveralEEStechnologies,i.e.,batteries,
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supercapacitors,superconductingmagneticenergystorageandflywheels[11].Liuetal.
providedaninsightfulreviewoftheadvancedmaterialsforseveralEEStechnologies
[12].Thestrategiesfordevelopinghighperformancehydrogenstoragematerialsand
electrochemicallithiumionbatterymaterialswerediscussedindetail[12].Thepaper
alsohighlightedtheprospectsinthefuturedevelopmentofadvancedmaterialsforEES.
Withtherapidpenetrationofintermittentrenewables,thereviewarticles[13],[14],
[15]and[16]havemadeefforttoassessandsummarizetheEESoptionsforincreased
renewableelectricityapplications.DazGonzlezetal.[13]andZhaoetal.[15]focuson
thereviewofEEStechnologiesforwindpowerapplications.Adetaileddiscussionof
existingEESapplicationsinwindpowerisahighlightprovidedbythearticle[13],whilst
theplanningissues,theoperationandcontrolstrategiesoftheESSapplicationsforwind
powerintegrationsupportaresummarizedbythepaper[15].Furthermore,fromanovel
viewpoint,Connollyetal.assessedavailablecomputertoolsforanalyzingtheintegration
ofrenewableenergyintovariousenergysystems[17].Researchershavealsoreviewed
specificaspectsofEESsystems,suchasin[18],[19],[20],[21]and[22].Forinstance,
Dunnetal.contributedahighqualityreviewonbatteryenergystorageforthegrid
applications,mainlyfocusingoncommerciallyavailablesodiumsulfurbatteries,
relativelylowcostredoxflowbatteriesanddevelopinglithiumionbatteries,allwiththe
aimtobeusedingridstorage[22].Thereviewsofthedevelopmentsandchallengesin
materialsforelectrochemicalrelevantenergystoragearepresentedin[23],[24]and[25].
Forexample,Whittinghamaddressedthecurrentchallengesinthesubjectof
electrochemicalenergystoragematerials,whichcanbesummarizedas:reducingthe
costandextendingthelifetimeofdeviceswhilstimprovingtheirperformanceandmaking
themmoreenvironmentallyfriendly[23].Inaddition,somejournalshavepublished
specialissuesdedicatedtoEESresearchanddevelopment,suchasthespecialissuein
2013fromtheWileyjournalAdvancedFunctionalMaterials:GrandChallengesin
EnergyStorage.
AbriefstatisticalstudyhasbeencarriedouttoascertainthetrendsinEESrelated
researchusingthesearchengineWebofScienceandchoosingTopicasthesearch
field.Fig.2showstheresultsdetailingthenumberofresearchpaperspublishedinsix
EESrelatedfieldsoverthepasttenyears(20042013).ThetitlesofthesubfiguresinFig.
2aretheinputkeywordsusedinthesearchengine.Theresultsindicatethatresearchin
EESinthepasttenyearshastendedtoincrease,withrapidincreasesin2012and2013.
Inparticular,researchintocompressedairenergystoragegrewsignificantlyin2012
whilst,incontrast,researchintosuperconductingmagneticenergystoragehasremained
relativelystable.Itcanalsobeseenthattherehasbeenalargeincreaseintheresearch
intorenewableandenergymanagementwithEEStopics.ThestatisticfigureinEES
researchliteraturesshowsthattheentireEESresearchandtechnologydevelopment
havechangedandadvancedrapidlyintheyearssincesomepreviousreviews,suchas
[4],[10]and[11],werepublished.Thusitistimelytohaveanewcriticaloverviewofthe
currentdevelopmentinEES.
Fig.2.
AbriefstatisticalstudytothetrendinEESrelatedresearch.
Figureoptions
AlthoughthepotentialbenefitsofEESinstallationtopowersystemoperationhavebeen
widelyrecognized,somesignificantchallengesinthedeploymentofEESsystemsexist,
mainlyin:(1)howtochoosethesuitableEEStechnologytomatchthepowersystem
applicationrequirements(2)howtoaccuratelyevaluatetheactualvaluesofdeployed
EESfacilitiesincludingtechnicalandeconomicbenefits(3)howtobringthecostdown
toarealisticallyacceptablelevelfordeployment,especiallyfornewlydevelopingEES
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technologies.
TheobjectiveofthispaperistoprovideaupdatedpictureofthestateoftheartEES
technologies,incomparisonwiththepreviousreviewarticles[4],[10]and[11].Thepaper
beginswithanoverviewoftheoperationprinciples,technicalandeconomicperformance
featuresandthecurrentresearchanddevelopmentofimportantEEStechnologies.
Followingthis,acomprehensivecomparisonofEEStechnologiesisconducted.The
paperpresentsadetailedsummarizationandpredicationoftheexistingandpromising
EEStechnologyoptionsfordifferentpowersystemapplicationswiththeircorresponding
technicalspecifications.Theoverviewwillhelpaddressthechallengesfacedin
deploymentofEESandprovideusefulinformationandguidanceinselectingsuitable
technologiesforspecificapplicationsbasedonthenatureofEEScharacteristics.
2.Classificationofelectricalenergystoragetechnologies
ThereareseveralsuggestedmethodsforcategorizationofvariousEEStechnologies,
suchas,intermsoftheirfunctions,responsetimes,andsuitablestoragedurations[4],
[26]and[27].Oneofthemostwidelyusedmethodsisbasedontheformofenergystored
inthesystem[15]and[16]asshowninFig.3,whichcanbecategorizedintomechanical
(pumpedhydroelectricstorage,compressedairenergystorageandflywheels),
electrochemical(conventionalrechargeablebatteriesandflowbatteries),electrical
(capacitors,supercapacitorsandsuperconductingmagneticenergystorage),
thermochemical(solarfuels),chemical(hydrogenstoragewithfuelcells)andthermal
energystorage(sensibleheatstorageandlatentheatstorage).Adetaileddescription
anddiscussionofeachtypeofEEStechnologywillbegiveninthenextsectionfollowing
theaboveorderofcategory.
Fig.3.
ClassificationofEEStechnologiesbytheformofstoredenergy.
Figureoptions
3.Descriptionofelectricalenergystoragetechnology
3.1.PumpedHydroelectricStorage(PHS)
PHSisanEEStechnologywithalonghistory,hightechnicalmaturityandlargeenergy
capacity.Withaninstalledcapacityof127129GWin2012,PHSrepresentsmorethan
99%ofworldwidebulkstoragecapacityandcontributestoabout3%ofglobalgeneration
[26],[28]and[29].AsshowninFig.4,atypicalPHSplantusestwowaterreservoirs,
separatedvertically.Duringoffpeakelectricitydemandhours,thewaterispumpedinto
thehigherlevelreservoirduringpeakhours,thewatercanbereleasedbackintothe
lowerlevelreservoir.Intheprocess,thewaterpowersturbineunitswhichdrivethe
electricalmachinestogenerateelectricity.Theamountofenergystoreddependsonthe
heightdifferencebetweenthetworeservoirsandthetotalvolumeofwaterstored.The
ratedpowerofPHSplantsdependsonthewaterpressureandflowratethroughthe
turbinesandratedpowerofthepump/turbineandgenerator/motorunits,and[30].
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Fig.4.
Apumpedhydroelectricstorageplantlayout.
Figureoptions
VariousPHSplantsexistwithpowerratingsrangingfrom1MWto3003MW,with
approximately7085%cycleefficiencyandmorethan40yearslifetime[4],[29],
[31]and[32].SomePHSfacilitiesalongwiththeirfeaturesarelistedinTable1.The
natureoftheoperationofPHSsystemsmeansthattheirapplicationsmainlyinvolve
energymanagementinthefieldsoftimeshifting,frequencycontrol,nonspinningreserve
andsupplyreserve.However,withtherestrictionofsiteselection,PHSplantssufferlong
constructiontimeandhighcapitalinvestment.
Table1.
Selectedpumpedhydroelectricstorageplants[4],[26],[31],[32]and[33].
Plantname
Country
Power
rating
Features
RockyriverPHSplant
US
32MW
TheworldsfirstlargescalecommercialPHS
plant
BathCountyPHSplant
US
3003MW
TheworldslargestpowerratedPHSplant
OkinawaYanbaruPHS
Japan
30MW
OnlycommercialseawaterPHSplant
HawaiianElec.Co.PHS
facility
US
Claimed87%relativelyhighcycleefficiency
HPSofIkariaIsland
Greece
2.655MW
OneofthefirstwindPHSplants(under
construction)
Tableoptions
Recently,withtheadvanceoftechnology,somePHSplantsusingfloodedmineshafts,
undergroundcavesandoceansasreservoirshavebeenplannedorareinoperation,
suchastheOkinawaYanbaruinJapan,a300MWseawaterbasedPHSplantinHawaii,
theSummitprojectinOhioandtheMountHopeprojectinNewJersey[28],[34]and[35].
Inaddition,windorsolarpowergenerationcoupledwithPHSisnowbeingdeveloped.
Thiscouldhelptheadoptionofrenewableenergyinisolatedordistributednetworks
[36]and[37].Forinstance,theIkariaIslandpowerstationwillintegratea3900kW
windfarmswithaPHSfacility[28].ThedevelopmenttrendofPHSfacilitiesconsistsof
buildingthehydroelectricsetwithhigherspeedandlargercapacitycomparedtothe
currenttechnicallevel,installingcentralizedmonitoringandusingintelligentcontrol
systems[26],[28]and[38].
3.2.CompressedAirEnergyStorage(CAES)
InadditiontoPHS,CAESisanothertypeofcommercializedEEStechnologywhichcan
providepoweroutputofover100MWwithasingleunit.AschematicdiagramofaCAES
plantisshowninFig.5.Duringtheperiodsoflowpowerdemand,thesurpluselectricity
drivesareversiblemotor/generatorunitinturntorunachainofcompressorsforinjecting
airintoastoragevessel,whichiseitheranundergroundcavernorovergroundtanks.
Theenergyisstoredintheformofhighpressureair.Whenthepowergenerationcannot
meettheloaddemand,thestoredcompressedairisreleasedandheatedbyaheat
sourcewhichcanbefromthecombustionoffossilfuelortheheatrecoveredfromthe
compressionprocess.Thecompressedairenergyisfinallycapturedbytheturbines.The
wasteheatfromtheexhaustcanberecycledbyarecuperatorunit(Fig.5).
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Fig.5.
SchematicdiagramofaCAESplant/facility.
Figureoptions
TheworldsfirstutilityscaleCAESplant,theHuntorfpowerplant,wasinstalledin
Germanyin1978[39],[40]and[41].Itusestwosaltdomesasthestoragecavernsandit
runsonadailycyclewith8hofcompressedairchargingand2hofoperationatarated
powerof290MW[39].Thisplantprovidesblackstartpowertonuclearunits,backupto
localpowersystemsandextraelectricalpowertofillthegapbetweentheelectricity
generationanddemand.AnothercommercialCAESplantstartedoperationinMcIntosh,
theUS,in1991[39],[40]and[41].The110MWMcIntoshplantcanoperateforupto26h
atfullpower.Thecompressedairisstoredinasaltcavern.Arecuperatorisoperatedto
reusetheexhaustheatenergy.Thisreducesthefuelconsumptionby2225%and
improvesthecycleefficiencyfrom42%to54%,incomparisonwiththeHuntorfplant
[4]and[42].ThesetwoCAESplantshaveconsistentlyshowngoodperformanceswith
91.299.5%startingandrunningreliabilities[38]and[39].
CAESsystemcanbebuilttohavesmalltolargescaleofcapacitiesCAEStechnology
canprovidethemoderatespeedofresponsesandgoodpartialloadperformance.The
practicalusesoflargescaleCAESplantsinvolvegridapplicationsforloadshifting,peak
shaving,andfrequencyandvoltagecontrol.CAEScanworkwithintermittentrenewable
energyapplications,especiallyinwindpower,tosmooththepoweroutput,whichhave
attractedmuchattentionsfromacademicresearchersandindustrialsectorsas
describedin[40],[43],[44]and[45].ThemajorbarriertoimplementinglargescaleCAES
plantsisidentifyingappropriategeographicallocationswhichwilldecidethemain
investmentcostoftheplant.RelativelowroundtripefficiencyisanotherbarrierforCAES
comparedtoPHSandbatterytechnologies.
Inaddition,thedevelopingLiquidAirEnergyStorage(LAES)hasmanycomponents
whicharethesameorsimilarasthoseusedforCAES,suchascompressors,turbines,
electricmachinesandheatexchangers.Consideringthetypeofenergystored,LAES
canbeclassifiedintothermalenergystorage,whichwillbeintroducedinSection3.10.
Currently,thenewlydevelopingAdvancedAdiabaticCAES(AACAES)isattracting
attention.AACAEStechnologyisnormallyintegratedwithathermalenergystorage
subsystem,whichhasnofuelcombustioninvolvedintheexpansionmode[39],[42],
[43]and[46].TheworldsfirstAACAESdemonstrationplantADELEisinthe
developmentstage,atSaxonyAnhaltinGermany.Theplantwillhaveastoragecapacity
of360MWhandanelectricoutputof90MW,aimingfor70%cycleefficiency[43].
Becauseitscompressionmodewillbepoweredbywindenergy,theADELEplantemits
noCO2inafullcycle.TheUSbasedLightSailEnergyLtd.isalsodevelopingtheAA
CAESfacilitiesbyusingreversiblereciprocatingpistonmachines[46].In2007Luminant
andShellWindEnergyproposedwindfarmprojectsinvolvingCAESinTexas,intending
toevaluatethepotentialofincorporatingCAESfacilitiesinconjunctionwiththewind
farmafteralongwait,in2013theprojectgotunderwayandhosting317MWofCAES
hasbeensetasthecurrenttarget[39]and[44].Inaddition,acomparisonbetween
differentadiabaticCAESplantconfigurationswasrecentlypublishedin[47].
Recently,apartfromusingsaltcaverns,researchershaveattemptedtostudyother
geologicalstructuresforuseinundergroundCAEStechnology.A2MWfieldtest
programhasusedaconcretelinedtunnelinanabandonedmineinJapan[39]and[48].
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AtestfacilitymadebyElectricPowerResearchInstituteandothersutilizedahardrock
cavernwithwatercompensation[49].ItalysEneloperateda25MWporousrockbased
CAESfacilityinSestathetestwasstoppedduetoadisturbedgeothermalissue[39].
TheIowaStoredEnergyParkprojectaimedtouseporoussandstoneaquiferstobuildan
undergroundreservoirforconstructinga270MWCAESplantunfortunately,thisproject
stoppedin2011asthefieldtestresultindicatedthatthegeologicalstructureinIowa
cannotobtainafastenoughflowforlargescaleCAES[50].
OvergroundsmallscaleCAEShasrecentlyundergonerapiddevelopment.Itcanbe
usedasanalternativetothebatteryforindustrialapplications,suchasUninterruptible
PowerSupplies(UPS)andbackuppowersystems.Compressedairbatterysystems
developedbytheUKbasedFlowbattery(previouslynamedPnuPower)wererecently
successfullycommercialized[51].Itusesprepreparedcompressedairfromaircylinders
todriveacombinationofascrollexpanderandageneratortoproduceelectricity
[51]and[52].Inaddition,theguidelinestudyfortheefficientdesignandsizingofsmall
scaleCAESpressurevesselsconsideringminimizingitscostwasreportedin[53].Also,
thefeasibilityonthedirectmechanicalcouplingofawindturbineandascrollexpander
withsmallscaleCAEShasbeenstudiedbytheUniversityofWarwick,anditsonsite
testsareongoing[52]and[54].
3.3.FlywheelEnergyStorage(FES)
AmodernFESsystemiscomposedoffiveprimarycomponents:aflywheel,agroupof
bearings,areversibleelectricalmotor/generator,apowerelectronicunitandavacuum
chamber[18].Fig.6showsthesimplifiedstructureofamodernFESfacility.FESsystems
useelectricitytoaccelerateordeceleratetheflywheel,thatis,thestoredenergyis
transferredtoorfromtheflywheelthroughanintegratedmotor/generator.Forreducing
windshearandenergylossfromairresistance,theFESsystemcanbeplacedinahigh
vacuumenvironment.Theamountofenergystoredisdependentontherotatingspeedof
flywheelanditsinertia.
Fig.6.
Systemdescriptionofaflywheelenergystoragefacility.
Figureoptions
FEScanbeclassifiedintotwogroups:(1)lowspeedFES:itusessteelastheflywheel
materialandrotatesbelow6103rpm(2)highspeedFES:itusesadvancedcomposite
materialsfortheflywheel,suchascarbonfiber,whichcanrunupto105rpm[55].Low
speedFESsystemsaretypicallyusedforshorttermandmedium/highpower
applications.HighspeedFESsystemsusenoncontactmagneticbearingstomitigate
thewearofbearings,therebyimprovingtheefficiency.Theapplicationareasofhigh
speedFESarecontinuouslyexpanding,mainlyinhighpowerqualityandridethrough
powerserviceintractionandtheaerospaceindustry[56].Thespecificenergyoflow
speedflywheelsis5Wh/kg,andthehighspeedcompositerotorcanachieveaspecific
energyofupto100Wh/kg[57].Thecostofhighspeedcompositesystemscanbe
muchhigherthanthatofconventionalmetalflywheelsystems.FEShassomefavorable
characteristics,includinghighcycleefficiency(upto95%atratedpower),relatively
highpowerdensity,nodepthofdischargeeffectsandeasymaintenance[18],
[55]and[57].
Table2listssomeselectedFESfacilities.InJune2011,a20MWmodularplantbuiltby
BeaconPowerwasputintocommercialoperationinNewYork,whichwasthelargest
advancedEESfacilityoperatinginNorthAmerica[58]and[59].Itemploys200high
speedflywheelsystemstoprovidefastresponsefrequencyregulationservicestothe
grid,providing10%ofthewholestatefrequencyregulationdemand[58]and[59].
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Normally,FESdevicescansupplysufficientpowerinashorttimeperiodwithmodest
capacity.ThusitisnotusedasstandalonebackuppowerunlessoperatedwithotherEES
orpowergenerationsystems,suchasbatteriesorfuelfiredgenerators.Themain
weaknessofFESisthatflywheeldevicessufferfromtheidlinglossesduringthetime
whentheflywheelisonstandby.Thiscanleadtorelativelyhighselfdischarge,upto
20%ofstoredcapacityperhour[57].
Table2.
Selectedflywheelenergystoragefacilities[18],[55],[57],[58],[59]and[60].
Firms/Institutes
Characteristics
Applicationarea
ActivePowerCompany
CleanSourceseries100
2000kW
Backuppowersupply,UPSsystems
BeaconPower
Company
100/150kWaunit,
20MW/5MWhplant
Freq.regulation,powerquality,voltage
support
BoeingPhantom
Works
100kW/5kWh,HTmagnetic
bearings
Powerqualityandpeakshaving
JapanAtomicEnergy
Center
235MVA,steelflywheel
HighpowersupplytoNuclearfusion
furnace
Pillerpowersystems
Ltd.
36001500rpm,2.4MWfor8s
Ridethroughpowerandsourcesof
backuppower
NASAGlennresearch
center
21046104rpm,3.6MWh
Supplyonaerospaceaviation&other
transports
Tableoptions
Currently,theresearchanddevelopmentareaofFESincludesthematerialofthe
flywheelforincreasingtheirrotationspeedcapabilitiesandpowerdensities,highspeed
electricalmachines,highcarryingcapacityofthebearingsandtheflywheelarray
technology.AnadvanceinFEStechnologyistheHighTemperatureSuperconductor
(HTS)bearingswhichisapromisingoptionforimprovingbearingperformance.TheUS
ArgonneNationalLaboratorydevelopeda2kWhFESsystemusinghightemperature
superconductorsandpermanentmagnetsaspassivebearingsforafeasibilitystudy[61].
Amodelbasedpowerflowcontrolstrategyhasbeenstudiedforimprovingflywheel
performanceinhighpowerpulsesystems[62].TherailtractionindustryhastestedFES
devicesfortracksidevoltagesupport[63].Optimizingflywheelsforrelativelylongterm
operation(uptoseveralhours)arebeingstudiedforuseinvehiclesandpowerplants
[26].
3.4.BatteryEnergyStorage(BES)
TherechargeablebatteryisoneofthemostwidelyusedEEStechnologiesinindustry
anddailylife.Fig.7showsthesimplifiedoperationalprincipleofatypicalBESsystem.A
BESsystemconsistsofanumberofelectrochemicalcellsconnectedinseriesorparallel,
whichproduceelectricitywithadesiredvoltagefromanelectrochemicalreaction.Each
cellcontainstwoelectrodes(oneanodeandonecathode)withanelectrolytewhichcan
beatsolid,liquidorropy/viscousstates[64]and[65].Acellcanbidirectionallyconvert
energybetweenelectricalandchemicalenergy.Duringdischarging,theelectrochemical
reactionsoccurattheanodesandthecathodessimultaneously.Totheexternalcircuit,
electronsareprovidedfromtheanodesandarecollectedatthecathodes.During
charging,thereversereactionshappenandthebatteryisrechargedbyapplyingan
externalvoltagetothetwoelectrodes(Fig.7).
Fig.7.
Schematicdiagramofabatteryenergystoragesystemoperation.
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Figureoptions
Article outline
Show full outline
Highlights
Abstract
Keywords
1. Introduction
2. Classification of electrical energy s
3. Description of electrical energy sto
4. Comparison and evaluation of elec
5. Analysis and recommendations of
6. Concluding remarks
Acknowledgments
References
Batteriescanbewidelyusedindifferentapplications,suchaspowerquality,energy
management,ridethroughpowerandtransportationsystems.TheconstructionofBES
systemstakesarelativelyshorttimeperiod(roughlywithin12months)[4]and[66].The
locationforinstallationcanbequiteflexible,eitherhousedinsideabuildingorclosetothe
facilitieswhereneeded.Currently,relativelylowcyclingtimesandhighmaintenance
costshavebeenconsideredasthemainbarrierstoimplementinglargescalefacilities.
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Thedisposalorrecyclingofdumpedbatteriesmustbeconsiderediftoxicchemical
materialsareused[9].Furthermore,manytypesofbatterycannotbecompletely
Energyterms&definitions
dischargedduetotheirlifetimedependingonthecycleDepthofDischarge(DoD)[13].A
177termsfound Highlightinarticle
descriptionofseveralimportantBEStechnologieswillbepresentedinthefollowingfive
subsections.Thechemicalreactionstakingplaceinthesebatterytypesarelistedin
absorption
Table3.
activepower
Table3.
adiabatic
ChemicalreactionsandsingleunitvoltagesofmainbatteriesavailabletoEES[4],[13],[67]and[68].
alternatingcurrent(AC)
Batterytype
anode
Leadacid
Unitvoltage
2.0V
aquifer
Lithiumion
Figures and tables
Chemicalreactionsatanodesandcathodes
C+n L i + +n e L i n C
barrelofoilequivalent(boe) 3.7V
L iX X O 2 L i 1 n X X O 2 +n L i +battery
+n e
Sodiumsulfur
2 Na 2 Na + +2 e
Nickelcadmium
Cd +2 OH Cd ( OH) 2 +2 e
2 NiOOH+2 H 2
Nickelmetalhydride
H2
biomass
O+2 e 2 Ni( OH)
O+e 1 / 2 H
2.08V
biogas
S +2 e S 2
+OH
1.01.3V
1/18
+2 OH
From Encyclopediaofenergy
1.01.3V
Ni( OH) 2 +OH NiOOH+H 2 O+e

Sodiumnickelchloride
2 Na 2 Na + +2 e
NiCl 2
2.58V
+2 e Ni+2 Cl
Tableoptions
3.4.1.Leadacidbatteries
Table 1
Table 2
Table 3
Table 4
Table 5
Themostwidelyusedrechargeablebatteryistheleadacidbattery[4]and[10].The
cathodeismadeofPbO2,theanodeismadeofPb,andtheelectrolyteissulfuricacid.
Leadacidbatterieshavefastresponsetimes,smalldailyselfdischargerates(<0.3%),
relativelyhighcycleefficiencies(6390%)andlowcapitalcosts(50600$/kWh)[4],
[14],[57]and[69].SomeexamplesofEESfacilitiesusingleadacidbatteriesarelistedin
Table4.Leadacidbatteriescanbeusedinstationarydevicesasbackuppower
suppliesfordataandtelecommunicationsystems,andenergymanagement
applications.Also,theyhavebeendevelopedaspowersourcesforhybridorfullelectric
vehicles.However,therearestilllimitedinstallationsaroundtheworldasutilityscale
EES,mainlyduetotheirrelativelylowcyclingtimes(upto2000),energydensity(50
90Wh/L)andspecificenergy(2550Wh/kg)[4],[70]and[71].Inaddition,theymay
performpoorlyatlowtemperaturessoathermalmanagementsystemisnormally
required,whichincreasesthecost[72].
Table4.
Selectedleadacidbatteryenergystoragefacilities[4],[13],[67],[75]and[76].
Table 6
Name/locations
Characteristics
Applicationarea
BEWAG,Berlin
8.5MW/8.5MWh
Spinningreserve,frequencycontrol
Chino,California
10MW/40MWh
Spinningreserve,loadleveling
PREPA,PuertoRico
20MW/14MWh
Spinningreserve,frequencycontrol
Metlakatla,Alaska
1MW/1.4MWh
Enhancingstabilizationofislandgrid
KahukuWindFarm,Hawaii
15MW/3.75MWh
Powermanagement,loadfirming,gridintegration
NotreesEESproject,U.S.
36MW/24MWh
Solvingintermittencyissuesofwindenergy
Table 7
Table 8
Tableoptions
Currently,theresearchanddevelopmentofleadacidbatteriesfocuseson:(1)
innovatingmaterialsforperformanceimprovement,suchasextendingcyclingtimesand
enhancingthedeepdischargecapability(2)implementingthebatterytechnologyfor
applicationsinthewind,photovoltaicpowerintegrationandautomotivesectors.Several
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advancedleadacidbatteriesthathavefastresponsescomparabletoflywheelsand
supercapacitorsarebeingdevelopedorareinthedemonstrationphase,suchasEcoult
UltraBatterysmartsystemsandXtremePoweradvancedleadacidDryCell
[73]and[74].
3.4.2.Lithiumion(Liion)batteries
Table 9
Table 10
Table 11
Table 12
InaLiionbattery,thecathodeismadeofalithiummetaloxide,suchasLiCoO2and
LiMO2,andtheanodeismadeofgraphiticcarbon.Theelectrolyteisnormallyanon
aqueousorganicliquidcontainingdissolvedlithiumsalts,suchasLiClO4[13].TheLiion
batteryisconsideredasagoodcandidateforapplicationswheretheresponsetime,
smalldimensionand/orweightofequipmentareimportant(millisecondsresponsetime,
150010,000W/L,75200Wh/kg,1502000W/kg)[4],[9],[26]and[57].Liion
batteriesalsohavehighcycleefficiencies,upto97%[4]and[26].Themaindrawbacks
arethatthecycleDoDcanaffecttheLiionbatteryslifetimeandthebatterypackusually
requiresanonboardcomputertomanageitsoperation,whichincreasesitsoverallcost.
ThecurrentresearchfocusesfortheLiionbatteryinclude:(1)increasingbatterypower
capabilitywiththeuseofnanoscalematerials(2)enhancingbatteryspecificenergyby
developingadvancedelectrodematerialsandelectrolytesolutions.Severalcompanies
haveexperienceinusingLiionbatteriesintheutilityscaleenergymarket.TheU.S.
basedAESEnergyStoragehasbeencommerciallyoperatingaLiionBESsystem
(8MW/2MWhin2010,enlarged16MWin2011)inNewYorkforsupplyingfrequency
regulation[8]and[77].TheAESalsoinstalleda32MW/8MWhLiionBESsystem
(LaurelMountain)forsupportinga98MWwindgenerationplantin2011[77]and[78].
Currently,thelargestEuropeanLiionbatteryEEStrialisunderwayintheUK.The
projectwilldeploya6MW/10MWhLiionbatteryataprimarysubstationtoassessthe
costeffectivenessofEESaspartoftheUKsCarbonPlan[79].Thecompaniesclaimed
thatthestoragecouldsavemorethan$9millioncomparedtotraditionalsystem
upgradestheprojectcanbeusedtobalancetheintermittencyofwindandother
renewables[79].Also,inDecember2013Toshibaannouncedaprojecttoinstalla40
MW/20MWhLiionbatteryprojectinTohoku,whichwillhelpintegraterenewablesinto
thegrid[80].Inaddition,LiionbatteriesarenowappliedinHybridandfullElectric
Vehicles(HEVsandEVs),whichuselargeformatcellsandpackswithcapacitiesof15
20kWhforHEVsandupto50kWhforEVs[28].
3.4.3.Sodiumsulfur(NaS)batteries
Table 13
ANaSbatteryusesmoltensodiumandmoltensulfurasthetwoelectrodes,andemploys
betaaluminaasthesolidelectrolyte.Thereactionsnormallyrequireatemperatureof
574624Ktoensuretheelectrodesareinliquidstates,whichleadstoahighreactivity
[8].ThedesirablefeaturesofNaSbatteriesincluderelativelyhighenergydensities(150
300Wh/L),almostzerodailyselfdischarge,higherratedcapacitythanothertypesof
batteries(upto244.8MWh)andhighpulsepowercapability[13],[26]and[81].The
batteryusesinexpensive,nontoxicmaterialsleadingtohighrecyclability(99%)
[4]and[13].However,thelimitationsarehighannualoperatingcost(80$/kW/year)and
anextrasystemrequiredtoensureitsoperatingtemperature[72].
TheNaSbatteryisconsideredasoneofthemostpromisingcandidatesforhighpower
EESapplications.Table5listssomeNaSbatteryfacilitieswiththeirapplications.The
researchanddevelopmentfocusesaremainlyonenhancingthecellperformance
indicesanddecreasing/eliminatingthehightemperatureoperatingconstrains.For
instance,SumitomoElectricIndustriesandKyotoUniversitydevelopedalow
temperaturesodiumrelatedbatterythenovelsodiumcontainingmaterialcanbe
meltedat330K[84].Theinventorclaimedthatthenewbatterycanachieveanenergy
densityashighas290Wh/L[84].Inaddition,apartoftheoutcometotheWindto
BatteryprojectledbyXcelEnergywasrecentlypresentedin[83],mainlyonthefield
resultsandanalysesquantifyingtheabilityandthevalueofNaSbatteryEEStowardwind
generationintegrationsupport[15]and[83].
Table5.
Selectedsodiumsulfurbatteryenergystoragefacilities[77],[81],[82]and[83].
Name/locations
Rated
power/capacity
Applicationarea
KawasakiEEStestfacility,Japan
0.05MW
The1stlargescale,proofprinciple,
operatedin1992
LongIslandBussBESSystem,
1MW/7MWh
Refuelingthefixedroutevehicles
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NewYork,US
RokkashoWindFarmESproject,
Japan
34MW/244.8MWh
Windpowerfluctuationmitigation
SaintAndre,Lareunion,France
1MW
Windpoweronanisland
GraciosaIsland,Younicos,
Germany
3MW/18MWh
Wind&solarpowerEESforislands,
commissioning2013
AbuDhabiIsland,UAE
40MW
Loadlevelling
Tableoptions
3.4.4.Nickelcadmium(NiCd)batteries
ANiCdbatteryusesnickelhydroxideandmetalliccadmiumasthetwoelectrodesandan
aqueousalkalisolutionastheelectrolyte.Itnormallyhasrelativelyhighrobustreliabilities
andlowmaintenancerequirements.TheweaknessesofNiCdbatteriesare:cadmium
andnickelaretoxicheavymetals,resultinginenvironmentalhazards[9]and[85]the
batterysuffersfromthememoryeffectthemaximumcapacitycanbedramatically
decreasedifthebatteryisrepeatedlyrechargedafterbeingonlypartiallydischarged[86].
TodatetherehavebeenveryfewcommercialsuccessesusingNiCdbatteriesforutility
scaleEESapplications.OneexampleisatGoldenValley,Alaska,intheUS[77].This
NiCdfacilitywasofficiallyputintooperationin2003byGoldenValleyElectric
Association.Itoffersservicesinspinningreserve,powersupplyandcompensationtoan
electricalislandsystemduetothegeographicrestrictions,i.e.remoteareas
[77]and[87].Thesystemhastheabilitytodelivertheratedpowerat27MWfor15min
or40MWfor7min,andtheefficiencyisintherangeof7278%withtheoperating
temperatureat233323K[77],[87]and[88].Thelocalcoldtemperaturewastheprimary
drivingforcebehindthechoiceoftheNiCdbattery.ItwasreportedthattheNiCd
technologyforutilityscaleEESapplicationswasnotpursuedfurtheraftertheGolden
Valleyinstallation[8]and[77].ItseemsunlikelythatNiCdbatterieswillbeheavilyused
forfuturelargescaleEESprojects.
3.4.5.Othercandidatesofbatteryenergystorage
TheNickelmetalHydride(NiMH)batteryissimilartotheNiCdbatteryexceptthata
hydrogenabsorbingalloyisusedastheelectrodeinsteadofcadmium.Ithasmoderate
specificenergy(70100Wh/kg)andrelativelyhighenergydensity(170420Wh/L),
significantlybetterthanthoseoftheNiCdbattery[89],[90],[91]and[92].Other
advantagesofNiMHbatteriesoverNiCdbatteriesincludeareducedmemoryeffectand
theyaremoreenvironmentalfriendly.NiMHbatterieshavethelongercyclelifein
comparisonwithLiionbatteries[89].TheNiMHbatteryhasawealthofapplicationsfrom
portableproductstoHEVs&EVsandpotentialindustrialstandbyapplications,suchas
UPSdevices[89],[90]and[93].However,thesignificantbarrierforEESapplicationsis
thehighrateofselfdischarge,losing520%ofitscapacitywithinthefirst24hafter
fullycharging[89],[90]and[91].Itisalsosensitivetodeepcyclingtheperformance
decreasesafterafewhundredsfullcycles[89],[90],[91]and[92].
Thetechnologyofsodiumnickelchloridebattery(alsoknownasZEBRAbattery)is
similartothatoftheNaSbattery.TheZEBRAbatteryhasmoderatespecificenergy
(94120Wh/kg),energydensity(150Wh/L),specificpower(150170W/kg),anda
highoperatingtemperature(523623K)[4],[94],[95],[96],[97]and[98].The
advantagesconsistofgoodpulsepowercapability,cellmaintenancefree,verylittleself
dischargeandrelativelyhighcyclelife.ThisbatterytechnologyhasbeenappliedinEV
demonstrationsandRollsRoycehasusedittoreplaceleadacidinsurfaceships
applications[97].GElaunchedDurathonsodiummetalhalidebatteryforUPSandutility
market,whichcanbeconsideredasacontinuingimprovementontheZEBRA
technology[98].AGEDurathonbatterymanufacturingfacilityinNewYorkwasofficially
openedin2012[98].Recently,anewventure,FIAMMEnergyStorageSolutions,also
startedtoproducesuchbatteries(namedSoNickbatteries)forstationarystorage
applications[99].Withregardtoitsdrawback,thebatterytakes1215htoheatupafterit
hasbeensolidified(frozen)[94].Inaddition,onlyafewcompanieshavebeeninvolvedin
thedevelopmentofthistechnologyandhaveproducedthistypeofbattery,whichmay
limititspotential[4],[94]and[98].
3.5.FlowBatteryEnergyStorage(FBES)
Aflowbatterystoresenergyintwosolubleredoxcouplescontainedinexternalliquid
electrolytetanks.Theseelectrolytescanbepumpedfromthetankstothecellstack
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whichconsistsoftwoelectrolyteflowcompartmentsseparatedbyionselective
membranes.Theoperationisbasedonreductionoxidationreactionsoftheelectrolyte
solutions.Duringthechargingphase,oneelectrolyteisoxidizedattheanodeand
anotherelectrolyteisreducedatthecathode,andtheelectricalenergyisconvertedto
theelectrolytechemicalenergy.Theaboveprocessisreversedduringthedischarging
phase.
Flowbatteriescanbeclassifiedintothecategoriesofredoxflowbatteriesandhybridflow
batteries,dependingonwhetherallelectroactivecomponentscanbedissolvedinthe
electrolyte.Fig.8showsaschematicdiagramofavanadiumredoxflowbatterysystem.A
crucialadvantageofFBESisthatthepowerofaFBESsystemisindependentofits
storagecapacity.ThepoweroftheFBESsystemisdeterminedbythesizeofthe
electrodesandthenumberofcellsinthestackwhereasthestoragecapacityis
determinedbytheconcentrationandtheamountofelectrolyte[26],[100]and[101].Also,
theverysmallselfdischargeisaninherentstrengthoftheFBESsystemduetothe
electrolytesbeingstoredinseparatesealedtanks[4]and[13].Drawbacksofflow
batteriesincludelowperformanceresultingfromnonuniformpressuredropsandthe
reactantmasstransferlimitation,relativelyhighmanufacturingcostsandmore
complicatedsystemrequirementscomparedtotraditionalbatteries[102]and[103].
Fig.8.
Schematicdiagramofavanadiumredoxflowbatterysystem.
Figureoptions
FBESfacilitieshavebeendemonstratedatafewhundredkWandevenmultiMWlevels,
andtherearenotmanycommerciallyavailableFBESsystemsatpresent[4],
[19]and[104].Thecurrentresearchactivitiesundertakencover:lowcost,efficientand
reliableelectrodeshighlypermselectiveanddurablemembranespowerandenergy
managementoflargescaleFBESsystems,etc.Sometypesofflowbatterytechnologies
havebeenusedorcanpotentiallybeusedforutilityEESapplications,including
vanadiumredox,zincbromineandpolysulfidebromine,whicharedescribedinthe
followingthreesubsections.
3.5.1.VanadiumRedoxFlowBattery(VRB)
TheVRBisoneofthemostmatureflowbatterysystems[4]and[87].TheVRBstores
energybyusingvanadiumredoxcouples(V2+/V3+andV4+/V5+)intwoelectrolytetanks
(Fig.8).VRBsexploitthevanadiuminthesefouroxidationstateswhichmakestheflow
batteryhaveonlyoneactiveelementinbothanolyteandcatholyte[100].Duringthe
charge/dischargecycles,H+ionsareexchangedthroughtheionselectivemembrane.
Thechemicalreactionis:V4+V5++eandV3++eV2+thecellvoltageis1.4V
[100]and[102].
VRBshavequickresponses(fasterthan0.001s)andcanoperatefor10,000
16,000+cycles[18]and[105].Theyhaverelativelyhighefficiencies,upto85%
[100]and[105].ManufacturerscandesignVRBstoprovidecontinuouspower(discharge
durationtime24+hours)[4]and[106].AlthoughVRBsnowtendstoexpandtheirrangeof
applicationsbyenhancingthephysicalscale,therearesometechnicalchallengesthat
needtobesolved,forinstance,lowelectrolytestabilityandsolubilityleadingtolow
qualityofenergydensity[107]and[108].Also,therelativelyhighoperatingcostneedsto
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befurtherreduced[103].
VRBscanbeusedinalargenumberofapplications,mainlyincludingenhancingpower
qualityusedforstationaryapplicationsandUPSdevices,improvingloadlevellingand
powersecurity,supportingtheintermittentnatureofrenewableenergybasedpower
generation.SomeVRBfacilitiesworldwideareintroducedinTable6.Currently,two
projectsonVRBshavebeenfundedwithacombinedcostof1.2millionintheUK.One
projecthasbeendevelopedbyScottishPower,theUniversityofSouthamptonand
others,whichplannedtotesta100kWredoxflowbatteryforutilityEES[6].AnotherVRB
energystoragesystemprojecthasbeendevelopedbyCTechInnovationLtd,E.ONUK
plc.andotherinstitutes,whichisespeciallyforstoringsurplusenergyfromrenewable
energysources[108].Bothofthesetwoprojectsintendtobedevelopedtoalargerscale
afterthesuccessesofinitialsmallscaletrials[6]and[109].
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