AR6512-Site Analysis and Planning

AR6512
SITE ANALYSIS AND PLANNING
Objectives
To teach the importance of site and its content in architectural creations

To orient the students towards several influencing factors which govern the siting of a building or
group of buildings in a given site.
To teach various techniques of site analysis through exercises and case studies.
To teach the students the methodology of preparing a site analysis diagram. This will serve as a
prelude to any architectural creation through exercises.
UNIT I
INTRODUCTION
Definition of plot, site, land and region, units of measurements. Introduction to survey, methods of
surveying, where they are used, Surveying Instruments and their application. Need for surveying.
Measuring and drawing out a site plan from the measurements
UNIT II
SITE DRAWINGS
Computation of area by geometrical figures and other methods. Drawing marking out plan, layout plan
and centerline plan Importance, procedure for making these drawings and dimensioning. Setting out the
building plan on site Procedure and Precautions. Exercises on the above.
UNIT III
SITE ANALYSIS
importance of site analysis; On site and off site factors; Analysis of natural, cultural and aesthetic factors
topography, hydrology, soils, vegetation, climate, surface drainage, accessibility, size and shape,
infrastructures available - sources of water supply and means of disposal system, visual aspects;
Preparation of site analysis diagram. Study of microclimate: - vegetation, landforms and water as
modifiers of microclimate. Study of land form; - contours, slope analysis, grading process, grading
criteria, functional and aesthetic considerations Case studies and exercises on the above.
UNIT IV
SITE CONTEXT
Context of the site. Introduction to existing master plans land use for cities, development control Rules.
Preparation of maps of matrix analysis & composite analysis. Site selection criteria for housing
development, commercial and institutional projects - Case studies.
UNIT V
SITE PLANNING AND SITE LAYOUT PRINCIPLES
Organization of vehicular and pedestrian circulation, types of roads, hierarchy of roads, networks, road
widths and parking, regulations. Turning radii & street intersections
Site Analysis and Planning, Semester 5, 2013 Regulations
Ar. Vashni Livingston, Asst. Prof. MOSA
UNIT I INTRODUCTION
Site planning is the organization of an area of land to fit a program for its development which is
efficient, expresses the character of the site, and provides attractive spaces to use.
To learn and practice a logical method of fitting design programs and sites harmoniously.
To understand how natural factors (landscape), socio-economic forces (planning), and

technological functions (architecture & engineering) interact in the design process.
To understand the importance of graphic and verbal communication skills.
Definition of Plot, Site, Land & Region

A lot or plot is a tract or parcel of land owned or meant to be owned by some owner(s). A lot is
essentially considered a parcel of real property in some countries or immovable property
(meaning practically the same thing) in other countries.
A plot plan is an architecture, engineering, and/or landscape architecture plan drawing
diagram which shows the buildings, utility runs, and equipment layout, the position of roads, and
other constructions of an existing or proposed project site at a defined scale. Plot plans are also
known more commonly as site plans. The plot plan is a 'top-down' orientation.
The specific objects and relations shown are dependent on the purpose for creating the plot plan,
but typically contain: retained and proposed buildings, landscape elements, above ground
features and obstructions, major infrastructure routes, and critical legal considerations such as
property boundaries, setbacks, and rights of way.
A small piece of ground marked out for a purpose such as building or gardening.
A small piece of land for building or growing things on
A two acre plot of land
A vegetable plot
Site
Site is the place where something (such as a building) is, was, or will be located
An area of ground on which a town, building, or monument is constructed.

The spatial location of an actual or planned structure or set of structures (as a building,
town, or monuments)
A space of ground occupied or to be occupied by a building
The place, scene, or point of an occurrence or event
A site plan is an architectural plan, landscape architecture document, and a detailed engineering
drawing of proposed improvements to a given lot. A site plan usually shows a building footprint,
travel ways, parking, drainage facilities, sanitary sewer lines, water lines, trails, lighting, and
landscaping and garden elements.
Such a plan of a site is a "graphic representation of the arrangement of buildings, parking,

drives, landscaping and any other structure that is part of a development project".
A site plan is a "set of construction drawings that a builder or contractor uses to make
improvements to a property. Counties can use the site plan to verify that development
codes are being met and as a historical resource. Site plans are often prepared by a design
consultant who must be either a licensed engineer, architect, landscape architect or land
surveyor".
Region
An area, especially part of a country or the world having definable characteristics but not always
fixed boundaries.
A region is an area. A region can be geographic like a part of a country.
A region is any space that is distinct from another area. The word region is from the
Latin regionem which means direction, boundary, and district.
In geography, regions are areas broadly divided by physical characteristics (physical
geography), human-impact characteristics (human geography), and the interaction of humanity
and the environment (environmental geography). Geographic regions and sub-regions are mostly
described by their imprecisely defined and sometimes transitory boundaries, except in human
geography, where jurisdiction areas such as national borders are clearly defined in law.
Land
The part of the earth's surface that is not covered by water.
The solid part of the surface of the Earth: an area of ground

Ground or soil of a specified situation, nature, or quality
The surface of the earth and all its natural resources
The term 'land' includes all physical elements in the wealth of a nation bestowed by
nature; such as climate, environment, fields, forests, minerals, mountains, lakes, streams,
seas, and animals. As an asset, it includes anything
o (1) on the ground (such as buildings, crops, fences, trees, water),
o (2) above the ground (air and space rights), and
o (3) Under the ground (mineral rights), down to the center of the Earth. Perhaps the
oldest form of collateral, land is still very attractive to lenders because it cannot
be destroyed, moved, stolen, or wasted. All a lender needs is the borrower's clear
title to it.
Land was sometimes defined in classical and neoclassical economics as the "original and
indestructible powers of the soil."
Survey
Examine and record the area and features of (an area of land) so as to construct a map, plan, or
description.
Surveying
Surveying or land surveying is the technique, profession, and science of determining the
terrestrial or three-dimensional position of points and the distances and angles between them.
A land surveying professional is called a land surveyor. These points are usually on the surface
of the Earth, and they are often used to establish land maps and boundaries for ownership,
locations like building corners or the surface location of subsurface features, or other purposes
required by government or civil law, such as property sales.
Surveyors work with mathematics ( geometry and trigonometry ) , physics, engineering and
the law. They use equipment like total stations, robotic total stations, GPS receivers, prisms, 3D
scanners, radios, handheld tablets, digital levels, and surveying software.
Surveying has been an element in the development of the human environment since the
beginning of recorded history. The planning and execution of most forms of construction require
it. It is also used in transport, communications, mapping, and the definition of legal boundaries
for land ownership.
Units of Measurements
A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a physical quantity, defined and adopted by
convention or by law that is used as a standard for measurement of the same physical quantity.
Any other value of the physical quantity can be expressed as a simple multiple of the unit of
measurement.
For example,
Length is a physical quantity.
The meter is a unit of length that represents a definite predetermined length.
When we say 10 meters (or 10 m), we actually mean 10 times the definite predetermined
length called "meter".
The definition, agreement, and practical use of units of measurement have played a crucial role
in human endeavor from early ages up to this day. Different systems of units used to be very
common. Now there is a global standard, the International System of Units (SI), the modern form
of the metric system.
A unit of measurement is a standardized quantity of a physical property, used as a factor to
express occurring quantities of that property. Units of measurement were among the earliest tools
invented by humans. Primitive societies needed rudimentary measures for many tasks:
constructing dwellings of an appropriate size and shape, fashioning clothing, or bartering food or
raw materials.
Surveying techniques
Surveyors determine the position of objects by measuring angles and distances. The factors that
can affect the accuracy of their observations are also measured. They then use this data to create
vectors, bearings, co-ordinates, elevations, areas, volumes, plans and maps. Measurements are
often split into horizontal and vertical components to simplify calculation. GPS and astronomic
measurements also need measurement of a time component.
1. Distance measurement
Example of modern equipment for surveying (Field-Map technology): GPS, laser rangefinder
and field computer allows surveying as well as cartography (creation of map in real-time) and
field data collection.
Before EDM devices, distances were measured using a variety of means. These included chains
having links of a known length such as a Gunter's chain, or measuring tapes made
of steel orinvar. To measure horizontal distances, these chains or tapes were pulled taut to reduce
sagging and slack. The distance had to be adjusted for heat expansion. Attempts to hold the
measuring instrument level would also be made. When measuring up a slope, the surveyor might
have to "break" (break chain) the measurement- use an increment less than the total length of the
chain. Perambulators, or measuring wheels, were used to measure longer distances but not to a
high level of accuracy. Tachometry is the science of measuring distances by measuring the angle
between two ends of an object with a known size. It was sometimes used before to the invention
of EDM where rough ground made chain measurement impractical.
2. Angle measurement
Historically, horizontal angles were measured by using a compass to provide a magnetic bearing.
The deflection from the bearing was recorded. Later, more precise scribed discs later improved
better angular resolution. Mounting telescopes with reticles atop the disc allowed more precise
sighting. (See theodolite). Levels and calibrated circles allowed measurement of vertical
angles. Verniers allowed measurement to a fraction of a degree, such as with a turn-of-thecentury transit.
The Plane table provided a graphical method of recording and measuring angles, which reduced
the amount of mathematics required.
By observing the bearing from every vertex in a figure, a surveyor can measure around the
figure. The final observation will be between the two points first observed, except with a 180
difference. This is called a close. If the first and last bearings are different, this shows the error in
the survey, called the angular misclose. The surveyor can use this information to prove that the
work meets the expected standards.
3. Levelling
The simplest method for measuring height is with an altimeter using air pressure to find height.
When more precise measurements are needed, means like precise levels (also known as
differential leveling) are used. When precise leveling, a series of measurements between two
points are taken using an instrument and a measuring rod. Differences in height between the
measurements are added and subtracted in a series to get the net difference in elevation between
the two endpoints. With the Global Positioning System (GPS), elevation can be measured with
satellite receivers. Usually GPS is somewhat less accurate than traditional precise leveling, but
may be similar over long distances.
When using an optical level, the endpoint may be out of the effective range of the instrument.
There may be obstructions or large changes of elevation between the endpoints. In these
situations, extra setups are needed. Turning is a term used when referring to moving the level to
take an elevation shot from a different location. To "turn" the level, one must first take a reading
and record the elevation of the point the rod is located on. While the rod is being kept in exactly
the same location, the level is moved to a new location where the rod is still visible. A reading is
taken from the new location of the level and the height difference is used to find the new
elevation of the level gun. This is repeated until the series of measurements is completed. The
level must be horizontal to get a valid measurement. Because of this, if the horizontal crosshair
of the instrument is lower than the base of the rod, the surveyor will not be able to sight the rod
and get a reading. The rod can usually be raised up to 25 feet high, allowing the level to be set
much higher than the base of the rod.
4. Determining position
The primary way of determining one's position on the earth's surface when no known positions
are nearby is by astronomic observations. Observations to the sun, moon and stars could all be
made using navigational techniques. Once the instrument's position and bearing to a star is
determined, the bearing can be transferred to a reference point on the earth. The point can then
be used as a base for further observations. Survey-accurate astronomic positions were difficult to
observe and calculate and so tended to be a base off which many other measurements were
made. Since the advent of the GPS system, astronomic observations are rare as GPS allows
adequate positions to be determined over most of the surface of the earth.
Few survey positions are derived from first principles. Instead, most surveys points are measured
relative to previous measured points. This forms a reference or control network where each point
can be used by a surveyor to determine their own position when beginning a new survey.
Survey points are usually marked on the earth's surface by objects ranging from small nails
driven into the ground to large beacons that can be seen from long distances. The surveyors can
set up their instruments on this position and measure to nearby objects. Sometimes a tall,
distinctive feature such as a steeple or radio aerial has its position calculated as a reference point
that angles can be measured against.
Triangulation is a method of horizontal location favoured in the days before EDM and GPS
measurement. It can determine distances, elevations and directions between distant objects. Since
the early days of surveying, this was the primary method of determining accurate positions of
objects for topographic maps of large areas. A surveyor first needs to know the horizontal
distance between two of the objects, known as the baseline. Then the heights, distances and
angular position of other objects can be derived, as long as they are visible from one of the
original objects. High-accuracy transits or theodolites were used, and angle measurements
repeated for increased accuracy. See also Triangulation in three dimensions.
Offsetting is an alternate method of determining position of objects, and was often used to
measure imprecise features such as riverbanks. The surveyor would mark and measure two
known positions on the ground roughly parallel to the feature, and mark out a baseline between
them. At regular intervals, a distance was measured at right angles from the first line to the
feature. The measurements could then be plotted on a plan or map, and the points at the ends of
the offset lines could be joined to show the feature.
Traversing is a common method of surveying smaller areas. The surveyor starts from an old
reference mark or known position and places a network of reference marks covering the survey
area. They then measure bearings and distances between the reference marks, and to the target
features. Most traverses form a loop pattern or link between two prior reference marks to allow
the surveyor to check their measurements are correct.
Datum and coordinate systems

Many surveys do not calculate positions on the surface of the earth, but instead measure the
relative positions of objects. However, often the surveyed items need to be compared to outside
data, such as boundary lines or previous surveys objects. The oldest way of describing a position
is via latitude and longitude, and often a height above sea level. As the surveying profession
grew it created Cartesian coordinate systems to simplify the mathematics for surveys over small
parts of the earth. The simplest coordinate systems assume that the earth is flat and measure from
an arbitrary point, known as a 'datum' (singular form of data). The coordinate system allows easy
calculation of the distances and direction between objects over small areas. Large areas distort
due to the earth's curvature. North is often defined as true north at the datum.
For larger regions, it is necessary to model the shape of the earth using an ellipsoid or a geoid.
Many countries have created coordinate-grids customized to lessen error in their area of the
earth.
Types of surveys
As-built survey: a survey that documents the location of recently constructed elements of a
construction project. As built surveys are done for record, completion evaluation and
payment purposes. An as-built survey is also known as a 'works as executed survey'. As built
surveys are often presented in red or redline and laid over existing plans for comparison with
design information.
Cadastral or boundary surveying: a survey that establishes or re-establishes boundaries of a

parcel using a legal description. It involves the setting or restoration of monuments or
markers at the corners or along the lines of the parcel. These take the form
of iron rods, pipes, or concrete monuments in the ground, or nails set in concrete or asphalt.
The ALTA/ACSM Land Title Survey is a standard proposed by the American Land Title
Association and the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping. It incorporates elements
of the boundary survey, mortgage survey, and topographic survey.
Control surveying: Control surveys establish reference points to use as starting positions for
future surveys. Most other forms of surveying will contain elements of control surveying.
Construction surveying
Deformation survey: a survey to determine if a structure or object is changing shape or

moving. First the positions of points on an object are found. A period of time is allowed to
pass and the positions are then re-measured and calculated. Then a comparison between the
two sets of positions is made.
Dimensional control survey: This is a type of survey conducted in or on an non-level surface.

Common in the oil and gas industry to replace old or damaged pipes on a like-for-like basis.
The advantage of dimensional control survey is that the instrument used to conduct the
survey does not need to be level. This is useful in the off-shore industry, as not all platforms
are fixed and are thus subject to movement.
Engineering surveying: topographic, layout, and as-built surveys associated with engineering
design. They often need geodetic computations beyond normal civil engineering practice.
Foundation survey: a survey done to collect the positional data on a foundation that has been
poured and is cured. This is done to ensure that the foundation was constructed in the
location, and at the elevation, authorized in the plot plan, site plan, or subdivision plan.
Hydrographic survey: a survey conducted with the purpose of mapping the shoreline and bed
of a body of water. Used for navigation, engineering, or resource management purposes.
Leveling: either finds the elevation of a given point or establish a point at a given elevation.
Measured survey: a building survey to produce plans of the building. Such a survey may be
conducted before renovation works, for commercial purpose, or at end of the construction
process.
Mining surveying: Mining surveying includes directing the digging of mine shafts and
galleries and the calculation of volume of rock. It uses specialized techniques due to the
restraints to survey geometry such as vertical shafts and narrow passages.
Mortgage survey: A mortgage survey or physical survey is a simple survey that delineates
land boundaries and building locations. It checks for encroachment, building setback
restrictions and shows nearby flood zones. In many places a mortgage survey is a
precondition for a mortgage loan.
Photographic control survey: A survey that creates reference marks visible from the air to
allow aerial photographs to be rectified.
Stakeout, Layout or Set out: an element of many other surveys where the calculated or
proposed position of an object is marked on the ground. This can be temporary or permanent.
This is an important component of engineering and cadastral surveying.
Structural survey: a detailed inspection to report upon the physical condition and structural
stability of a building or structure. It highlights any work needed to maintain it in good
repair.
Subdivision: A boundary survey that splits a property into two or more smaller properties.
Topographic survey: a survey that measures the elevation of points on a particular piece of
land, and presents them as contour lines on a plot.
The surveying profession

The basic principles of surveying have changed little over the ages, but the tools used by
surveyors have evolved. Engineering, especially civil, often needs surveyors.
Surveyors help determine the placement of roads, railways, reservoirs, dams, pipelines, retaining
walls, bridges, and buildings. They establish the boundaries of legal descriptions and political
divisions. They also provide advice and data for geographical information systems (GIS) that
record land features and boundaries.
Surveyors must have a thorough knowledge of algebra, basic calculus, geometry,
and trigonometry. They must also know the laws that deal with surveys, real property,
and contracts.
Most jurisdictions recognize three different levels of qualification:
Survey assistants or chainmen are usually unskilled workers who help the surveyor. They place
target reflectors, find old reference marks, and mark points on the ground. The term 'chainman'
derives from past use of measuring chains. An assistant would move the far end of the chain
under the surveyor's direction.
Survey technicians often operate survey instruments, run surveys in the field, do survey
calculations, or draft plans. A technician usually has no legal authority and cannot certify his
work. Not all technicians are qualified, but qualifications at the certificate or diploma level are
available.
Licensed, registered, or chartered surveyors usually hold a degree or higher qualification. They
are often required to pass further exams to join a professional association or to gain certifying
status. Surveyors are responsible for planning and management of surveys. They have to ensure
that their surveys, or surveys performed under their supervision, meet the legal standards.
Many principals of surveying firms hold this status.
Informal surveying
Not all surveys are carried out by professional surveyors. Depending on the jurisdiction and
circumstances, the builders of a structure may set it out themselves. Surveyors often set out the
most significant corners of a building. The builders then lay out the rest of the building
themselves simple survey techniques.
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Methods of surveying
Tools and techniques for recording existing building structures have been transformed by
advancements in electronic technology. Whether fielding a team of architects or contracting with
a professional surveyor, architects will be better prepared if they are familiar with the broad
range of established and emerging digital building recording technologies.
Surveying instruments & their application

Surveying is defined as the science of determining the dimensions and contour of the earths
surface by the measurements of distance, directions and elevations.
It is impossible to determine when surveying was first used, but in its simplest form it is as old as
recorded civilization. As long as there has been property ownership, there has been a means of
measuring property.
Surveying has three different components,
measuring distance,
angles and
elevation
Each piece of surveying equipment can be used to measure one or more of these components, but
determining the piece of equipment that best suit the application can sometimes be
overwhelming for a person with a limited surveying experience.
Listed are the Various Types of Surveying Equipment and Their Uses.
Level Rods are commonly made of three types of material; wood, typically hard maple,
fiberglass or aluminum. Aluminum can swell or contract in hot or cold weather, wood can
expand or contract in humid or wet conditions and can give inaccurate readings. Rods should be
held by the edges and without touching the numbers. Touching the numbers may wear down the
face of the rod, giving inaccurate readings. The bottom of the rod should never be dragged on the
ground or through water, grass or mud and its metal base should never be allowed to strike rocks,
pavement or other hard objects; which will gradually wear away the metal base and will cause
leveling errors due to the change in length of the rod itself.
Direct Reading Rods are rods that are read directly through the telescope of the person using the
instrument. Another name for these rods is self-reading rods. A Philadelphia Level Rod consists
of two sliding sections graduated in hundredths of a foot and joined by brass sleeves. Two
sections make it easier to transport. Can be used as a short rod for readings of 7' or less, to a long
rod for heights up to 13'. It has a rear section that slides on the front section. When a high rod is
needed, the rod must be fully extended, otherwise a serious mistake will result in the reading.
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Graduations on the front faces of the two sections read continuously from 013'. A Philadelphia
rod can be read accurately with a level at distances up to 250'. A San Francisco Level Rod is
similar to the Philly rod; the San Francisco rod has three separate sections that slide past each
other to extend or compress its length, and is generally used on control, land and other surveys.
A Direct Elevation Rod or a Lenker Rod has numbers in reverse order on an endless graduated
strip that revolves around the rod on rollers. Figures run down the rod and can be brought to a
desired readingfor example the elevation of a point or benchmark. Rod readings are preset for
the back sight, and then, due to the reverse order of numbers, foresight readings give elevations
directly without calculating backlights and foresights.
Target Roda target is added to the rod that allows the person holding the rod to independently
check the readings taken by the person using the instrument by adding a target, making what is
commonly referred to as target rod.
Tripodsa sturdy tripod in good condition is essential for obtaining accurate measurements.
The legs of the tripod are adjustable and are made of wood, fiberglass or aluminum and are
adjustable for use with many different pieces of surveying equipment. Tripods made of wood or
aluminum can influence readings in certain weather conditions, fiberglass can be heavy to carry
when surveying over various terrains and distances. Tripods come with two different styles of
heads: flat or dome. Dome heads allow for more adjustment, flat head tripods have less play, but
are sometimes easier to fit. Tripods come in two different thread sizes: 3" x 8 and 5 8" x 11. 5 8"
x 11 is standard for newer equipment. Adapters are available to adapt older 3" x 8 tripod threads
to 5 8" x 11.
A Hand Level is used for taping and rough determination of elevations. It consists of a metal
sighting tube with a bubble tube mounted on it. The bubble is located on the top of the
instrument and its image is reflected by means of a 45 mirror or prism inside the tube so that the
user can see the bubble at the same time as the terrain. If the bubble is centered between the
horizontal lines in the tube while sighting, the line of sight is horizontal.
An Abney Level functions as a hand level and also permits rough measurements of vertical
angles and slopes.
Automatic Levels are commonly used in todays surveying or construction applications because
of their ease of use and quick set-up. They incorporate a self-leveling feature; the user rough
levels the instrument using a three-screw leveling head and centers a bulls eye bubble. After the
bubble is manually centered, an automatic compensator takes over, levels the line of sight, and
keeps it level so that level horizontal measurements can be taken.
Electronic or Laser Levels transmit beams of either visible laser or invisible infrared light.
These levels are used for establishing a known reference elevation or a point where construction
measurements can be taken. Electronic or laser levels fall into two general classes: single-beam
lasers and rotating-beam lasers. A single beam laser projects a string line that can be projected in
a vertical, horizontal or inclined direction.
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A rotating beam laser provides a plane of reference over open areas. The laser beam is selfleveling and will not come on until the instrument is level. If it is bumped out of position, the
beam shuts off and will not come back on until it is level again.
Laser levels are precise up to 1000'. Common uses include grading and excavating, masonry
work, setting concrete forms, marking elevation, septic work and checking the depth of trenches.
A Laser Detector is necessary because not all laser levels incorporate a visible laser; and, lasers
are not typically visible to the human eye in bright sunlight. The detector can either be a small
hand-held or rod-mounted unit that may be moved up and down the level rod, alerting the user
when it is level. A Double Pentagonal Prism is hand-held instrument that determines right angles
by the use of a triangular-shaped prism.
Measuring Wheels can roughly measure distance by rolling a wheel along the line in question
and counting the number of revolutions. An attached odometer does the counting and from the
circumference of the wheel converts the number of revolutions to a distance. Measuring wheels
typically provide precision to 1 200 when the ground is smooth, such as along a highway, but
results are poorer when the surface is irregular.
Tapes or Chains measure distance by using steel tape typically 03 8" wide. Those graduated
in feet come in 100, 200, 300 and 500' length.
Metric tapes/chains have standard lengths of 30, 60, 100 and 150 meters. All tapes can be
wound on a reel (sold separately) or done up in loops. Tapes/chains are typically handled with
tension handles or clamp handles in order to apply tension and to prevent damage to the tape and
the surveyors hands. Tapes/chains used for surveying applications are required to be calibrated
on an annual basis to ensure accuracy. Taping or Chaining Pins are used to mark tape lengths.
Most chaining/taping pins are made of number 12 steel wire, sharply pointed at one end and
have a round loop at the other end. They are painted with alternate red and white bands. A steel
ring with 11 pins is standard.
Range Poles are used in taping applications for sighting points, marking ground points and for
lining up surveyors in order to keep them working in the right direction. They are from 610'L
and are painted with alternate bands of red and white to make them more easily seen. Each band
is 1'L and the rods can be used for rough measurements. Poles can be wood, fiberglass or metal.
Plumb Bobs are typically made of brass (to limit interference with compass readings) and weigh
from 618 oz., with a fine point. The point on all plumb bobs are standard, to make replacement
easy. At least 6' of good quality string or cord, free of knots, is necessary.
Bobs are used to get a plumb (straight) vertical line to a definite point, typically a tack in a
wooden stake or ground. Bigger/heavier plumb bobs should be used for higher or greater heights.
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A Gammon Reel is the device used to connect to plumb bob and provide easy up-and-down
adjustment of the plumb bob and instant rewinding of the plumb bob string.
The gammon reel can also be used as a target when taping.
Transits/Theodolites are fundamentally the same. Their most important application is
measuring horizontal and vertical angles, but they can also be used to obtain horizontal distances
and determine elevations. Transits/theodolites can be used for surveying applications when used
with a calibrated taping chain or an electronic distance measurer.
Electronic Distance Measurers (EDMs) accurately measure distance by measuring the time it
takes a laser to travel from the EDM to a prism and back. Before the introduction of EDMs,
taping or chaining was used to make accurate distance measurements.
A Total Station is the most accurate surveying device because it incorporates an electronic or
digital theodolite, an electronic distance measuring (EDM) device and a microprocessor in the
same unit. Total stations can automatically measure horizontal and vertical angles as well as
slope distances from a single setup. From this data they can instantaneously compute horizontal
and vertical distance components, elevations and coordinates, and display the results on an LCD.
They can also store the data either on board or in external date collectors.
From the total station, data can be downloaded easily to a personal computer. Global Positioning
Systems (GPS) incorporate distance, direction and difference in height between survey points.
A GPS satellite surveying system simply using an electronic distance measurer that does not
need direct line of sight between survey points. Instead, a GPS receiver needs to have a direct
line of sight to a sufficient number of satellites.
Basic SURVEYING EQUIPMENTS
Chain and Tape

Measuring Rod
Plumb Bob
Carpenter Level
Ranging Poles
Pegs
Chain and Tape Chains or tapes are used to measure distances on the field.
A chain is made up of connected steel segments, or links, which each measure 20 cm.
Sometimes a special joint or a tally marker is attached every 5 metres.
Usually, a chain has a total length of 20 metres, including one handle at each end. Measuring
tapes are made of steel, coated linen, or synthetic material.
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They are available in lengths of 20, 30 and 50 m. Centimetres, decimetres and metres
are usually indicated on the tape.
A measuring rod is a straight lath with a length varying from 2 m to 5 m.
The rod is usually marked in the same way as a measuring tape, indicating
centimeters, decimeters and meters.
A plumb bob is used to check if objects are vertical. A plumb bob consists of a piece of
metal (called a bob) pointing downwards, which is attached to a cord
hen the plumb bob is hanging free and not moving, the cord is vertical.
Carpenter Level
A carpenter level is used to check if objects are horizontal or vertical. Within a
carpenter level there are one or more curved glass tubes, called level tube
Each tube is sealed and partially filled with a liquid (water, oil or paraffin). The
remaining space is air, visible as a bubble. On the glass tube there are two
marks. Only when the carpenter level is horizontal (or vertical) is the air bubble exactly
between these two marks.
Ranging Poles
Ranging poles are used to mark areas and to set out straight lines on the
field. They are also used to mark points which must be seen from a distance, in which
case a flag may be attached to improve the visibility.
Ranging poles are straight round stalks, 3 to 4 cm thick and about 2 m long. They are
made of wood or metal. Ranging poles can also be home made from strong straight
bamboo or tree branches.
REMEMBER: Ranging poles may never be curved.
Ranging poles are usually painted with alternate red-white or black-white bands. If
possible, wooden ranging poles are reinforced at the bottom end by metal points.
Pegs
Pegs are used when certain points on the field require more permanent marking.
Pegs are generally made of wood Sometimes pieces of tree branches,
properly sharpened, are good enough.
The size of the pegs (40 to 60 cm) depends the type of survey work they are used for and
the type of soil they have to be driven in.
The pegs should be driven vertically into the soil and the top should be clearly visible
15
UNIT II
SITE DRAWINGS
Computation of Area
One of the primary objects of land surveying is to determine the area of the land surveyed. Areas
may be determined by: 1. computation from field notes: It can be done by two ways.
a. Calculation of the area of the skeleton of the survey and
b. Calculation of the area enclosed between survey lines of skeleton and boundaries.
Areas of skeleton:
1. BY geometry
2. Co-ordinates
1. By Geometry:
a. Area of triangle forming skeleton
Area = under route s(s-a) (s-b) (s-c) Where a, b, c, are the side of triangle and semi perimeter,
s= a + b + c/2
Area = x base x height
Area of rectangle = length x width
Area of square = side2
Area of Trapezium = (sum of parallel sides) x distance between them = (a + b) x h
Computation of Area from Previously Plotted Plan:
The area may be calculated in the following two ways:
Case 1 Graphical method
Case 2 - Instrumental Method
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Case 1- Graphical Method:

The graphical methods are those in which the required data obtained from measurements of
plan.In this case the area of figure is found as a whole, or the areas of the skeleton and the
irregular strips are found separately.
A. Considering Entire Areas:
1. By division into triangles:
The most convenient method is to divide the figure in to a number of triangles. The base and
altitude of each triangle are scaled and its area is found.
2. By division into square:
In this method a peace of tracing paper ruled out into squares, each responding a definite number
of square meter or square centimeter is placed over the drawing. The number of whole square is
measure and area is found. The portions of broken square are estimated in terms of Whole
Square and broken squares.
3. By division into trapezoids or By drawing parallel lines and converting them to
rectangle:
By placing the tracing paper over the plan the length the rectangles is obtained.
And area is calculated as:
Required area = {length of rectangles} x {constant distance common breadth}
B. Considering the area along Boundaries:
The mid ordinate rule:
The average ordinate rule:
Trapezoidal rule:
Simpsons rule:
Case 2: Instrumental method:

This method consists of determining the area of a given map with the uses of a planimeter. It is
the best and most expeditious method and gives accurate results than other methods.
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Different methods for the calculation of Areas in the field of Surveying

Here are the five important rules (Methods) used for the calculation of areas in Surveying:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Midpoint ordinate rule

Average ordinate rule
Simpsons rule
Trapezoidal rule
Graphical rule
1. Midpoint-ordinate rule
The rule states that if the sum of all the ordinates taken at midpoints of each division multiplied
by the length of the base line having the ordinates (9 divided by number of equal parts).
Midpoint ordinate rule | Method for calculating area in Surveying

In this, base line AB is divided into equal parts and the ordinates are measured in the midpoints of
each division.
Area = ([O1 +O2 + O3 + ..+ On]*L)/n
L = length of baseline
n = number of equal parts, the baseline is divided
d = common distance between the ordinates
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Example of the area calculation by midpoint ordinate rule

The following perpendicular offsets were taken at 10m interval from a survey line to an irregular
boundary line. The ordinates are measured at midpoint of the division are 10, 13, 17, 16, 19, 21,
20 and 18m. Calculate the area enclosed by the midpoint ordinate rule.
Given:
Ordinates:
O1 = 10, O2 = 13, O3 = 17, O4 = 16, O5 = 19, O6 = 21, O7 = 20, O8 = 18
Common distance, d =10m

Number of equal parts of the baseline, n = 8
Length of baseline, L = n *d = 8*10 = 80m
Area = [(10+13+17+16+19+21+20+18)*80]/8 = 1340sqm
2. Average Ordinate Rule

The rule states that (to the average of all the ordinates taken at each of the division of equal length
multiplies by baseline length divided by number of ordinates).
Average Ordinate Rule

O1, O2, O3, O4.On ordinate taken at each of division.
L = length of baseline
n = number of equal parts (the baseline divided)
d = common distance
Area = [(O1+ O2+ O3+ . + On)*L]/ (n+1)
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Here is an example of a numerical problem regarding the calculation of areas using Average
Ordinate Rule
The following perpendicular offsets were taken at 10m interval from a survey line to an irregular
boundary line.
9, 12, 17, 15, 19, 21, 24, 22, 18
Calculate area enclosed between the survey line and irregular boundary line.
Area = [(O1+ O2+ O3+ . + O9)*L]/ (n+1)
= [(9+12+17+15+19+21+24+22+18)*8*10]/ (8+1)
= 139538sqm
3. Simpsons Rule
It states that, sum of first and last ordinates has to be done. Add twice the sum of remaining
odd ordinates and four times the sum of remaining even ordinates. Multiply to this total sum
by 1/3rd of the common distance between the ordinates which gives the required area.
Where O1, O2, O3, . On are the lengths of the ordinates
d = common distance
n = number of divisions
Note:
This rule is applicable only if ordinates are odd, i.e. even number of divisions.
If the number of ordinates are even, the area of last division maybe calculated separated and added
to the result obtained by applying Simpsons rule to two remaining ordinates.
Even if first or last ordinate happens to be zero, they are not to be omitted from Simpsons rule.
The following offsets are taken from a chain line to an irregular boundary towards right side of the
chain line.
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Chainage
25
50
75
100
125
150
Offset
m
3.6
5.0
6.5
5.5
7.3
6.0
4.0
Common distance, d = 25m

Area = d/3[(O1+O7) + 2 (O3+O5) +4(O2+O4+O6)]
= 25/3[(3.6+4) +2(6.5+7.3) +4(5+5.5+6)]
Area = 843.33sqm
4. THE TRAPEZOIDAL RULE
While applying the trapezoidal rule, boundaries between the ends of ordinates are assumed to be
straight. Thus the areas enclosed between the base line and the irregular boundary line are
considered as trapezoids.
Let O1, O2, ..On = ordinate at equal intervals, and d = common distance between two ordinates
Total area=d/2{O1+2O2+2O3+. +2On-1+On}
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Thus the trapezoidal rule may be stated as follows:

To the sum of the first and last ordinate, twice the sum of intermediate ordinates is added. This
total sum is multiplied by the common distance. Half of this product is the required area.
Worked- out problems
Problem 1: The following offsets were taken from a chain line to an irregular boundary line at
an interval of 10 m:
0, 2.50, 3.50, 5.00, 4.60, 3.20, 0 m
Compute the area between the chain line, the irregular boundary line and the end of offsets by:
a) Mid ordinate rule
b) The average ordinate rule
c) The trapezoidal rule
d) Simpsons rule
Solution: (Refer fig)
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1. Mid-ordinate rule:
Required area = 10(1.25+3.00+4.25+3.90+1.60)

= 10*18.80=188 m2
2. By average-ordinate rule:
Here d=10 m and n=6(no of devices)
Base length= 10*6=60 m
Number of ordinates= 7
Required area=10((1.25+3.00+5.00+4.60+3.20+0)/7)
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3. By trapezoidal rule:
Here d=10m
Required area =10/2{0+0+2(2.50+3.50+5.00+4.60+3.20+)}
= 5*37.60=188 m2
4. By Simpsons rule:
d
= 10m
Required area =10/3{0+0+4(2.50+5.00+3.20) +2(3.50+4.60)}

= 10/3{42.80+16.20}=10/3*59.00
10/3*59 = 196.66m2
SETTING OUT A BUILDING PLAN ON GROUND
A building is set out in order to clearly define the outline of the excavation and the centre line of
the walls, so that construction can be carried out exactly according to the plan. The centre line
method of setting out is generally preferred and adopted.
PROCEDURE
Fig.1: Example plan to be set out on the
ground
1. From the plan (fig 1), the centre line of the
walls are calculated. Then the centre lines
of the rooms are set out by setting
perpendiculars in the ratio 3:4:5. Suppose
the corner points are a, b, c, d, e, f and g
which are marked by pegs with nails on
top.
2. The setting of the corner point is checked
according to diagonals ac, bd, cf and eg.
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3. During excavation, the centre points a, b, c, d, e, f, g may be removed. Therefore the Centre
lines are extended and the centre points are marked about 2m away from the outer edge of
excavation. Thus the points A1, A2, B1, B2 and likewise, are marked outside the trench.
Centre line are shown clearly by stretching thread or rope. The Centre points fixed 2m away
from the excavation are marked with sit out pegs.
4. From the plan details, the width of excavation to be done is also marked by thread with pegs
at appropriate positions.
5. The excavation width is then marked by lime or by with furrow with spade.
6. If the plan is much to complicate and follows a zigzag pattern, then the center pegs are kept
at suitable positions according to site conditions.
Layout of Building
The real meaning and purpose of setting out (layout) is to transfer the plan, length and width
of its foundation on the ground so that the foundation can be excavated for construction of
purposed building as per drawing.
The following preliminary works should be executed before actual planning of layout for the
house.
Clear the site from all grass, bushes, trees, etc.

Record spot levels of the ground.
Construct a permanent bench mark in construction area.
1. Base Line
For setting out /layout, the most important requirement is to establish a baseline. This is marked
on the ground as per site plan requirement with the help of offsets which are taken from the existing
road or existing building.
2. Centre Line
Centre line divides the plan into two equal parts. This can be marked in the field with the help of
baseline. This line is very necessary and useful for layout. This line should be transferred to Burjis
and be kept up to the completion of foundation work.
3. 'Burjis' and its' Distance
Burji or marking pillars are masonry pillars constructed with bricks and cement mortar. These are
constructed on both ends of walls /columns and center line should be marked on the top surface of
the burjis with the help of base line. Burji is also constructed for indicating the plinth level of the
building. Burjis are very useful for the layout. Accuracy of the foundation can be checked with the
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help of Burji at any time during construction. Burjis should be kept intact till completion of
foundation work
Center line plan
A building plan with Center to center lines between the columns/ load bearing walls which will be
a reference with which markings may be done on site.
Precautions for setting out the plan on the ground
UNIT III - Site Analysis and Planning

Importance of Site and its contents
A site plan is an architectural plan, landscape architecture document, and a detailed engineering
drawing of proposed improvements to a given lot. A site plan usually shows a building footprint,
travel ways, parking, drainage facilities, sanitary sewer lines, water lines, trails, lighting, and
landscaping and garden elements.
Such a plan of a site is a "graphic representation of the arrangement of buildings, parking, drives,
landscaping and any other structure that is part of a development project".
A site plan is a "set of construction drawings that a builder or contractor uses to make
improvements to a property. Counties can use the site plan to verify that development codes are
being met and as a historical resource. Site plans are often prepared by a design consultant who
must be either a licensed engineer, architect, landscape architect or land surveyor".
Site planning in landscape architecture and architecture refers to the organizational stage of the
landscape design process. It involves the organization of land use zoning, access, circulation,
privacy, security, shelter, land drainage, and other factors. This is done by arranging the
compositional elements of landform, planting, water, buildings and paving in site plans.
Site planning generally begins by assessing a potential site for development through site analysis.
Information about slope, soils, hydrology, vegetation, parcel ownership, orientation, etc. are
assessed and mapped. By determining areas that are poor for development (such as floodplain or
steep slopes) and better for development, the planner or architect can assess optimal location and
design a structure that works within this space.
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Site Planning
Site planning involves arranging structures on the land and shaping spaces between them. It is an
art linked to architecture, and city planning. The site plan locates objects and activities in space
and time. It may be concerned with a small cluster of houses, a single building and the
surrounding space, or a small community built in a single operation.
Environmental Factors
Environmental study for architectural design involves collection of data, reconnaissance survey,
creative ability and imagination, and the design of solutions to solve building problems.
When an architect is given a design assignment, there are many environmental factors that are to
be considered. The site is the major factor that has to be considered. Site means the area or the
land that is meant for the construction of the proposed project. Site Planning is the art and
science of arranging the various portions of a particular piece of land according to their uses. The
site planner decides on the uses of the site in detail by selecting and analyzing it for the various
characteristics of soil, slope, vegetation, etc.
The landscape involves the design of outside space. This should be thought about carefully to
make an architectural design complete. The climate at the location at the site is very important as
it affects the building that is to be constructed. Services such as water supply, drainage,
sanitation, electricity, fire protection, air-conditioning system, etc. also have to be considered in
order to make an architectural design complete.
Identification of site and its preparation
Each site has a unique nature of its own. The purpose for which it is to be used should be clearly
understood. Every site when disturbed takes time to experience the mutual adjustment of its
elements. For example, the flow of water creates a drainage pattern. Many factors are involved in
the analysis of the site. These include the factors above the ground, below the ground and on the
ground, as discussed in the following.
Natural Factors
Geology
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Topography-slope analysis
Hydrography-streams, lakes, swamps
Soil classification of types and uses
Vegetation
Wildlife
Climate factors solar orientation, summer, winter winds, humidity, precipitation
Geology
The type of rock below the surface of soil, the depth, and the characteristic features of rock
should be identified. Such rocks could act as a foundation for many buildings. These are natural
and could form visible landforms. The stability of such geological formations is also important.
Geomorphology: the geology dealing with the origin and nature of landform with emphasis
on erosion process.
Physiography: the description of landform.
Bedrock: is consolidated rock material lying at various depths below all points of earth
surface.
Geologic map
The important of geologic information
where to get the information (sources of data)
Geologic base: The depth and type of rock below the soils surface are significant factors
for site development, to answer the question of its specification as a foundation base.
Topography
The form of land is called its topography. This is the most important factor to be analysed.
Geology and the slow process of natural erosion (soil being worn away because of wind or
water) are responsible for landforms and slopes. A topographic survey will reveal the badly
drained areas and natural drainage channels. It will be also revealing places that have good views
and parts of the site that are visible or hidden from any selected point outside the site. The slopes
will decide the roads and paths; a steep slope will increase building costs.
Landform
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topographic map and interpretation
Slope analysis
The constraint and opportunity of landform
where to get the information
Slope analysis is the tool to indicate each portion

of land with percent slope to see the potential in
developing each part for suitable use.
o Contour interval, pattern of landform
o Natural drainage pattern
o Unique features
o Slope analysis and percent slope.
o Site danger signal.
Grading Process
Key Terms
Sites
A site contains design
objects such as
alignments, parcels,
and grading groups.
Using a site, you can
organize boundaries, alignments, and parcels in a drawing. Drawings can have multiple sites, each of which
can have associated objects. Different sites can occupy the same geographic space.
Slope, Grade
Percent grade refers to the number of vertical units of drop along the line divided by 100 units (ft/100 ft or
m/100 m). Slope is often used as a ratio of the number of horizontal units to vertical units of drop along the
line (3H: 1V, or 3:1).
29
Spot Elevation
Spot elevations are inserted points that designate a design point position and elevation.
Design Surface A surface created by the designer to represent the finished condition following construction.
Grading Object
Grading objects are created from feature lines and consist of slope projection lines, a target (a surface, a
distance, an elevation, or a relative elevation) and a dynamic daylight line.
Grading Group
Grading groups are contained in a site and contain individual grading objects. Grading objects within the
same grading group are aggregated for volume calculations. A site can have multiple grading groups.
Grading Criteria
A set of criteria that define how a grading object is created. Criteria are contained in sets, which can contain
individual criteria for each target type. Parameters include such items as cut/fill format, cut/fill slope, and
conflict resolution methods.
Target
A surface, a distance, an elevation, or a relative elevation specified as the desired endpoint of the grading
objects projection.
Daylight Line
30
A line that intersects the target (a surface, a distance, an elevation, or a relative elevation) of a grading object.
It is a line that connects the ends of the projection lines from the grading objects feature line where they hit
the target.
Projection Line
A line projected from the grading objects feature line at the cut or fill. Slope specified in the grading criteria,
until it hits the target.
Hydrography
The study of water in all its forms (rain, snow and water on the earths surface), and from its origins to al
l its destinations on the earth is called hydrology
Hydrography provides information about all types of water bodies present in and around the site:
lakes, streams, any marshy land (swamps), or natural wells. It also reveals the availability or
otherwise of a groundwater table and the depth at which it is available.
Hydrological circle
Surface water :
existing drainage pattern
water body - - pond, lake, wetland
surface and subsurface water
Aquifer
Aquifer recharge areas
Sensitive landscape character
floodplain
where to get the information : Hydrographic service department, harbor department
Hydrology Helps in the following ways:
Hydrology is used to find out maximum probable flood at proposed sites e.g. Dams.
The variation of water production from catchments can be calculated and described by hy
-drology
31
Engineering hydrology enables us to find out the relationship between a catchments surface water and groundwater resources
The expected flood flows over a spillway, at a highway Culvert, or in an urban storm drai
-nage system can be known by this very subject.
It helps us to know the required reservoir capacity to assure adequate water for irrigation
or municipal water supply in droughts condition.
It tells us what hydrologic hardware (e.g. rain gauges, stream gauges etc.) and software (c
-omputer models) are needed for real-time flood forecasting
Hydrological cycle
The hydrologic cycle describes the continuous re-circulating transport of the waters of the earth,
linking atmosphere, land and oceans.
The water holding elements of the hydrological cycle are:
1. Atmosphere
2. Vegetation
3. Snow packs
4. Land/ surface & Soil
6. Streams, lakes and rivers
7. Aquifers
8. Oceans
Hydrological Processes
1. Precipitation
2. Evaporation
3. Transpiration
4. Infiltration
5. Overland flow
6. Surface Runoff
7. Groundwater outflow
Soil
The different types of soil present are analysed. Soil decides the stability of land, foundation,
suitability, excavation, erosion, drainage, and plant growth (as the top soil is essential for good
32
plant growth). The bearing capacity of soil is an important factor to be considered while locating
buildings.
Soil classification
General soil type based on soil texture. The triangle indicates the relative proportions of
three particle sizes -- sand, silt and clay.
Key words for soil characteristics-- Soil texture, soil porosity, Soil chemistry, soil
moisture
Soil survey data and the important of soil information
related to building construction and basement
related to water supply and septic system
related to functions of land use planning
Related to vegetation and wildlife habitat.
where to get the information: Department of underground resources, Boring test and results
analysis from agricultural department
Vegetation
A study of vegetation helps in locating large existing trees, which can be retained. These can be
used for providing seating. The ecology of the area should also be examined to know what plants
or shrubs would grow in that area.
Wildlife
This is an important consideration when choosing sites for parks and recreation. Fishing and
hunting are major recreational activities. The selection of land suitable for such activities
depends on natural wildlife present in the area. Wildlife also adds form, color and movement to
the landscape.
One might also want to be informed about the wildlife present in the area to preserve it and not
disturb the animals natural habitats due to the construction.
Climatic Factors
Across a piece of land, the elevation difference, character of topography, vegetation cover, and
water bodies influence the climate of that area. On the other hand, precipitation and temperature
33
are the major factors affecting vegetation. In cool and temperate climates, vegetation may be
used to block winter winds.
o region
o temperature
o micro-climate
1. WIND VELOCITY
2. PRECIPITATION RATE
3. TEMPERATURE
4. HUMIDITY
Where to get the information: Department of Meteorology
Man-made factors:
o Existing land use on-site, 0ff-site
o Potential of change
o Color symbol of land use
o Facilities or site amenity
Linkage and movement pattern
communication
circulation system :
accessibility
potential of change
Density : F.A.R
Zoning district
Set back, fire lane and other regulation
Parking schedule
FAR is one of the density control device, FAR is a term the zoning ordinance will use to
quantify and limit the amount of square footage of building area as a function of the building
site
Zoning setback and height limits-- these minimums and maximums provide the basis for the
maximum building envelope on the site.
34
Aesthetic factors: visual qualities and relationship.
Landscape special character
Spatial pattern of the site
Visual quality and character
Visual disturbance
Natural features
Urban features
Visual value/ characters
vista
panoramic view
visual channel
framed view/ filter view
point of interest
Cultural Factors
Existing land use ownership of adjacent property and off-site nuisance
Linkages
Traffic and transit-vehicular and pedestrian circulation on or adjacent to site.
Density and floor area ratio
Utilities sanitation, water, gas, electricity, storm water drainage.
Existing buildings
Historic factors historic buildings and landmarks.
Existing land use

This implies a survey of the present status of the land-whether it is residential, commercial,
industrial or recreational. The ownership of the adjacent site will also affect the land being
surveyed.
Offsite nuisances: Disturbances from outside and around the site have to be studied.
35
Visual nuisance elements: Power lines, water tower, certain industrial complexes, highways,
advertisement boards, junkyards (waste dumps), etc., are some examples of eye-sore elements
that have to be taken into account.
Possible auditory nuisance: Noise produced by heavy automobiles, trains, air traffic etc. and the
surrounding population has to be studied.
Olfactory nuisance: Dumps, chemicals, other wastes in and around the site have to be taken
care of.
Safety Hazards: Severe or sudden changes in landform, such as a steep cliff at the edge of the
site have to be noted.
Site analysis
Site analysis is an inventory completed as a preparatory step to site planning, a form of urban
planning which involves research, analysis, and synthesis. It primarily deals with basic data as it
relates to a specific site. The topic itself branches into the boundaries of architecture, landscape
architecture, engineering, economics, and urban planning. Site Analysis is an element in site
planning and design. Kevin A. Lynch, an urban planner developed an eight cycle step process of
site design, in which the second step is site analysis, the focus of this section.
Site plan building blocks
A site plan is a top view, birds eye view of a property that is drawn to scale. A site plan can
show:
Site Plans, Elevations and Floor Plans Plan Instructions (Site Plans, Elevations and Floor Plans).
Property lines
Outline of existing and proposed buildings and structures
Distance between buildings
Distance between buildings and property lines (setbacks)
Parking lots, indicating parking spaces
Driveways
Surrounding streets
Landscaped areas
Easements
36
Ground sign location
Utilities
Site planning in landscape architecture and architecture refers to the organizational stage of the
landscape design process. It involves the organization of land use zoning, access, circulation,
privacy, security, shelter, land drainage, and other factors. This is done by arranging the
compositional elements of landform, planting, water, buildings and paving and building. Site
planning generally begins by assessing a potential site for development through site analysis.
Information about slope, soils, hydrology, vegetation, parcel ownership, orientation, etc. are
assessed and mapped. By determining areas that are poor for development (such as floodplain or
steep slopes) and better for development, the planner or architect can assess optimal location and
design a structure that works within this space.
Transportation planning
Transportation planning is the field involved with the siting of transportation facilities
(generally streets, highways, sidewalks, bike lanes and public transport lines). Transportation
planning historically has followed the rational planning model of defining goals and objectives,
identifying problems, generating alternatives, evaluating alternatives, and developing the plan.
Other models for planning include rational actor, satisfiing, incremental planning, organizational
process, and political bargaining. However, planners are increasingly expected to adopt a multidisciplinary approach, especially due to the rising importance of environmentalism. For example,
the use of behavioral psychology to persuade drivers to abandon their automobiles and use public
transport instead. The role of the transport planner is shifting from technical analysis to
promoting sustainability through integrated transport policies.
Urban planning
Urban, city, and town planning is the integration of the disciplines of land use planning and
transport planning, to explore a very wide range of aspects of the built and social environments
of urbanized municipalities and communities. Regional planning deals with a still larger
environment, at a less detailed level. Based upon the origins of urban planning from the Roman
(pre-Dark Ages) era, the current discipline revisits the synergy of the disciplines of urban
planning, architecture and landscape architecture, varying upon from the inter lectural strategic
positioning.
37
Influencing factors govern siting in a given site

Each project has a different set of requirements, limitations, challenges, and opportunities that
affect a projects cultural, environmental, technological, and aesthetic contexts. The factors
presented below are among the most influential.
CLIENT
Some clients have a clear idea of a program, budget, and other project objectives, including the
final appearance of the building. Others look to their architect to help them define the project
objectives and to design a building that meets those objectives. In both cases the effectiveness of
the relationship between client and architect is a major factor in making and implementing
design decisions throughout the project.
PROGRAM
All clients have a series of aspirations, requirements, and limitations to be met in design. The
program provides a place for identifying and delineating these factors and any number of related
considerations. The program may be short or long, general or specific, descriptive of needs, or
suggestive of solutions.
COMMUNITY CONCERNS
Clients and their architects must adjust their designs to satisfy community groups, neighbors, and
public officials. These design adjustments are often ad hoc efforts to meet objections or to gain
support rather than direct responses to codified requirements.
CODES AND REGULATIONS
Regulatory constraints on design have increased steadily. Beginning with simple safety
requirements and minimal land-use and light-and-air zoning, building codes and regulations have
grown into a major force in design that regulates every aspect of design and construction.
CONTEXT AND CLIMATE
Contextual factors include the nature of the surrounding fabric of natural and built elements.
Existing patterns and characteristics of this fabric can provide clues or starting points for
approaching site development as well as the building design, influencing its configuration and
38
use of materials, colors, and textures. Climatic factors include the nature of regional
microclimates defined by solar radiation, temperatures, humidity, wind, and precipitation.
SITE
These factors include site size; configuration; topography; geotechnical characteristics;
ecological features, including vegetation, wildlife habitats, water elements, and drainage; and
accessibility to property.
BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
Building configuration, materials, and systems are rarely arbitrarily chosen and are only partially
based on aesthetic criteria. For example, floor-to-floor height required to accommodate
structural, mechanical, lighting, and ceiling systems in a cost effective manner varies
significantly from an apartment house to an office building to a research facility. Similarly,
office fenestration may be based on one module and housing on another module. In still other
cases, these dimensions may be dictated largely by mechanical systems or even by the
knowledge and preferences of the local construction industry.
SUSTAINABILITY
In its broadest scope, sustainability refers to the ability of a society, ecosystem, or any such
ongoing system to continue functioning into the future without being forced into decline through
exhaustion or overloading of the key resources on which that system depends. For architecture,
this means design that delivers buildings and communities with lower environmental impacts
while enhancing health, productivity, community, and quality of life.
COST
In most cases, there is a limit to the funds available for construction. Once defined, this limit has
a major influence on subsequent design decisions, from building size and configuration to
material selection and detailing. Although most budgets are fixed (often by the amount of
financing available), others may be flexible. For example, some owners are willing to increase
initial budgets to achieve overall life-cycle cost savings.
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SCHEDULE
The demands and constraints set by the project schedule may influence how specific issues are
explored and considered. For example, an alternative requiring a time-consuming zoning
variance may be discarded in favor of one that can keep the project on schedule. Another
example may include committing to a final site plan early in the processbefore the building
footprint on the site plan is fully designed.
Techniques of site analysis
Site Analysis is a preliminary phase of architectural and urban design processes dedicated to the
study of the climatic, geographical, historical, legal, and infrastructural context of a specific site.
The result of this analytic process is a summary, usually a graphical sketch, which sets in relation
the relevant environmental information with the morphology of the site in terms of parcel,
topography, and built environment. This result is then used as a starting point for the
development of environment-related strategies during the design process.
A number of graphical tools for site analysis have been developed to assist designers in this task.
Examples of traditional climate-related site analysis tools are the Sundial, the Sun Path Diagram,
[4]
the Radiation Square, the Wind Rose, and the Wind Square. These conventional methods of
site analysis are efficient in simple sites with irrelevant close obstructions, where the analysis can
be reduced to the parcel at the ground level or even exclusively to its center point. More
elaborated techniques, like Volumetric Site Analysis, can instead be used to study more intricate
and obstructed sites, like those of high and dense urban settings.
Process
As described by Edward T. White the site design process is divided up into three
sections; research phase, analysis phase, and synthesis phase. These three phases are divided into
the eight chronological steps in the design process.
Research phase: The first step is defining the problem and its definition. This is part of the
research phase. The site design and site planning process begins with the initial problem to be
solved. This is started by a client contracting a planner to work with a particular site.
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Analysis phase: The next step involves programming the site as well as site and user analysis,
which is focused on in-depth below. There are numerous site elements related to the analysis
during this phase. This is part of the analysis phase in site planning.
Synthesis phase: From the analysis, a program is developed, which is part of the synthesis
phase. The third step deals with schematic design of a site plan as well as a preliminary cost
estimate for the site. Step four involves more developed designs and a detailed cost estimate.
Step five is the construction documents for the plan. Bidding and contracting for the project
follows as step six. Construction then will take place as step seven. The final step, step eight, in
the site design process is occupation and management of the site.
Elements
These elements include location, neighborhood context, site and zoning, legal
elements, natural physical features, man-made features, circulation, utilities, sensory, human and
cultural, and climate components. The following elements typically are considered in most sites:
Location: The site should be related to major streets or landmarks previously existing. Aerial
photographs help in this assessment stage. There should be documentation of distances and
time from major places. This should be completed by either driving or walking the distance
first-hand.
Neighborhood context: Zoning of the neighborhood is important and information of this

type can typically be found at the municipal planning department of the site. Numerous
issues at this stage require direct observation. Features of this sort include architectural
patterns, street lighting, and condition of existing buildings. This would also include the
immediate surroundings of the site. The reaction of the surrounding buildings towards the
site and people moving around should be analyzed. Other important components of the
neighborhood context include an analysis of existing paths (pedestrian, cyclist, and vehicle),
landmarks and nodes. Landmarks are distinctive sites that provide way-finding for people in
the area, and which define the character of a neighborhood. Nodes are key public gathering
places that encourage people to linger and socialize.
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Size and zoning: Site boundaries can be located by either verifying the dimensions
physically or contacting the county tax assessors office. Zoning classifications, set-backs,
height restrictions, allowable site coverage, uses, and parking requirements are obtained by
obtaining zoning classifications from a zoning map, which can be located from the city
planning department.
Infrastructure, social, and political boundaries.
Legal: Typical legal information can be obtained from the deed to the property. The deed is
held by the owner of the title insurance company. In this deed is information such as the
property description, present ownership, and the governmental jurisdiction the site is located
in, and the city or county.
Natural physical features: Most of this information will be derived from the topographic
features on the site. A contour map of this magnitude can be located from the survey
engineer. Drainage problems as well as existing natural features of trees, ground cover,
ground texture, and soil conditions on the site should be directly observed.
Man-made features: Features located on the site such as buildings, walls, fences, patios,
plazas, bus stop shelters should be noted. The site and location of such features should be
directly measured. Documentation of existing historical districts should be made, some of
which may already have reports completed. Locating this information can be done through
the municipal planning department for the site.
Circulation: The uses of streets, roads, alleys, sidewalks, and plazas are important in this
inventory step. It is not necessarily an analysis of these elements but more an analysis of
what occurs on these circulation gateways.
Utilities: Information for utilities concerning the site can be found through the utility
departments and companies in the local area. Generally this company has a print of the
drawing of this information needed. Information in this print includes the location of all
utilities and their locations around or on the site itself.
42
Sensory: Much of the sensory information collected will be done through firsthand
experience. This type of information is obtained from sketching and photographs (sometimes
aerial photographs). Direct observation of other sensory elements of noise, odors, smoke, and
pollutant areas must also be completed.
Human and cultural: This information can be obtained through census statistics on the
neighborhood. Information regarding these statistics is available from the local municipal
planning agency. This information includes activities among people on the site and their
relationships to these activities.
Climate: This information can be obtained through the local weather service. Conditions
such as rainfall, snowfall, humidity, and temperature over months must be considered and
analyzed. The sun-path and vertical sun angles throughout an entire year are important to
note.
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UNIT IV
SITE CONTEXT
MASTER PLAN
The Government of Tamil Nadu has constituted Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority
(CMDA) in 1974 statutorily under the Tamil Nadu Town and Country Planning Act, 1971.
Chennai Metropolitan Area (CMA) extends over 1189 sq.km.and comprises of Chennai
Corporation, 16 Municipalities, 20 Town Panchayats and 214 villages covered in 10 Panchayats
Unions
One of the main functions of CMDA is to prepare Master Plan for the Chennai Metropolitan
Planning area with contents as provided in the Act.
The Master Plan for CMA was consented by the Government in G.O.Ms No.1313 RD &LA Dept.
dated 1.8.1975 and it was notified in the Tamil Nadu Government Gazette on 5.8.1975.
The Development Control rules under First Master Plan was in force since then. Final sanction
for the First Master Plan was accorded by the Government in G.O. Ms.No.2395, RD & LA
department dated 4.12.1976.
In super session of First Master Plan, the Second Master Plan for CMA was approved in
G.O.Ms.No.190, H&UD dt.2.9.08 and was notified in the Tamil Nadu Govt. Gazette on the same
day.
The Second Master Plan for CMA is in force since 2.9.08. Revised land use plan and Development
Regulations forms part of the Second Master Plan.
A copy of the Second Master Plan report (3 volumes) both in English and Tamil are available for
public view in this Website.
What is a Master Plan?

A comprehensive long-term strategy to develop or improve (land, a community, a building
complex, or the like) through a long-range plan that balances and harmonizes all elements
The Master Plan
Any municipality, from small village to sprawling metropolis, can have a master plan. Small
communities will hire a private planning firm to prepare a plan and submit it to the local
government for approval. In big cities, the department of city planning prepares the master plan.
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The plan itself is a document, sometimes hundreds of pages long that shows a community as it is
and recommends how it should exist in the future. It often contains diagrams, aerial
photos, maps, reports and statistical information that support the planner's vision.
A typical master plan addresses the following:
Transportation and traffic: A good master plan takes all of a city's transportation
corridors into account. A transportation corridor is any channel along which people and
goods move from place to place.
Community facilities: Cities support an array of community facilities that satisfy its
demand for social and cultural enrichment. These include public and charter schools,
police and fire departments and community centers.
Parks and open space: Parks are vital to cities because they serve as the focal points of
neighborhoods and often have community and cultural facilities grouped around them. In
addition to parks, cities maintain a variety of open spaces, which may be undeveloped
lands or land set aside for health and safety reasons or for preservation.
Neighborhoods and housing: Although they have unique characteristics, neighborhoods

in vibrant cities are interconnected and enjoy a dynamic exchange of commuters, ideas
and influences. Successful neighborhoods also emphasize community, livability,
appearance, transportation opportunities, convenience and safety for all residents.
Economic development: A master plan recommends how a city's design can be

enhanced to attract new businesses and protect existing businesses. For example, a plan
might call for redevelopment of a downtown area to include a public market and a
conference/convention center, with the goal of better serving the city.
Land use: The major land use recommendations presented in a master plan result from
analysis of a city's environmental and physical conditions, as well as the planner's vision
for future growth. A map of future land use is generally included and makes
recommendations about land set aside for parks and open space; residential areas;
commercial, office and industrial uses; civic and institutional uses; and mixed-use areas.
Public support of a master plan, no matter how comprehensive or visionary, is crucial to its
overall success. Strong public opposition can arise if city residents believe the proposals of a
plan are too costly, aren't fair and equitable or could interfere with their safety and well-being. In
situations like this, urban planners may have to explain their plans to planning boards, interest
groups and the general public. If opposition cannot be overcome, governments sometimes refuse
to act on proposals of a master plan.
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Once a plan is adopted, implementation can begin. Not all programs can be implemented at once,
so most plans include, usually as part of the appendix, an action agenda that provides an outline
of the short- to medium-term actions essential to getting the master plan off the ground. The
implementation process relies heavily on government authority.
The city may use its grant of the police power to adopt and enforce growth and development
regulations. It may also use its power to tax to raise the money necessary to fund growth and
development. And it may use eminent domain -- the power to force sale of private property for
valid public use -- to enable various infrastructure investments and redevelopment actions in
support of public policy and plans.
Planners must also be aware of zoning laws, which are another way cities control the physical
development of land. Zoning laws designate the kinds of buildings permitted in each part of a
city. An area zoned R-1 might allow only single-family detached homes, whereas an area zoned
C-1 might allow only certain commercial or industrial uses.
Zoning is not without controversy. Zoning ordinances have been challenged as unconstitutional
several times, and some argue that they are tools of racial and socioeconomic exclusion. As we'll
see in the next section, this is just one of many criticisms leveraged against urban planning.
Land Use
A map that shows the types and intensities of different land uses in a particular area.
The Importance of Development Plans/Land Use Policy for Development Control
1.0 Introduction
The topic I have been asked to address today is "The Importance of Development Plans for
Development Control." It is therefore my task to put into context why development plans are
important in the context of the development control function with which most of you are
involved. Let me start by defining the discipline and profession of land-use planning.
Land use planning refers to the process by which land is allocated between competing and
sometimes conflicting uses in order to secure the rational and orderly development of land in an
environmentally sound manner to ensure the creation of sustainable human settlements.
The process of land use planning consists in the main of the two twin functions of
Development/Land use Planning and Development Control. Of necessity, these two functions
must be supported by relevant research and mapping which are also major components of the
land use planning process.
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Having defined the activity let me spend some time to put land-use planning in a wider context:
why do we do it and how does the need for it arise. Land-use planning does not exist in isolation.
It is necessary to view land-use planning as an integral part of the process of national growth and
development. Among other things, this process seeks to identify, articulate and satisfy the basic
social/human needs of a countrys population within the context of available economic/financial
resources and technical knowledge.
People have needs that must be satisfied. For instance, they need housing; jobs; education;
opportunities for recreation; transport; and basic services like water, electricity, clean air and
health care. Social planning and policies attempt to take care of the basic social needs of the
countrys population. Economic planning and policies seek to ensure that the country has a
sound economic base which provides revenue to finance government operations and pay for
provision of services to the public while also ensuring that jobs are available to the countrys
labour force.
Land-use planning seeks to accommodate these needs within a technical and spatial framework.
While houses must be built for the population for example, they cannot be provided in a swamp;
or an area that is unsuitable for housing development because of its terrain, vulnerability to
natural or other disasters, or inability to physically support the building; or in an area that
endangers the health and safety of the occupants or other members of the public.
Similarly, economic decisions to focus on tourism, manufacturing industry or agricultural
development as the basis of the countrys economic development must be translated into landuse terms. First, each of these activities use land. Furthermore, some areas of land are more
suitable for some types of activities than others and some activities have negative impacts on the
terrestrial (land) and/or marine (sea) environments. Also, use of land for one activity often
prevents its use for another activity at the same time.
National social and economic needs are identified and articulated by people themselves, by
politicians; community groups and sometimes by the technical experts, like Land-Use Planners.
These needs are translated into a spatial form or a land-use activity and reflected in land-use
plans, policies and development actions. Land-use planning therefore derives from the need to
satisfy these needs on the ground, in a rational manner and within a technical framework. It is a
crucial part of the process of Integrated Development Planning which includes social and
economic planning and reflects their land-use/spatial components.
Land use planning also takes place within a legal context. At this stage, suffice it to say that the
legal context provides the justification for undertaking land use planning and sets out the powers
and duties of the agency responsible for the planning function - the Development Control
Authority. The legislation also sets out the procedures to be followed, the conditions under which
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they may be carried out and the matters to be covered in executing both the development
planning and development control functions. The law also makes provision for revising and
changing land-use plans and policies to ensure that they are always current and relevant to the
countrys development needs.
The law also provides for remedies for those persons affected by planning and development
decisions/activities and penalties for those who fail to comply with the provisions of the
legislation.
2.0 Development Control
The focus is the development control function of the land use planning process and it is this
activity with which you are most familiar in your daily work. The development control function
seeks to manage and regulate property development to ensure that all development takes place at
an appropriate time and place and in such a manner that it conforms to a pre-determined set of
policies or standards.
Many of you may have asked yourselves or have been asked by others why a system of
development control is necessary in the first place. Let me emphasise that the purpose of
development control is not to stop development or to make life difficult for developers or home
builders. Instead, the main purpose is to ensure the orderly and rational development of land to
create sustainable human settlements that accommodate a variety of land uses to meet the needs
of the people who live in these settlements.
I am sure we can all think of examples of:
inappropriate or poorly sited development which should not be located where it is; or
projects/buildings that do not have the necessary facilities (car parking, sewage treatment
plant) or infrastructure (access roads, drainage, water supply) to support it; or
buildings that are structurally weak and are easily damaged during hurricanes,
earthquakes or other disaster events; or
Development projects which have serious negative impacts on the countrys sensitive
environment, particularly its beaches/coastal areas.
The development control function is an important one and those who work to evaluate
applications for development permission; grant or refuse permission; and inspect development
have a tremendous responsibility to ensure that the problems just identified do not arise. They
have a responsibility to ensure that development occurs in the right place, at the right time; that
buildings are structurally sound and will not endanger the safety or lives of those who live in or
48
use them; that they are provided with the basic services and facilities necessary to support the
purpose for which they are erected; and to ensure that the environment and natural resources of
Antigua and Barbuda are managed carefully and prudently for the enjoyment of present and
future generations.
Notwithstanding the admission of The Honourable Minister St. Luce this morning that there is
sometimes political interference in the work of the Development Control Authority and its
Inspectors, it is still your responsibility to arm yourself with the technical knowledge needed to
understand and communicate to others the need for the standards and policies we are called to
implement. We also need to have the courage of our convictions and stand up for what we know
to be technically sound and safe practices.
3.0 Land Use Policy and Development Control
Development control is the most visible part of the land use planning process and the function
with which members of the public - particularly those engaged in the construction and property
development industries - interact on a daily basis.
However, the development control function cannot and should not operate in a vacuum. This
brings me to the central theme of this presentation. That is, the link between land use policy and
development control. The formulation of land use policy and development standards - often
contained within development plans - provides the contextual framework within which the
development control function operates.
The preparation of Land Use Plans and formulation of land use policies and development
standards are some of the main outputs of the development/land use planning process. Plans are
prepared to:
anticipate the development needs of an area;
identify relevant development issues;
identify opportunities for and constraints to development;
identify areas which are suitable/unsuitable for different types of development;
make proposals for the way in which the area should develop over time; and
Establish policies and standards to guide development.
Plans are also prepared for areas which are already experiencing significant development
pressures or some of the negative effects of growth and development in an effort to find solutions
to these problems and to manage future growth.
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Plans may be prepared for a country as a whole - such as the recently completed Draft National
Physical Development Plan for Antigua and Barbuda - or for specific areas (cities, towns,
villages or other communities) of the country -such as the recently completed Draft St. Johns
Local Area Plan. In addition, Plans may be prepared for certain vulnerable areas within the
country which may cut across settlement (town and/or village) boundaries? Such as a Coastal
Zone Plan or a Watershed Plan.
The Plan is a statement of intent or vision. It sets out how we would like to see the country
develop over a specified time period. It is also a road map: since we have a vision and a goal,
how do we get there? Policies and standards help us to achieve the vision we have set ourselves
for the future development of the country. As the old adage goes: if you don?t know where you
are going, any road can take you there!
Preparation of Plans is a lengthy and time-consuming process. However, land-use planning
agencies are often called upon to make decisions on applications for development permission
before a Plan is prepared or completed. If no Plan or policy statement exists, evaluation of
development proposals may raise critical development issues for which no policy guidance is
available. At such times or in order to pre-empt such situations, the land-use planning agency
may formulate land-use policies/policy statements to address specific development issues when a
quick response is needed and time does not permit preparation of land-use Plan. These may
include, but are not limited to, subdivision policies, industrial location policies, settlement
upgrading policies, development standards etc. Policy statements may also be prepared as an
alternative or supplement to a land-use Plan.
One primary reason for preparing land-use plans and policy statements is to fulfill a legal
requirement of the Land Development and Control Act of 1977. However, plans and policies are
mainly prepared to guide the operation of the development control system and to facilitate the
development decisions of private and public sector developers, including home builders.
In other words, Plans and policies provide the framework within which the development control
process can take place. In the absence of this framework and guidance, how can applications for
development permission be assessed? What criteria will be used to determine whether or not a
development proposal is compatible with nearby activity/land uses or is located on an
appropriate site or includes the necessary facilities to support the proposed activity?
In the absence of a policy framework, the development control system is seen as arbitrary and
people question whether or not there is any sound basis or foundation for the decisions made.
Furthermore, in the absence of a policy framework, decisions are made entirely at the discretion
of the Officer evaluating a development proposal.
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Consequently, decisions can vary according to the person evaluating the proposal and can vary
over time. This leads to inconsistency in decision making and also to uncertainty in the minds of
developers and home builders who can never be sure what development standards they are
required to satisfy or whether their applications/proposals will be positively received by the
DCA. Potential developers are also confused as they are never sure what the rules are and when
they may be changed. And as we have all learned from as early as childhood, it is not fair to
change the rules while the game is being played. Ultimately, this reinforces the perception
among members of the public and the building industry that the development control process is
arbitrary. The process and we who implement it lose credibility in the eyes of those we are meant
to serve.
3.1 Land Use Considerations in Development Control
In Antigua the Development Control Authority operates a type of "One Stop Shop" for
evaluating applications for development permission in so far as two appraisals are conducted by
the Authority. Applications for development permission are assessed to determine:
Land-use suitability
Structural integrity of buildings
In practice however, there is no clear distinction made between the two levels/types of appraisal
and insufficient attention is paid to the analysis of land-use issues. The structural assessment of
buildings will be dealt with in greater detail during the course of this training programme.
However, I would like to outline some of the criteria that should be incorporated when
evaluating the land-use implications of development proposals.
When we receive an application for Development Permission, the first level of assessment
requires us to determine whether or not the use/activity is appropriate for the proposed
site/location. If there is a land-use (zoning) Plan in existence this will provide the first indication
of the suitability of the area for the activity proposed. If not, we have to apply some basic
principles to assist us in evaluating the development proposal.
Notwithstanding this however, the following land-use issues should be considered in determining
an application:
Type of existing land uses
Compatibility of proposed use with surrounding land-uses/activities. That is to say, we

should ask ourselves the following questions:
o
Will the activity generate noise, air or other pollution;
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Will it conflict with existing uses in the area;
Will it increase traffic congestion on nearby streets and how will this be
accommodated;
Will it increase the demand for public services and/or physical or social
infrastructure to support the proposed development?
The physical characteristics of the development site and surrounding land, including topography;
on-site physical features; geology and soil type; drainage patterns etc. Some of these
characteristics are crucial in determining an areas vulnerability to natural disasters. In the
context of the Post Hurricane Georges Disaster Mitigation Project under which this workshop is
hosted, any attempts to mitigate the impacts of disaster events requires us to address these issues
in the practice of development control.
Proximity to wetlands (swamps/mangrove); water courses/rivers; wells; reservoirs;

aquifers; forests; watersheds; beaches/sea; and other sensitive environments.
Availability of physical infrastructure serving the area eg vehicular access roads;

electricity; water.
Availability of social infrastructure to service the proposed development, eg. Schools, job
opportunities, public transport etc.
Existence of exploitable natural resources eg. Minerals, forests. We should consider

whether the proposed development will restrict access to these resources or does it
involve extraction/exploitation or even destruction of these valuable resources.
Size of site (can the site adequately accommodate the proposed building and ancillary
facilities; required building setbacks).
Building and site coverage.
Density of proposed development.
Is there adequate vehicular access to and egress from the site onto existing access roads.
Proposals for disposal of waste generated at the site.
Car parking facilities on-site
Let us now consider some examples of development that takes place in the absence of the
necessary land-use policies to guide the decision-making and/or implementation process. These
examples also highlight some of the problems that may occur if land-use planning issues and
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criteria are not adequately considered during and incorporated into the process of evaluating
development applications:
Proliferation of advertising and directional signs
Antiguas streets are "littered"? With a number of advertising and directional signs which are
erected on wooden stakes randomly placed within the road reserve; abutting privately owned
lands and on utility poles. These signs are unsightly as they do not conform to any design or
aesthetic criteria; they are a potential hazard to motorists since they often block drivers' lines of
vision and obscure views of approaching vehicular and pedestrian traffic; and a potential
obstruction to utility company workers. In the absence of a policy to guide the display of
advertising and directional signs in Antigua and Barbuda, the development control system has no
criteria by which to judge whether or not a sign is too large, too close to the road, within
motorists' line of sight or is aesthetically/visually pleasing.
Proliferation of Roadside Vendors
There is no clearly articulated policy to guide the location of vendors around St. Johns City or
standards for the design and/or construction of their booths. In fact, there is still some debate
about whether or not the erection of vendors booths requires development permission from the
Development Control Authority. The resultant chaos is evident.
Incompatible Uses in Residential Areas
In the absence of an approved land-use policy to guide development in residential and other
areas, a number of "non-conforming" uses have crept into residential areas. For instance, the
proliferation of mechanic shops/garages is a cause for concern among residents due to the noise,
congestion and pollution which these activities generate. However, if there is no clear policy to
guide the location of garages or to specify what types of uses are unacceptable in residential
areas, this problem will persist?
Conflict between Agriculture and Built Development
With the encroachment of residential development onto agricultural land, pockets of farmland
remain between residential communities. While these tracts of land are actively farmed, spraying
of chemical fertilisers and pesticides may cause health concerns for nearby residents. On the
other hand, conversion of agricultural land to residential use removes fertile land from
productive agriculture; splits large tracts of agricultural land, thereby reducing its potential for
viable commercial farming; and restricts the use of certain production methods etc. In the
absence of a land-use policy that reserves specific areas for agriculture, it is likely that
development control decisions will continue to alienate productive agricultural lands;
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compromise the economic and financial viability of the agriculture sector; and inadvertently
increase the possibility of health concerns for nearby residents.
Subdivisions
The Development Control Authority receives many applications to subdivide large parcels of
land to create smaller residential lots; often without the benefit of an overall plan to show how
this may be achieved, the layout of lots or the provision of infrastructure. To date there is no
subdivision policy in use by the Authority. Instead, development control decisions are sometimes
made to approve creation of smaller lots from large parcels on an ad hoc basis. By the time the
larger parcel is completely subdivided in this way, a haphazard layout of buildings is created
with small lots that are inadequately served by road access and other basic infrastructure.
Failure to Enforce Development Standards
Perhaps the most critical example of the importance of land use policy to the development
control process can be observed in the application of development standards. Development
standards are articulated in the Land Development and Control Regulation (No. 20 of 1996) and
the Antigua and Barbuda Building Code and Building Guidelines. New standards are also
recommended in the recently completed Draft National Physical Development Plan for Antigua
and Barbuda and the Draft St. John?s Local Area Plan. However, these standards are sometimes
applied with discretion by the Authority?s staff ? often in situations where the use of discretion is
neither necessary or justified - or not applied at all. This may result in buildings that suffer
structural damage during hurricanes; buildings constructed without the necessary facilities to
meet the needs of their occupants eg inadequate provision of car-parking spaces; structures that
are inadequately setback from roads and/or the coastline.
Uncontrolled Development at Jennings Estate
A former agricultural estate, this area forms part of Antiguas watershed and contains productive
wells and other groundwater resources. Recent uncontrolled development threatens the quality of
the groundwater extracted from this area and alienates valuable agricultural land from
production.
4.0 Conclusion
The land use-planning function must be viewed as an integral part of the national development
process that cannot be viewed in isolation from the other critical elements of that process,
namely social and economic planning.
Land-use policies and plans address a number of issues which the development control staff,
especially the Building Inspectors face on a daily basis while evaluating applications for
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development permission. However, Plans and Policies are only useful if they are implemented
and enforced consistently and religiously with every application. It is also important to ensure
that land-use considerations are fully integrated into the analysis of development applications
and that this takes place prior to evaluating the structural integrity of proposed buildings.
While carrying out the development control function, one should always remain alert to changes
that have occurred which may signal the need to amend Plans, policies and standards. However,
this should not be done arbitrarily or by an individual acting alone under the guise of using
discretionary powers. This creates uncertainty and confusion among developers and
inconsistency and lack of credibility in the development control process. Instead, we should use
the procedures provided for in the legislation or other transparent, administrative procedures for
making such amendments that are necessary to ensure that Plans and policies are always current
and relevant; that decisions are consistent and that developers/applicants are treated fairly.
Site selection criteria for housing development, commercial and institutional projects
1. SITE SELECTION CRITERIA FOR HOUSING DEVELOPMENT
Overview
Site search and selection is a major element of the process of creating a supportive housing
project in which units of housing are being developed. With some exceptions, it is impossible to
seek permanent financing and community support until the site is identified and site control has
been secured. Prior to initiating a site search, it is important to first develop the project concept,
including defining the site and configuration requirements for the proposed supportive housing
project. The site selection process is most successful when it is a methodical search for the site
that best meets established criteria, including size, location, proximity to services and price
factors that will help ensure the project fulfills the needs of future tenants. However, in many
situations, a thorough and careful site search may not be possible. The circumstances that can
impact a site search include:
1. An inadequate inventory of available and appropriate sites in the community
2. A very hot real estate market and competition from for-profit developers with large amounts
of upfront capital
55
3. A limited funding opportunity that doesnt provide adequate time to conduct a thorough site
search
4. A site becomes available that offers cost efficiency, political expediency, and/or other factors
that outweigh its deficiencies
5. Regardless of the challenging circumstances that can influence the site search and selection
process, the primary components of the site selection process include:
Establishing Site Selection Criteria:
Scale
Housing type and construction
Location
Acquisition or lease costs
Zoning considerations
Community acceptance
Establishing Site Selection Criteria
Prior to initiating the site search, or while reviewing an opportunity to acquire a site, it is
essential to carefully define the appropriate criteria for the proposed project by considering the
following:
Scale
The scale or size of the proposed project should relate to the level of need for the housing
identified, as well as to the capacity of the organization to develop and/or manage the property.
Scale also should be contextual, meaning the project should be consistent with the height and
density of the surrounding buildings. Determining the number of units also could be based on the
degree of community support for the project. The project architect can help determine the
maximum allowable development area (based on zoning and floor area ratios), as well as the
appropriate scale for the identified neighborhood.
Housing Type and Construction Approach
The type of housing to be built is a key siting criteria, and different approaches may lend
themselves best to different neighborhood locations. For instance, a development model of
scattered-site, one- and two-family houses may work best in a low-density neighborhood,
whereas larger projects using multi-unit buildings or commercial hotels are generally only
available in urban locations.
56
The construction approach new construction versus rehabilitation also will help guide the
site search. Funding sources sometimes dictate this choice, which may be restricted to one
approach. Construction costs are another important consideration, with rehabilitation costs
generally lower than new construction (unless unusual building conditions are present or historic
preservation standards are required). New construction opportunities will be limited to
neighborhoods that have available (and affordable) vacant land or substandard buildings that can
be demolished, and any demolition costs effectively increase the acquisition costs. Choosing a
rehabilitation development strategy would direct the site search to locations where there are
vacant or partially or fully occupied buildings. The challenges, costs and inevitable delays of
relocating existing tenants should be factored into the decision.
Location
As with all real estate decisions, location is critical in identifying an appropriate site for a
supportive housing development, and each of the following factors must be evaluated:
Public transportation Sites should have good access to public transportation options that
serve important destinations for the tenants, such as supportive services providers,
employment, health care, shopping and recreation. Many tenants will not be able to afford
private transportation, so public transit becomes a necessity. In addition, proximity to good
public transportation may be a requirement or provide a competitive edge for funding
applications.
Employment opportunities Sites should have reasonable access to employment
opportunities and job training. While these opportunities may not be available in the
immediate neighborhood, they should be accessible through public transportation, and within
reasonable commuting distance.
Neighborhood amenities Projects should be located in neighborhoods that have key
residential amenities, such as affordable shopping (especially supermarkets), public libraries,
post offices, banks, parks, open space and recreational facilities. This usually means siting
housing in traditional residential neighborhoods, and not in commercial, manufacturing or
warehousing districts that typically lack such amenities. Proximity to neighborhood
amenities may be a requirement or provide a competitive edge for funding applications.
Community-based services it is critical that supportive housing tenants have easy access
to supportive services available in the community, especially to service programs with
established, formal linkages. Depending upon the projects target population, services related
to substance use and recovery, case management, crisis intervention, parenting programs and
health clinics, Tenants may need health clinics on an ongoing or intermittent basis. If not
57
located in the immediate neighborhood, such services should be easily accessible by public
transportation.
Day care if the planned project will house families with young children, day care services
must be available in the neighborhood or easily accessible near major employment centers.
Lack of access to quality day care will frustrate parents who are working, participating in job
training or seeking employment.
Public schools and related programs for projects serving families, the sites should be in
close proximity to public education resources such as public schools, public or private
preschools, or Head start programs, school readiness programs, and after-school enrichment
and recreation programs. For all target populations, easy access to community colleges,
vocational programs and other higher educational opportunities are important.
Security If possible, the site should not be in an area that has a high crime rate, since
supportive housing tenants may be especially vulnerable to victimization. Sites also should
abide by the principles of defensible space, which suggests low-rise buildings and open site
designs avoid hidden spaces that are conducive to crime (e.g., playgrounds or courtyards
screened from public view).
Acquisition or Lease Costs

The cost of acquiring or leasing a development site may be the overriding consideration for
selecting a property. Many public funding programs have a maximum acquisition or lease cost
(total or per unit caps) that must be considered during the site search. The allowable costs will
often limit the search to those communities that have lower real estate prices. Most public
funders, and all private lenders, will likely require that the purchase price not exceed the
appraised value of the property.
Before initiating the site search, it is also critical to determine whether the funding sources
preferences lean toward purchase or lease. Some public agencies do not have capital available to
acquire sites, but are able to fund lease payments through annual contracts. It should be noted
that there are some serious drawbacks to leasing, including difficulty in maintain quality, cost
and control over the long term.
Zoning Considerations
Zoning also must be carefully considered in making site selection decisions, since local zoning
regulations can frustrate efforts to gain local approval. The project architect can analyze local
Zoning restrictions to help guide the site search. Using zoning maps, it is possible to identify
areas in which to develop a proposed project as-of-right that is, without a zoning variance.
If possible, it is advisable to limit the site search to these areas, since the process of seeking and
58
being granted a zoning variance will add time and uncertainty to the development efforts. It may
give any opponents to the project additional opportunities, and additional leverage, to block the
planned development.
It is often impossible to find suitably priced sites that are politically acceptable to a community
that dont require zoning approvals or discretionary action by a local planning board or
commission. If this is the case, a critical aspect of the due diligence will be to work closely with
city planning staff to identify what discretionary actions will be needed and how long the process
will take.
Community Acceptance
The potential for community opposition to a proposed development should be considered as the
site search is being conducted. Depending upon the assessment of community and political
support in a given neighborhood, as well as the strength of relationships with local leaders and
organizational capacity, this issue may be addressed once a site that meets the projects needs
and criteria has been identified. In planning for the siting of new projects, there are significant
issues that can create community acceptance problems that should be considered when
identifying potential neighborhoods/blocks for development, including:
Outsider Organization Non-profit sponsors that select sites in neighborhoods in which

they do not operate housing or programs may be identified as outsider organizations.
Neighborhood leadership, who would prefer local sponsorship, may not give the project a
fair hearing. This may be a screen for simply opposing the project, rather than the
sponsorship, or it may be a distrust of outside organizations unknown to the neighborhood.
Faced with such challenges in a specific neighborhood, it may be best to seek out wellregarded, community-based partners with whom to work. Such a partnership can take many
forms, from using the local organization as the services provider, property manager or codeveloper, or limiting the role to focus on community outreach and education.
Fair Share/Saturation in some circumstances, community members may claim that their
neighborhood is being asked to accept more than its fair share of supportive housing and/or
other housing programs and services. They may feel saturated with similar projects and are
becoming impacted communities. Some cities, like New York, have fair share plans that
will divert new supportive housing and other housing programs and services away from
neighborhoods that are defined as impacted by having an unequal share of the citywide
homeless services and housing programs. If such concerns are raised, it is critical to assess
whether saturation claims are legitimate or overstated and to work with local officials to
evaluate this issue. In areas where such claims seem legitimate, it may be wise to consider
other locations without concentrations of similar projects. On the other hand, if research
59
indicates that there is no fair share issue, these results should be publicized to disarm the
issue.
Scale/Impact the scale of a supportive housing project can have an undue impact on a
neighborhood, and this impact needs to be considered in siting new projects. For example, a
large project in a low-density residential area could have an adverse impact and would likely
attract opposition from neighbors.
Contextual Design related to scale/impact, the design of supportive housing projects
should be sensitive to the neighborhood context. Largely an architectural issue, designs
should respect the scale, historic quality, setback/street line and architectural styles in the
immediate area. Residents can more easily reject plans that do not fit into the context of the
neighborhood. The design should communicate the goal of integrating the project into the
neighborhood.
Available Neighborhood Services Projects should be sited in neighborhoods that have
access to the required supportive services for the projects target population (e.g., mental
health services) that will not be available on-site. Without the availability of these services,
the project could become vulnerable to community claims that tenants will not be able to
access needed support and could pose a threat to the community.
Private Open Space while not a requirement for siting supportive housing, the ability to
provide private open space for the exclusive use of tenants can help ease the introduction of
new projects, and it is also a nice amenity for tenants. The provision of these spaces, which
can be a landscaped garden or seating or recreation area, can disarm community concerns
that new tenants will congregate in front of the building.
Zoning as noted in earlier in this section, zoning can be a key factor in successfully siting
new projects. Some of the key aspects of a zoning analysis include evaluating parking
requirements, and height and density restrictions for the proposed site. Local governments
sometimes use zoning requirements to thwart projects housing the formerly homeless or
providing related services. The project architect and attorney determine whether the project
can comply with zoning requirements. Therefore, it is clearly preferable to avoid the need for
a zoning variance when possible, and to proceed as of right. Moreover, some local zoning
laws may violate federal fair housing laws, and they may be vulnerable to legal challenges
from advocates for the homeless.
60
SITE SELECTION CRITERIA FOR COMMERCIAL PROJECTS

Location
The value of a commercial building depends upon its location,Whether it is located in the center
of the region or at the borders or on the main road or away from the main road.
For a good commercial building it should be on the main road and in the center of the region.
Climate of Region:
The strength and stability of building mainly depends upon the climate of the region in which it
Is going to be constructed.
As commercial buildings are very important and expensive form economic points,it must be cons
tructed according to the terms and conditions of region. So that it can be remain safeform floods,
rains, snowfalls etc.
Availability of Raw materials:
Usually commercial buildings require more construction materials as compared to a normal
Residence. So before the construction of the commercial building it must be sure that raw materi
als are available nearby. Otherwise it will become uneconomical. The sale material availability
also has a part in this.
Cost and time frame:
Before the construction of commercial a through investigation should made for the cost and time
frame.
Cost and time frame mainly depends upon the location and the availability of Raw materials.
Populations of the region:
Commercials building are constructed to meet the need of the local population. For this purpose,
must be constructed in the region having sufficient population in which the commercial building
can restore its cost.
SITE SELECTION CRITERIA FOR INSTITURIONAL PROJECTS (likewise)
61
UNIT V
SITE PLANNING AND SITE LAYOUT PRINCIPLES
VEHICULAR AND PEDESTRIAN CIRCULATION (Ref. VEHICLE N PEDES Pdf)

CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS INDIA
Non-urban roads within the country are classified into six types:
Expressways:
The purpose of expressways would be to cater for motility of large volumes of motor
traffic at high speeds They connect major areas of increasing visitor count and they are
intended to serve trips of medium and long length in between prominent residential areas,
industrial or business concentrations and the central business district They may be
divided highways with high standards of geometric and full or partial control of access
and provided generally with grade separation at intersections
Vehicle parking, loading and unloading of products and passengers and pedestrian traffic
are not allowed on these kinds of highways
National Highways:
These include main highways running throughout the distance and breadth of the country
connection major parts, highways of adjoining countries, State capitals, large commercial
and tourist centers etc.
State Highways:
These include main arterial routes of any state connecting district headquarters and major
cities in the state and connecting these with National Highways of the neighboring states
Major District Roads:

They are essential roads with a district serving parts of production and markets, and
linking these together or while using the main highways
Other District Roads:

Theyre streets serving non-urban areas of production and providing them with outlet to
market centers, taluka/tehsil headquarters or other main roads
62
Village Roads:
These are roads joining villages or group of villages with each other and also to the
nearest road of any higher class Urban Roads:
Urban roads are classified into your following five categories:
Expressways:
The function of expressways is the similar regardless of if the traverse through urban
areas or non-cities
Arterial Streets:
This system of streets, together with expressways where they exist,serves as the key
network for through traffic flows Significant intra-urban travel, for instance, among
central downtown and outlying residential areas or between significant suburban zones
develops on this system These roadways may generally be spaced under 1-5 km in
hugely developed central business places and at 8 km or maybe more in sparsely
developed urban fringes The arterial streets are generally divided highways with full or
partial access Parking, loading and unloading activities are usually restricted and
regulated Pedestrians should cross only at intersections
Sub-arterial Streets:
These include functionally much like arterial streets but with somewhat lower level of
travel mobility. Their spacing are different from about 0 5 km in the central downtown
to three 5 km inside the sub-urban fringes
Collector Streets:
The function of collector streets should be to collect visitors from nearby streets and feed
it for the arterial and sub-arterial streets or vice versa. These may be located in residential
neighbor hoods, commercial areas and industrial areas usually, complete approach is
granted on these roadways from abutting properties. There are not car parking limitations
apart from during the peak hours
Local Streets:
These are intended mainly to supply use of abutting properly and normally will not carry
substantial amounts of traffic Majority of visits in urban areas originate from or terminate
63
on these roads Local streets could possibly be non-commercial, commercial or industrial,

depending on the predominant use of the nearby area. They permit unrestricted parking
and pedestrian movements
Parking
Auto Parking Basic Parking Rule
Do not park any vehicle on the part of a road where traffic is flowing. Drive the vehicle off th
e road onto the shoulder while stopping.
Do not park in such a place where one do not have a clear view for at least 50 meters in both
the directions.
Do not park in a place that blocks a vehicle already parked, a sidewalk, crosswalk, pedestrian
crossing or road entrance.
Do not park near the public entrance to a hotel, theatre or public hall when it is open to the
public.
Do not park near any intersection or a round-about.
Park the vehicle on the left side in the direction of the traffic.
Parallel Parking
The term parallel parking means parking the vehicle in a line i.e. front to rear. The parking area
should be one and half times longer than the vehicle to be parked. Check the following rules for
parallel parking:
Slowly reverse into the space provided for parking, turning the steering wheel anti-clockwise.
Take care that you have cleared the vehicle ahead.
After seeing the outside rear corner of the vehicle in front of your space, turn the steering wh
eel clockwise. Bring the vehicle in line with the curb.
If the vehicle is not parallel to the curb, drive forward to straighten. Make sure the wheels of t
he car are straight.
Angular Parking
The term angular parking means parking the vehicle at an angle to the curb of the road. The
following basic rules is to be followed in angular parking.
64
First and foremost look through the mirrors and over the shoulder for traffic behind you.
Give the left indicator to signal to the vehicle behind that you intend to park the vehicle.
Steer into the provided parking space and straighten the wheels.
Keep equal distance on both the sides, pull the handbrake and shift into first or reverse gear
Perpendicular Parking
By perpendicular parking it means that parking at right angle of the road curb. Always revers
e the vehicle in the parking space so that you can exit comfortably.
Pass ahead of the parked vehicle next to available space.
Turn the steering anti-clockwise and reverse slowly until you are in the centre of the parking
space. Close the window and lock the vehicle.
Precautions While Passing Parked Vehicles

Be careful while passing by a parked vehicle. Never open the door without looking.
Beaware, a child might be playing and can come in front of your vehicle hiddenly.
In an emergency, if you have to stop by the side of the road, make sure the stop is very short
What Not to Do while Parking

Do not park:
On a foot path.
Near traffic crossing,
Roundabout or a turn.
On the main road.
Where your vehicle obstructs traffic.
On wrong side of the road.
Where parking is prohibited.
65

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AR6512

SITE ANALYSIS AND PLANNING

To teach the importance of site and its content in architectural creations

Site Analysis and Planning, Semester 5, 2013 Regulations

Ar. Vashni Livingston, Asst. Prof. MOSA

To understand how natural factors (landscape), socio-economic forces (planning), and

To understand the importance of graphic and verbal communication skills.

Definition of Plot, Site, Land & Region

An area of ground on which a town, building, or monument is constructed.

Site Analysis and Planning, Semester 5, 2013 Regulations

Ar. Vashni Livingston, Asst. Prof. MOSA

Such a plan of a site is a "graphic representation of the arrangement of buildings, parking,

The solid part of the surface of the Earth: an area of ground

Site Analysis and Planning, Semester 5, 2013 Regulations

Ar. Vashni Livingston, Asst. Prof. MOSA

Length is a physical quantity.

Site Analysis and Planning, Semester 5, 2013 Regulations

Ar. Vashni Livingston, Asst. Prof. MOSA

The meter is a unit of length that represents a definite predetermined length.

Site Analysis and Planning, Semester 5, 2013 Regulations

Ar. Vashni Livingston, Asst. Prof. MOSA

Site Analysis and Planning, Semester 5, 2013 Regulations

Ar. Vashni Livingston, Asst. Prof. MOSA

Site Analysis and Planning, Semester 5, 2013 Regulations

Ar. Vashni Livingston, Asst. Prof. MOSA

Datum and coordinate systems

Cadastral or boundary surveying: a survey that establishes or re-establishes boundaries of a

Deformation survey: a survey to determine if a structure or object is changing shape or

Site Analysis and Planning, Semester 5, 2013 Regulations

Ar. Vashni Livingston, Asst. Prof. MOSA

Dimensional control survey: This is a type of survey conducted in or on an non-level surface.

Site Analysis and Planning, Semester 5, 2013 Regulations

Ar. Vashni Livingston, Asst. Prof. MOSA

The surveying profession

Site Analysis and Planning, Semester 5, 2013 Regulations

Ar. Vashni Livingston, Asst. Prof. MOSA

Surveying instruments & their application

Site Analysis and Planning, Semester 5, 2013 Regulations

Ar. Vashni Livingston, Asst. Prof. MOSA

Site Analysis and Planning, Semester 5, 2013 Regulations

Ar. Vashni Livingston, Asst. Prof. MOSA

Site Analysis and Planning, Semester 5, 2013 Regulations

Ar. Vashni Livingston, Asst. Prof. MOSA

Basic SURVEYING EQUIPMENTS

Chain and Tape

Site Analysis and Planning, Semester 5, 2013 Regulations

Ar. Vashni Livingston, Asst. Prof. MOSA

Site Analysis and Planning, Semester 5, 2013 Regulations

Ar. Vashni Livingston, Asst. Prof. MOSA

Site Analysis and Planning, Semester 5, 2013 Regulations

Ar. Vashni Livingston, Asst. Prof. MOSA

Case 1- Graphical Method:

The mid ordinate rule:

The average ordinate rule:

Case 2: Instrumental method:

Site Analysis and Planning, Semester 5, 2013 Regulations

Ar. Vashni Livingston, Asst. Prof. MOSA

Different methods for the calculation of Areas in the field of Surveying

Midpoint ordinate rule

Midpoint ordinate rule | Method for calculating area in Surveying

Site Analysis and Planning, Semester 5, 2013 Regulations

Ar. Vashni Livingston, Asst. Prof. MOSA

Example of the area calculation by midpoint ordinate rule

O1 = 10, O2 = 13, O3 = 17, O4 = 16, O5 = 19, O6 = 21, O7 = 20, O8 = 18