METBD 330: Thermodynamics

Chapter 2:
PURE SUBSTANCE: Fixed chemical
composition, throughout H2O, N2, CO2,
Air (even a mixture of ice and water is pure)
COMPRESSED LIQUID: NOT about to
vaporize
(Sub-cooed liquid) e.g., water at 20oC and 1
atmosphere

SATURATED LIQUID: about to vaporize

e.g., water at 100oC and 1 atmosphere

SATURATED VAPOR: about to

condense
e.g., water vapor (steam) at 100oC and 1 atm.

SUPERHEATED VAPOR: NOT about to

condense
e.g., water vapor (steam) at >100oC and 1 atm.

Tv Diagram for Heating H2O at

Constant Pressure (Figure 2-11):

Pressure Cooker example:

the boiling

temperature varies with pressure

Saturation Temperature:

the boiling

temperature at a given pressure

Saturation Pressure:

the pressure at which

boiling occurs at a given T

Liquid-Vapor Saturation Curve for

Water (Figure 2-12):

T-v Diagrams:

useful in studying and

understanding phase change processes.

For water (Figure 2-13):

CRITICAL POINT:
the saturated liquid and saturated
vapor states are identical
No saturated mixture exists - the
substance changes directly from the
liquid to vapor states.
LOOK at Table A-1:
for H2O:

 PCR = 22.09 MPa

TCR = 374.14 oC (or 647.3 oK)
vCR = 0.003155 m3/kg (or .0568
m3/kmol)

MORE T-v DIAGRAMS (Figure 2-15):

P-v DIAGRAMS (Figure 2-16):

Note:
Constant Temperature lines go downward.

P-T DIAGRAM (Figure 2-22): Shows the

TRIPLE POINT

The
ONLY
point
where all
3 phases
(solid,
liquid,
and
vapor)
can exist
in
equilibriu
m
The
triple
point for
H2O:
T=
0.01oC
P=
0.6113
kPa
(0.6%
of 1 atm)

ENTHALPY, H

 another property of pure

substances (like internal energy, U)
U is a function ONLY of the
temperature of the substance
H is formed by combining the
internal energy, U, and work done
in the form, PV. PV = (N/m2)(m3) =
N-m = Joules
on a per unit mass basis: h = u +
Pv (specific enthalpy)
H is a function of BOTH
temperature and pressure.
PROPERTY TABLES
used to look up the properties for
various substances at many
temperatures and pressures

 LOOK at Tables A-4 and A-5 for

saturated water (in SI units,
Appendix 2 has English units)
Table A-4 is property data,
tabulated vs. Temperature
Table A-5 is property data,
tabulated vs. Pressure
vf = specific volume of the saturated
LIQUID
vg = specific volume of the saturated
VAPOR
vfg = the difference between the
specific volume of the saturated vapor
and saturated liquid = (vg - vf)

LOOK in Table A-4

find Temperature of 100oC in the
left column
the saturation pressure at this
temperature is 0.10133 MPa (or
101.33 kPa)
vf = 0.001044 m3/kg (saturated
LIQUID)

 vg = 1.6729 m3/kg (saturated

VAPOR)
Calculate: vfg = vg - vf = 1.6729 0.001044 m3/kg
Also, in this table:
uf, ufg, and ug, the specific internal
energy data (kJ/kg)
hf, hfg, and hg, the specific enthalpy
data (kJ/kg)
hfg is the "heat of vaporization", or
the energy required to completely
vaporize from the saturated liquid
state to the saturated vapor state.
sf, sfg, and sg, the specific entropy
data (kJ/kg oK)
SATURATED LIQUID-VAPOR
MIXTURES:

Find the
properties of a
mixture using the
QUALITY.
QUALITY
defines the
proportions of the
liquid and vapor
phases in the
mixture.

QUALITY is defined:

o QUALITY, x, is never used to

describe compressed
liquid or superheated vapor !!
o Quality may be expressed as a
percentage: from 0% to 100%,
where 0% is a saturated liquid
and 100% is a saturated vapor.

is treated

as
mt vavg = mf vf + mg vg

mf = mt - mg

<-- dividing by the total mass

and
applying the definition of Quality,
x
vavg = (1 - x) vf + x vg

Also, x = (vavg - vf) /vfg

Quality is used
to find other
properties of
saturated liquidvapor mixtures
(Fig. 2-32):
o

uavg
= uf + x
ufg and,

x = (uavg - uf )/ufg
o

havg
= hf + x
hfg and,

x = (havg - hf )/hfg
o

ALW
AYS
check:

hf <= havg <= hg

= vf - x vf + x vg
= vf + x (-vf + vg)
vavg = vf + x vfg
(a common way to evaluate the
quality)

EXAMPLE:
GIVEN: 0.05 kg of water at 25oC in
a container of 1.0 m3 volume.
FIND: the phase description,
pressure, and quality (if
appropriate).
WHY might the quality be
inappropriate ???
Procedure:
o Find the proper table: Water +
given T, use Table A-4
o Look up vf = 0.001003 m3/kg
vg = 43.36 m3/kg
o Calculate v (= vavg) = V/m = 1.0
m3/0.05 kg = 20 m3/kg
o Since vf < vavg < vg the phase is
saturated liquid-vapor mixture

Since this is a saturated state: P

= P sat@25C = 3.169 kPa

o Finally, x = (vavg - vf)/(vg - vf) =

(20 - 0.001003)/(43.36 0.001003) = 0.461 = 46.1%
SUPERHEATED VAPOR:
o no longer any liquid, NOT about to
condense.

o characteristics:
at a given P, T > TSAT or

at a given T, P < PSAT or

at either a given P or T, v > vg or h >
hg or u > ug
o Evaluate the properties of superheated
water in Table A-6
Table A-6 has a different format than
saturated data tables (A-4 and A-5),
because P and T are now independent
i.e., for a given pressure, a series of
temperatures are tabulated

EXAMPLE 2-7
Water at P = 0.5 MPa, h = 2890
kJ/kg. Find T.
o Check Table A-5 (given P) finding
hg = 2748.7 kJ/kg
o since h > hg, this is a
superheated vapor !
o From Table A-6 at P = 0.5 MPa,
find two rows that bracket the
given h
Temperature (oC)

Enthalpy (kJ/kg)
h of 2890 kJ/kg is

Make your own Interpolation Table:

Temperature (oC)

Enthalpy (kJ/kg)

200

2855.4

T
250

2890
2960.7

COMPRESSED LIQUID:
o no vapor, all liquid, NOT about
to vaporize

o characteristics:
at a given P, T < TSAT or
at a given T, P > PSAT or
at either a given P or T, v <
vf or h < hf or u < uf
Usually we approximate
compressed liquid behavior
(Figure 2-33) evaluated at the
given TEMPERATURE (dont use
the pressure)
o v = vf@T

o h = hf@T

o u = uf@T
Before we leave this section, look
at Tables A-8, A-9, A-10.
This data is for Refrigerant 134a,
commonly used in air conditioning
systems. You have the same tables:
Saturated liquid-vapor mixtures (both
a temperature and pressure table),
and the superheated vapor table.
Problems with R-134a can be treated
using the tables just like problems
with water or steam.
IDEAL GASES:
The Ideal Gas Equation is: P v = R
T
o Alternative to using Tables

o Defines the state of a gas by

relating T, P, and v
o R is the gas constant for the
specific gas being analyzed
o T is the absolute temperature
o P is the absolute pressure
P v = R T is valid for gases with low
density (). Low density is found
when pressure is low and/or
temperature is high.
Test for Ideal Gas behavior (p. 62):

The gas is:

1) at any temperature,

if PR << 1

2) at high temperatures, if TR > 2

IDEAL
IDEAL
unless PR >> 1

The gas constant, R = Ru/M

where: Ru = the universal gas constant

(PR = P/PCR)

(TR = T/TCR)

Ru = 8.314 kJ/kmole-K (for all gases)

M = the molecular weight of the

gas (kg/kmole ) Table A-1
P V = N Ru T
uses N, the number of moles of
the gas molecules
also, since V = m v, P V = m R T
where m is the mass
UNITS:
P v = R T gives (kPa) (m3/kg) =
(kJ/kg-oK) (oK)
Notice: 1 kJ = 1 kPa-m3
For changes of state (with a fixed
mass of Ideal gas):
P1 v1 = R T1 and P2 v2 = R T2
(P1 v1)/T1 = R and (P2 v2)/T2 = R

(P1 v1)/T1 = (P2 v2)/T2

Can you use the Ideal Gas Law for water
vapor ????
Almost NEVER, only at very low pressures, < 10
kPa

NON-IDEAL Gas Behavior:

Compressibility Factor
Pv=ZRT
where Z = compressibility factor
for gases which are not quite IDEAL
Z is the ratio of the ACTUAL specific
volume to the IDEAL specific
volume of the gas
Z = (vACTUAL)/(vIDEAL)
Z is found in the charts in Figure 240 and Appendix A-13, using the
quantities:

PR (Reduced Pressure) =
P/PCRITICAL
TR (Reduced Temperature) =
T/TCRITICAL
vR ("Reduced" Specific Vol.)
= vACTUAL PCR / (R TCR)
The Compressibility charts can be
used for ALL GASES.
EXAMPLE: Air at 164oK, 10.17 MPa.
What is Z ??
Table A-1: Find TCR and PCR for AIR
TCR = 132.5oK and PCR = 3.77 MPa
TR = T / TCR = 164oK / 132.5oK =
1.24
PR = P / PCR = 10.17 MPa / 3.77 MPa
= 2.7
Use Figure 2-40, READ Z from the
graph.

Also notice, in Fig A-13, you can

also read vR from the graph
OTHER EQUATIONS OF STATE
(have more terms - applicable in
larger range of TR and PR, see Fig.
2-48)
Van der Waals (2 constants): (P +
a/v2)(v - b) = R T
Beattie-Bridgeman (5 constants)
Benedict-Webb-Rubin (8 constants)
Strobridge (16 constants)
Virial (power series form)