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Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Chapter
I1
The
November
present
State
of
Kerala
was
formed
on
1st
linguistic
basis
Malabar
of
the
and
Kasaragod
British and
which were
Kochi
and
under
Pladras
Travancore,
two
the
princely states.
Malabar
fall
of
Tipu
to
the
Treaty
Presidency
of
from
Kurumbranad,
taluks
namely,
Wynad,
1.
New Delhi
2.
of
nine
Kozhikode,
Palakkad.
1t
was
3.
According
to
by
Coimbatore
a census
of Malabar
2,261,250, in
2,648,172 and
1881 to
2,365,035
and
of
in
1891
these, the
was
comparatively
high
in
to
and
Malabar
with
51821
were
literate in English.'
1901,
population.
were
31,894, in 1831
70327, in 1901
84408
of
and
of
students
in
1903-
of education.
4.
flalabar,
Ward and Corner, A Descriptive flemoir of
Government of Kerala, 1995, Originally published in 1906.
5.
6.
Ibid P.211
7.
8.
Population
was
steadily
Series, Madras,
TABLE
EDUCATIONAL LEVEL
Taluks
Under
Instruction
Instructed
Illiterate
including
not selected
Total
Chirakkal
9,486
17,772
245,411
272,669
Kottayam
5,567
12,764
147,444
165,795
Kurumbranad
7,944
20,206
232,874
261,024
Wynad
1,370
3,853
82,868
88,091
Calicut
6,384
18,721
180,857
205,962
Eranad
5,114
14,823
276,206
296,143
Valluvanad
7,117
19,149
281,836
308,102
Palakkad
11,018
25,703
305,733
342,454
Ponnani
12,769
27,762
352,123
392,654
9.
Plalabar
Vol.1 Madras 1989, P.106
Source-Willian Logan
of these under instruction 59,264 were males and 9550 were
females.Of the instructed 147167 were males and 20009 were
females
TABLE
Year
University
Pupils
I1
High School
Pupils
10
Middle
School
Pupils
whose occupation
were
agriculture as occupation1'.
In
431,263
who
was
followed
I11
S1.No.
Taluks
13
Families
Chirakkal
Kottayam
Kurumbranad
Calicut
Eranad
Valluvanad
Ponnani
Total
1,017
...............................................................
11. Census of India, 1881
Madras
Vo1.V P.141
21
13. Source: The details are given in Malabar. Logan Madras 1989
PP. 119 -120.
The
order.
were
to
are
Brahmins
Nairs
is
Nambudiris
or
and Nairs.
rigid
and
occupations
highly
stratified
Caste
order
existed
caste
with
26,333
and
history
explain
the
origin
of
Kerala,
evolution
of
caste
explanation
of
system
or
an
today, Kerala
is
created
Kerala
the land
by
which
Brahmins
Parasurama
brought
other
in all capacities.l6
perceived
only
as
successful attempt
in
creating
be
an
of
the
who
been
referred
to
E.M.S.Namboodiripad.
lowel
as
The traditional
Jati,Janmi,
status
Naduvazhitham
by
how
17. E.M.S.Nambudiripad
Kerala Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow
Thiruvananthapuram 1969 - P.41.
According
out of these
subsequently
gramas.l8
32
a
number
Tulunadu
of
and
upagramas
32
in
Kerala
and
(3) E.M.S.Nambudiripad
says that instead of thinking that
the different castes of Kerala have come from outside,
it is reasonable
to believe that the castes were
formed due to the growth of inequality in society.
E.M.S.Keralathinte
Deseeya Prasnam, Trivandrum 1955,
P.XII.
(4) Raghava
Varier
and Rajan Gurukkal put forward the
view
that
it is reasonable to think that these
Brahmin might have migrated from neighbouring areas.
Kerala Charithram, Sukumarapuram,l991,P.110.
(5) M.G.S.Narayanan is of the view that the influence of
Brahmins might have been due to royal patronage, See
P.142 - 144.
Perumals of Kerala, Calicut, 1996
Those
fertile plains
The
family
the
names
continued
area. 21
because
Brahmin
villages
cultivation.22
It
centered
round
areas
fit
the
Kerala
social
structure and
dominance
of
distinctions
sphere.
The
caste
also
Brahmins.
emerged
settlements centred
socio-economic,
Along
based
with
on
caste.
educational
of
for
paddy
sector
Nambudiris
the
rising
this, occupational
These
artistic,
Most
divisions, social
the
agricultural
of
centres.
Brahmin
centres
of
The
two
Alathur,
Karathur,
Karikkad,
Isnamangalam.
22. M.G.S.Narayanan
and
Veluthat Kesavan, "History of the
Nambudiri Community in KeralaW,Frits stael Agni, Berkeley,
1983, Vol.11, P.261.
to
Brahmins.
property
Brahmins
was
managed
were
by
related
in
both.
The
the
the
came
to
landed
Apart
and
of
managed
production
had
extensive
devotees.
from
medieval
the
period
temples
temple
capacity
means
the Brahmins
Devaswam
and
during
the
The
arts. 23
painting
centres
Kudiyattam,
to
be
of
multi
functional
Sculpture,
these
temple
character.
For
how
the
temple
catered
to
the
daily
and
necessary
R.S.Sharma,
Sociai Change in Early Medieval
Devaraj Chaman Memorial Lecture, Delhi, 1 9 6 9
India,
P.6.
bhattas,
cattas, tevaticci and that the temple received three lakhs para
of
paddy
thirty
one
the
for
temple. 25
land
~erumcellur,
And
Karikattu
Subrahmanya temple. 26
Brahmins
settlement had
in
wealthy
of
the
recitation
of
property
economic
and a new
agrarian order
The
management
facilitated
of
their
body
of
paritai
existed
affairs
of
the
people
rituals
and
reciprocal
employed
status
understanding
by
the
Brahmins
group. Each
obliged
to
or
serve
mutual
in
the
community.
based
dependence, they
capacity
was
of
and
were
superior
each
Blacksmith,
on
felt
Carpenter,
It
occupation
cannot
and
basis
of
their
ensured
duties
that
from
they
pollution.
while
essential
consolidating
brahmins
services
were
able
caste. 2 9
This
ideological
the
dominance
could
and
to
the
be
but
temple
festivals
provided
The
and
These
all
get
together
purpose
the
centres.
involvement
for
theatre
as social events
which attracted
retaining
immense property, an
efficient
administrative machinery
or
temples, they
became
the
trustee also.
It
as the
functions
had
was
management
for
the
of
royal
localities, the
constituteed the
of contemporary
occupying
the
services.
Gradation
occupation
emerged
according
to
rendered
their
their
birth
and
Brahmins
forming
third,
the
actual
the
and
had
claimed
to
rights
the
or
capacity
production.
of
receive gifts on
determined
in
entitled
Janmi-tenant
participation
Janmis,
relationship
production,
and
they were
without
able
to
caste
direct
claim
returns and thus enjoy life without any physical labour. 3 7
the
with
the
emergence
intermediaries also
cultivated it. 38
or
of
the
exempt
land owning
actual
from
tax.
class,
the
the
land
nor
protection, Nairs
The
land
was
protector
shares
(a) among
( b ) the actual
the
farmer
cultivator
divided
kanakkaran
(c) the
Janmi
the
landlord. 4 0
It is apparent
successful
in
the
were
the
is
Brahmins
4U.
or
in
Commission,
(ed)
called
Tulu
only
Nambudiri is
honorific
derivation
which
derived
is
from Nam
indicates their
status as great
It
The
and
word
(to impart)
scholars.
Nambudiris
many
but
Sama Vedis
that
among
are
few.
like
Vedi,
are
to
note
those
and
Vedis
interesting
It is
(an
Another
Yajur
is
tiri
pure).
and
who
teachers
and
Gramani
noble brahmins.
recite
and
interdining
or
marital
to
recite
relationship were
not
Castes of Cochin
rites.
birth
like
upanayana
is
initiation
years. 43
brahmacharya
were
life
The
tied
and
celibacy
or
The
children had to
continue
4.
They
learning,
to
means retiring
life is
from
allowed
which
literally
only
other Brahmins,
on
the
eve of
the
marriage,
Nambudiris
The
to the children
was
of life
temple
and its
world
Nambudiri
bath,
They
did
not
or
outlook
prayers and
remained
humanitarian
to
from
them
an umbrella.
chores
of
had
like
kitchen.
to
cover
important
temple
convinced of
regard
denied.
husband as
Though
men
could
enter
was
into
women
on
was
women
was
rigid
part of
the
totally
marital
~ambudiri
expected
morality
code
obvious attempt
Regarding the
Numbudiris,they were
structure of
and
family
followed
within
three
have
the
younger
the
laison
for
no
claim over the father or his property. the child could not even
touch
Brahmin
without
sin.
partition
or
to
disintegration.
protect
The
ideology
Brahmaswam
the
property
property
of
the
Rigid
this
community.
Thus
from
his
consequences.
marry
Many
could
not
men
or
three
wives
living
competition trying
married
to
illam
in the same
satisfy the
in
husband.
once
while
spirit
Old
of
Nambudiris
widows
two
full
while
Nambudirl
pattern,
rigid
intelligence, free
had
to
was,
and
dressing
out, they
hide
their
( 3 ) Yogakshema
project
the
silent
face
and
ornaments
to
wear
gold
brass
or
occassions.
interest
should
boys
grew
the
by
their age,
to
partition.
eldest
protect
Thus
son
the
property
without
alienation
or
empowered
the
of
marrying
aphans.
relationships.
They
indulged
in
loose
in
sexual
children.
49, Yogakshema,
antarjanams
projects
the
age
old
entering
into
restrictions
any
an
face and head with an umbrella. They were not to wear gold
ornaments except a manyalasutra and could wear only brass or
bronze bangles.Gold jewellery was worn only during occassions.
Their world was confined to the interior kitchen and interest
confined to daily prayers and rituals.49 At every step of their
life, they had to bear negative inst uctions like they should
not talk loudly, should not go out, should not talk with boys
etc. Thus from childhood itself, th y were made to realise the
;d. This
distinction grew by
number
houses,
they
Though
their
they
own
had
to
upanayana,
own
own
interior.
exgamous
He
relationship did
of
property.
secure
His
family
aphan
can
well
be imagined,
when
one
activists
of
take
the
fact,
of
the
one
can
In
urge
to
aphan. 5 0
forced
the community to deprive the male members other than the eldest
one,
after
the
marriage
girl.
each
match.
away
the
girl
saw
house.
The
called
shoulders.
The
was
It
only
bridegroom
He
special
bride's
attire
over
hand
his
and
string
tied
completely
t o h i s r i g h t arm.The b r i d e had t o
w i t h a s h a w l a n d o n l y t h e hand i s
cover
seen
herself
o u t s i d e . 51
s h e h a d t o k e e p a n a r r o w a n d m i r r o r i n h e r h a n d s . They t o g e t h e r
had
to
husband
t a k e s e v e n s t e p s f o r w a r d where s h e i s s t o p p e d
by
h o l d i n g h e r f e e t and t h e n
other
by
rituals
her
follow.
M a r r i a g e c o n t i n u e d f o r f i v e d a y s . The n e x t s t a g e w a s t a k i n g t h e
bride
t o t h e bridegroom's
kudiveppu
h o u s e and it w a s c a l l e d
H e r e a l s o some r i t u a l s f o l l o w by making t h e b r i d e s i t
centre
in
t h e c o u r t y a r d and o n l y antarjanams
at
the
conduct
this.
Formal c e r e m o n i e s w e r e c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g p r e g n a n c y a n d t h e b i r t h
of
a c h i l d . Nambudiris o b s e r v e p o l l u t i o n f o r t e n d a y s
death
o f a r e l a t i v e . 5 2 The d a i l y r o u t i n e , c u s t o m and
on
the
ideology
of t h e Nambudiri l i f e was d e t e r m i n e d by t r a d i t i o n a n d r e l i g i o n .
While
there
was
u n e q u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d between castes,
up
of
A s d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r , t h e i d e n t i t y o f a woman
was
the
Nambudiris.
unequal
status
inside
the
family
set
house.
H e r e v e r y move w a s c u r t a i l e d by q u o t i n g c e r t a i n p u r a n i c s l o k a s .
51. S e e t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n
52
Bhaskaranunni-P
T r i s s u r , 1988
Pathonpatham
PP.65
67.
Noottanddile
Keralam,
instance, a
fear
or
infertility.
sleeping.
sleep
such
ornaments
for
eats,
eating
she
A
called
curious
practice
adultery.
should
up
and
Sheelavati
followed by
this
community
Nambudiri
on
is
woman
light
or
women.
suspected of
for
four
for this purpose was organised with the sanction from the local
chieftain.
Thus
Smarthas54
held
the
trial or enquiry.
Swaroopamchollal
(5) Udakavichchedam
(3) Smarthavicharam
the
(4)
(6) Shuddabhojanam.
55
had
to
kaimokku.
The
or
vrishalis
suspicion was
under
when
interrogated.
At
this
stage, if
the
kept
relatives,
permitted
is
kept
at
to
called
enter
is
temples
the
or
her
from
her
relatives
were
not
participate
function.
Next
consisting
of a
Akakkovil,
Dasivicharam,
in
smarthavicharam.56
any
committee
social
area called
representative, two
contacts
family
and
days,
peaceful
future.58
In any
case, what
of
56
Kanipayyoor
Sankaran Nambudiripad,
Ente
Kunnamkulam, 1963 Vol. I11 PP.118-127.
the
mat
or
assurance
samarthas
Smaranakal,
Ente
intended
code.
was
The
prescribed
verdict
of
boy,
moral
pattar
Next is udhaka
vichchedam.
Udhaka
is
from
Now
her
perform
This
dead
out,
Kottubali
and
is
by
the illom for all relatives and neighbours. This was to make it
known that the relatives of the sadhanam have been accepted
by
others.
number
of
escape routes
for
men
involved
there
in
the
op.cit
should
cases
where
such
cases,
accepted into
her
exceptional
proved.
illom
family,
and
This sort of
trial
moral
sambandhams,
status was
Numbudiri
sapatnis and
to
that
they
should
be
the
procreators
Their
have
identity
ensure
In
of
was
Thatri,
daughter
of
Xalpakassery
kathakali.
Her
neighbour
Kandanchata
in
Ashtamurthy
a ravishing
to
Nambudiri
any
music
Vasudeva
was
and
~ambudiri
of chastity and
dignity.
(3)
(4)
A t r i a l was o r d e r e d ,
protection.
presumed
s h e w a s k e p t u n d e r s t r i c t s u r v e i l l a n c e and
The t r i a l
that
she
continued
identification
I t h a s t o be
trial
w i t h proper evidence
and
she
like
the
smarthas
challenging
40 days.
was p r e p a r e d f o r s u c h
t h e names o f 6 4 men
disclosed
for
whether
t o disclose
t h e name
of
of
the
and
single
handed, r a i s i n g t h e v o i c e of p r o t e s t ,
challenging
the
age
conveniently
codes
Nambudiri
men
and
t o look i n t o t h e i r
Nambudiri
Nambudiri
against
as
to
who
time
concerning
had
the
i s a symbol o f t h e r o t t e n s i t u a t i o n i n which
women lived-V.T.~hatathiripad,
reform
considered
problems
the
ethical
organisation
Thatri
of
i n t e r p r e t e d and p r a c t i s e d t h e m o r a l
community. T h a t r i
the
h y p r o c r i t i c mask
b u t e x p e c t e d s t r i c t c h a s t i t y f r o m t h e i r women. The
factor
no
old
was
movement
having
that
pioneer
of
should
be
Thatri
t h e male m e m b e r s . 6 3
made d e l i b e r a t e
remarks
There i s reason t o
and
revolt
believe
plans t o c o l l e c t evidence of
men
that
who
were
involved
help
of
trial
created
her
basis,
publicity
of
the
women
The
establishment
of
uniform
judicial
system
died
Nambudiri
husband
rituals
related
because
it
should
woman
was
not
Another
many Nambudiri
possible
women
died,
to
get
all
the
dead
virgin
the
body
dead
woman
community
76. P.35
Ramachandr n "~ambudirimaruteyidayile
Nilavilarinna
Oru ~aishachikacharam"
in
Keralacharithrathile Chila Vismrithadhayanqal,
Kottayam, 1973, PP.137-142.
lowest
sharp
were
dress.
But
when
the
dhoti
tuft
going
performing
rituals and
to
wear
as
themselves when
had
to
antarjanams
varied.
Adhyan
"Kamazthi thali"
The
status
of
women.
The
antarjanam was
Adhyan
Tampuratti or Kunjathamma
relative
women
aristocratic
addressed
as
hair
on
the
left
side
which
was
regarded
aristoratic
and
Asyan.
family,
Adhyan
she
antarjanans.
The house
of Adhyan
was
as
for
to
an
Adhyan
an
rest
tied
Asyan
of
the
called
mana
while Asyan was called illom. Thus an order was perpetuated not
only relating
to different
castes
but
between
and
among
rank.
Nambudiris
pointed
banana
a variety
of
interests.
They
an
they
recorded
spoke
developed
of
how a feast
leaves.
to
lay
dishes. 68
For
details
the
They
see
regarded
cow
observing
ten days
pula
or
extent
of
of
full
necessary
moon
these
were
on
regarded
for
them
by
most
architectural
of
their
Nambudiris
contributed
them.
works
like
Shilpiratnam,
different.
For
developed
included
In this context, it
of different castes
looked
never
was
right
of
could
have
the
~astuvidya, Manava
vastulakshanam,Markandeyam, Kasyapeeyam. 69
is
style
to
limited.
tiles.
Thus
each
Even
Only
the
templesr
rigid
rules
kovilakams
and
determined
flexibility
caste.
To
70. Ibid.
customs
and
be
by
no
each
behaviour
pattern
of
different
and
variations
identity
each
distinct
from
one
another.
each
caste
was
Apart
from
the
of
men
and
women
differed.
Female
social
identity
was
daughter,
wife,
the
mother
discussed
Sati,
Abdukkaladosham
chastity
much
expected
from
women.
Inspite
of
number
of
of
them,
was
Thiruvathira
day l71
siva.
Anatarjanams
Preparations
the
making
pond,
loud
Thudi
and
sleep
at night
the
water
and
dressup, adorn
tender
bath
including
coconut
supposed
to
flowers
of
koduveli
which
celebration
for
flower
at
midnight. 72
themselves,
Thus
they
had
have
the blessing of Siva for a happy married life.In the same manner
in
to
Siva and Kama. Lamps were lighted in coconut shells and made
float
on
water.
the
God
girls
days,
and
which
to
that
have
a
by
to children around.
Pournami, Amavasi
on
and
Even widows
giving
This is
called
op.cit.# PP-556-557
When
pumsavanam
son.
antarjanan was
pregnant,
functions
called
begetting
observe
child
naming
deeksha by
a
to
When
the
was born, the horoscope was made. On the 12th day, the
ceremony was held. In the fourth month, the
child
was
removed.
child
Samavartan,
he could marry. 7 4
When
16th
had
brahmachari.
Nambudiri
to
boy
permitted
to
The
and
extended
and
ritualistic
three
or
four wives at the same time, a Nambudiri woman could marry only
once and widow marriage was not
Narnbudiri
was
permitted.0nly if
the
eldest
permitted
to
have
a caste
marriage.
This
was
aphan
called
Paper
other
remove
widow
her
was
function
not
required
and
was
life
participate
separate. 75
On
the
of
in
death
to
a
any
of
distinct
identity.
But
in
or
spite
marital
relationship with
Nairs
using an
ideology.
there
are
possible
of
this
relationship
Nambudiris
practised
made
matriliny.
They
are called
or
but
character
Nambudiris who
Tirumumpus.
they
are
considered
inferior
by Nambudiri
Bhrahmins. They
could
not
conduct the rituals at temples and for this had to employ other
Nambudiri priests. They were not treated socially
Nambudiri
or
Tirumumpu
women
Tirumumpus.
between
dine
but
This
together.
women
clearly
Nambudiri
were not
shows
the
given
men
in
married
marriage
Nair
marriage. 77
and
manager.
it
inherit the
But
do
not
follow
Nair
is
family
only
customs
to
caste
they
to
restriction maintained
Narnbudiri-
name
could
equal to any
like
thread
Nairs
the
prescriptions,
could
see
him
but
not
touch, The
number
of
Nair
Nairs
were
been
numerically
generalized
to
protect
other
monolithic
egalitarian
castes
or
group.
There
of
sub
chiefs, washerman
and
oilmongers
among
them.
From
large
landlords, they
ranged
to
of
very
landholders down
laboureres' 79
castes
the
poorest
through
them
Kidavu,
sub-
were
roughly
restrictions in inter-dining. 80
Menon,
were
Menoki,Muppil
Kartavu,
Manavalan
moderate
Pada
wealthy.
day
Nayar,
equally
(who) are
number
Eradi, Nedungadi,
Vallodi,
air,
Mannadiyar,
were
(2)
K-Kannan Nair
The Nayars
Malabar Quarterly Review
Vol.1, No.2 Ernakulam 1902, P.229.
(3) Fu1ler.C.J.
Nayars today
kanakkars.
cannot
be
perform.
the
It
same
means
it
is
as
marumakkathayam which
interpreted
as
nieces.
It
family
house
partition.
belonged
All
the
to
the
children
females
of
Nairs
the
the
and
can
nephews
was
female members
'matriarchal' often
is
be
or
no
lived
related
also
not
the
In
and
property
there
correct because
mother.
member
had
or
Matriarchy
means
female
dominance
and
inheritance
decided
respected
the
matrilineal
male
socio-economic
character
matters
Provided
of
the
singular
tarawad.
status
in
was
also
an economic
unit.
In the
traditional
atmosphere,
governing
it
and
the Nair
tarawad
tarawad
was
several
unique
home,
entertainments
security
confidence.
The
centralised
agriculture
was
the
main
occupation.
Thus
and
rather
the
and
of
and
tarawad
children,
children
pride
them
grandchildren, brothers,
sisters
and
sisters'
The
was
took
born
was
The
tarawad
matrilineal descent
had
three
(2) exogamous
structural principles
(1)
by
because the
tarawad
to
even
by
blood. 8 2
members
on
birth
principle
was
and
the
pula on death
for
impartibility of
41 days.
the
tarawad.
was
divided
matrilineal
into
tavazhi. 8 3
As
The
noted
third
Generally
unmanageable,
earlier,
this
and in
15
was
karanavan
literally
succeeded
welfare
every
the
for
the
requirements of
to
alienate
consent
of
consented
1957, P.75
83. For example Kavalappara Tarawad, Tay means mother and vazhi
means way. A group of persons consisting of the female
line was
organized as Tavazhi. In this, there was no
further possession of the same property but pollution on
birth and death was observed.
to
call
for
an
one
share
could
and
the
of
maintenance.
members
of
enhanced
the
The
tarawad, whether
income
of
the
anantaravans or
junior
male
property
and
had
the
right
his
became
tarawad
the tarawad
even
after
of
of
an
property
tarawa-
individual
acquired
a lot of property. 8 5
Tahzath
veedu
shows
that
The family
because
of
papers
of
karanavan,
joint
tarawad
Nair
which
tarawad is regarded as a
acts
as
property matters
a unit in
and
has
their
respect of
as
of
trust
tarawad.
descent
ceremonial
had
Koodali
of
group
well as
84. Partition was rare and ocured only when the property of the
tarawad become unmanageable,Only tavazhi divisions were
cermitted. No one had the right to alienate the property of
the tarawad.See T.K,Gopala Panikkar, Malabar and its Folk,
New Delhi, 1983, P-19.
group
placement
runs through
suicide
prominent
tarawads
had
their own Kavus. For example Koodali Tarawad had their Kavus. 88
This type of kavus was the traditional Teyyam shrine which
was
and
tarawad
relations
almost
all
castes,
the
region.
functioned
and
the
as a unit of
prominent
land
tarawads
control,
maintained
marital
relations
tarawads
of
Echikanath,
Achikanath
Malabar
like
Chirakkara,
Kalliat,
Varikkan,
Panmeleri,
Koroth ,
Thus
acts
notable
Vengayil,
Chandroth,
social
jointly,
property
88. K.K.N.Kurup,
Koodali Granthavari, Calicut University, 1995
Koodali
Tarawad had a large number of holdings, dry, wet
and gardens.
89. Schneider, op.cit.,P.7
has
Frederich
not
been
Engles and
settled so far.
Morgan that
The
every
broad
in
theory
society
was
of
once
the
man's position more important and man took command of the house
and
does
matrilineal
through
Elamkulam
century.
so
proved
recognised.
patrilineal,
compelling
not
switched
over
to
matriliny
because
of
the
10-11th
a
whole
Studies
in
Kerala
History,
because
of
M.G.S.Narayanan's
view
during
settlements
lease
Kerala
the
have
anxiety
formed
Brahmin
fathers
and
new
new
in
of
Dravidian mothers
sub
caste.
The
property
Nair
and
their
followed
tarawads
different
or
kalyanam.93
was
fixed
usham
porukka
and
sambandham
or
kidakkara
marriage
of
bride
day
and
marriage,
sunset
P.148
with
number
of
friends
and
relatives.
There
amdist
known
smaller
husband
her
scale.
the
bride.
pudamuri
The
to
the
on
take
regular
Kalyanan,
money
Malabar,
along
with
practice
of
the
visiting
living
husband's
custom, women
The
had
the
insistence on
of
husband
and
wife
though
divorce
and
the
and
with
entered
only
the
sambandham
Nambudiris
marriage
by
Women. 95
temporary
relationship
virtual
not
so.
to
it.
The child
usually warrants
belong
the
hope
to
the
of
protection, maintenance
mothers caste. A
But
this
was
marriage
not
of the
in
the
the
no
of questions.
them, still
the
vague
Nambudiri.
Though
it is
difficult
to
propagated by
Nambudiris.
hierarchy and
the
to
It
is
in
a strong
interesting
to
ideology
note this
all
marry men of
women or Nair
lower
caste. 9 7
Nambudiri
9 6 . See
marriage
was
totally
specifications, the
regulated
by
Nair-Nambudiri
rituals
and
sambandham
religious
had
no
such
formalities.
Nairs
sambandham
marumakkathayam,
matrilineal.
Nambudiri
But
husbands.
population
of
Malabar.
Nair
practice,
women
The
matriarchal
and
matrilineal
has
invested
character
the Nair
often
women
of
in
the
South
mistaken
with
had
as
considerable
a mundu, did
not
cover
flowers. 98
their
husband or discard
Sambandhams were
karanavan
whether
Nambudiri wives
the
marriage
fixed
according to the
the
or not,
rich or poor.
to
connection.99
discretion
or
But
of
the
youngo having
there is
reason
marriage
here,
the
property
right
to
individual
share,
alienation or disposal.
The
content
subordination was
with
emotional
the
role
had
bearing
called
to
and
be
the
tarawad
protected them.
assumption
that
that
Nair
the
foreign
custom.
women
were
of
believed
Barbosa
(3) Buchanan
A Journey from Madras throuqh the countries
2 Vols. Madras, 1870
of Mysore, canara and Malabar
P.173.
(4)
Hamilton
Geoqraphical, Statistical and Historical
Description of Hindusthan and the Adjacent countries,
Delhi
1921., P.173. Most of the foreign visitors
believed that Nairs practised polyandry.
(5)
the
were
K.Kannan Nair
all
over
hold
that
any
husbands,
acknowledged
by
society
and
a
an
and
Nair
economic
The
the
Nair
101.S.Sen
102.(1)
(ed)
women
who
gains
the
displeasure
The
Nair
two
down
fact
of a brahmin by
op.cit
(2) A.Ayyappan
P.32
(3)
need
in
"Nayar Polyandry
Nair woman
in Man
are
India, 1932,
103.These two
alliance.
works
were quoted
to
justify
Nair-Nambudiri
rejecting
him
the
or
Kerala,
already
married.
ballads
does
polyandry
influence
considered
Nair's
information
available
not carry
the
impression
that
was a
this
period, it could be
persons
the
exploits. lo5
like Othenan
society
sometimes
a
who
the
to
in
women
Though
during
themselves up
on
in
the
there
was
women
gave
who
wielded
of
his
great
military
even kidnapping
of
women
was
Inspite of
the
fact
that
heroic deed.
matrilineal
account
that
were
set
up
with
the
significance
105. K.S.Mathew,
Society as reflected in Vadakkan Pattukal,
M.Phi1, Dissertation,, Jawaharlalal
Nahru University,
1976, P.64.
of
women a s t h e c e n t r e p o i n t t h r o u g h i n h e r i t a n c e r a n ,
none o f
marriage
o f t h e k a r a n a v a n , h e was n o t p e r m i t t e d
will
wife a g a i n and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
was
to
see
of
karananvan.
Thus
this
could
never
was
a n d c a n n o t be t h a t a l l N a i r women w e r e
Beauty,
social
the
called
be
p o l y a n d r y . The s o c i a l v a l u e s and m o r a l c o d e o f t h e p e r i o d
different
his
c e a s e d . Again s i n c e r e m a r r i a g e
choice
the
were
polyandrous.
s t a t u s , t e n u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s might
have
been
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r it.
Marriage
i s c e r t a i n l y regarded a s a c o n t r a c t
between
sane persons, t h e p a r e n t s of t h e p a r t i e s o r t h e p a r e n t s of
the
label
~ o l ~ a n d r o u s 'gar o s s i n s u l t and b e l i e v e t h a t
if
had e x i s t e d p r e v i o u s l y t h e n , it was a m o n s t r o u s i n n o v a t i o n
it
due
t o t h e Nambudiris i n f l u e n c e . 1 0 7
~ e g i s l a t i v e Department,
1872,
1891,
distinctive
means
pendant
and unique
marriage by
either
ceremony
was
Several
girls
is
the
Talikettukalyanam
the
same
age
go
small
Usually
age
through
the
of
puberty.
the
ceremony
and
relatives
invited
for
her
clan,
brahmin
The
brother,
and
offered
girl. 109
suitable
gifts.
Songs
were
sung
to
bless
was
the
( 3 ) T.K.Gopala
Legislative
up
pandal.
and
Now
ties
the
tali.
brought
Feast
follows
to
The
days
and
way,
denoting
significant
the
to
the
the
and
couple
for
symbolic
girl.
the
of
Two
of
7-9-11
The
intention
issue
of
dispute among scholars. some are of the view that it was a real
marriage
while
others
insist that it
Gough, Prince
was
Peter
only
believed
symbolic
function.
Kathleen
that
it
signified
a real marriage and that the tali tier was some kind
of husband and the tali tier initiated for each individual Nair
girl
state
110. T.K.Goplala
of
marriage
to
collectivity
of
men
of
Panikkar, op.cit.
111. K.P.Padmanabha
1984, P.253
Vol.3,Ernakulamt
appropriate
C.J.Fuller,
caste. 'l2
K.Kannan
But
Iyer, K.S.Mathew
Muthuswami
marriage,'l3
The
others refute
hold
tali-tier had
that it
this,
Buchanan,
Krishna
was
not
Iyer,
a
real
girl
and
the
Again,
in
some
families, the
tali
was
tied
by
cohabit
( 2 ) C.J.Fuller,
woman's
Iyer,
L.K.op,cit, Vol. 2 PP.27-8,
Marriage had two separate components-the bethrothal
tali rite and sambandham taken
and the consummation
together constitute marriage.
some
respectable, holy
learned brahmin. If
custom
permitted
and
where
bridegroom.
In
some stain or
to
remove'l4
Talikettukalyanan in
obvious
could
It
a
is
grand
seen
that
way than
Nairs
celebrated
pudamuri, with
also
be
that women
inferior, required
who
were
considered
age.
the
It
relatively
a
symbolic
and fertility.
by
Nairs
organized
As
noted
in
1914.
Talikettu
Kalyanam
families
Each
peculiar
life
social
gave
was
the
drinking
It
them
air
to
literally
means
ceremony, when
was
considered
and
compulsory.
gifts
Karanavan
of the husband
signifies
that
of
given
the
husband
ceremony'l6
that
marriage
serves
to
establish
the
had
the
and
be
fatherhood
legitimacy
children.
children
was
unit,
the
Nairs
to
of
an
of
and
economic
marriage
it.
the
The
and
twenty
meal
of
pomp znd
the
44.
at
visited
her
her,
marriage
and
Nair
her
women
Pudamuri'l8
in
Malabar
when
union of
the
the
~ u t
in such a
after.
specially
relationships approximate.
husban
leave
it
meant
situation,
the
husband's
for
Colonial Experiments
Marriage
the
120. In an interview, K.Madhavan of Kanhangad, who was
youngest volunteer of Salt Satyagraha held at
Payyannur
and then an activist of tenancy,social movements told this
writer an 22/10/1999 the precarious condition of Nair Women
who had
to leave their husband's house even before the
cremation. In a talk with this writer on 3/7/1999
aged 79
daughter of
E .Govindan
Nair,
E .Thankamma
Advocate, Talassery till 1953, told that she had to leave
her husband's house when he died premature in 1944. Her
the Village
Officer
of
husband K.Gopalan Nair was
Muyippoth Amsom,Badagara.This shows that certain practices
continued even in recent timestand practised
even among
edcuated families as a preventive measure to avoid the
wife and children from claiming or using the property of
the dead man.
Nair
as
husbands
but could never have marital relationship with a low caste man.
This
for
is called pratilomam.
Nair
called
To maintain a special
moral
propagated.
code
This
to
was
this,
any low caste man like pulaya, paraya or mannan could defile
Nair
woman
if
he sees
her
or
This
hit
March
with
a stone or twig
August.
with
low
the
casteman.
low
means
fear.
or
fear
by
Pedi
by her family
A
captured
caste. 12'
and
delight
Nairs.
But
has
widely
it
published
with
fear was
any
low
relationship
Pillai,
op.cit.,
PP.411-12,-
male
2.
122.Elamkulam
Kunjan
Pillai- Studies in Kerala Historyr
Trivandrum, P.411-412, K.N.Ganesh, Keralathinte Ennalekal,
Trivandrum, 1990, P.227.
The
whole
pollution
and
and
interestingly, for
women,
is
purified.
the
mattu
These
each
was
the
caste.
But
death and
for
which
accepted, they
same
touch
of
called
cloth
the positioning
according to
the
felt
'polluted'
same.
In
presence
or
in
which
the
the
thus
or
pond was used for brushing the teeth, bath, washing the clothes
and other cleaning purposes. A dip in the same water made
pollution free. 124
them
women.
else
she
the
were confined
restrictions
their
regions.
When caste
women
imposed
such
restri~tions~life
centred round at home and region. This led to
mutual dependence
and
days
jewellery
day,
had to take bath in the pond, wear the cloth brought by vannathi
and
This
was
called
Tirandu Kuli.
events
grand
such
celebrations were
Nair
some
antarjananms and
of
perform
pujas and feed sweets to the brothers.This was called pujas for
Ganapati.
it
was
that Siv
125.Bhaskaranunnit op.ct.,
appeared
before
Parvathi
since
after
P.205
long
prayer.
Kama
is
considered
symbol
of
romance,
floor
flowers
had
to
charming
to
satisfy
she
had
to
on
keep
to
be
regularly
as
that
on
occasions
like
this
room
elders. l*'
as
token of
respect
and
remeberance
to
in
the
to
the
within
traditional
the
society speaks a
community
and
between
lot
of
them. 128
communities
contradictions
The
some of
Nambudiri
the
old
Brahmins
according
minority
in
acquire
with
every
census
formed
numerically
Nairs
permitted
to
them
to
relationship
pratiloma
never
of
the
his
own
children from the Nair wives since the children were Nairs. The
similar
remained
impartible
property
the
assets
since
and
without alienation.
partition
or
individual
the
The
property
right
actually
of
enjoy
share was
not
sanctioned by custom.
This
all
variations
were
could
paid
entertain art
was
performed
together.
Oral
traditions
Moral
different.
had
and
ethical
code
for men
and
had
had
women
children
could
had
have hypergamous
only
the
mother's
relationship
caste
and
relative
relationships or
was
freedom
women
status.
Karanavan
but
their
Matriliny
of
mutually
brahmin,
dependent.
Ambalavasis,
The
protectors
religious
and
and
tenants
ritualistic
like
Nairs,
linked to
specific skill and each skill was related to social customs and
beliefs* But
the
service
all