GRAPHS Once more, this is a subject which is too wide for a small book. Yet ence more, it might be useful to give some braad analysis and an indi- cation of graph categories Graphs are widely used in instruction at all levels of ability and age, however, their use- fulness is mora limited than their use. on the two axes. Different colours and permit more information to be shown, A mise jon can still be gi changing the scalas on the axes, Line Graphs This is the most useful type of graph, thous too, a5 Newspaper, know, can be designed to mislead, itis a.good type of graph because itis ase able at any point, the int fn of the tw day quantitites are more accurately shown by ty all governments, Area Graphs “This type of graph conveys the idea of broad differences of quantity. ac Pie Charts This type is useful for the idea of conveying fractions or percentages. However, small per- method then by the others, It also conven purely visual impression There are, of course, a variety of ways of des ning line graphs according to whether ves impression or statistical infarmation is the impartant. The aim is often the former, in case detailed provision for data assessment! the axes may be unnecessary end ever acting. _ centages cannot be shown easily and the eye /cannat make an accurate comparison between | similar sized slices. Words and figures printed ‘on the slices often confuse and prevent the “easy assimilation of shape differences. Pictorial Statistics This method, using « quantitative representa - ‘tion of small pictographs |s useful when the ‘aim is to attract as much as to inform. It is, again, not an accurate enough method to allow fine assessment and it may be difficult to Three-dimensional Graphs When the relationship between. three f intrinsic to the idea to be communicated ‘a thres-dimensional graph becomes ® A great number of separate Iwo di graphs Would be necessary 10 convey he* information and they might nee lh about. make mora than the broadest comparisons with _ other similarly represented statistics. fi conveying the same impress _ ‘Bar Graphs is ‘impression’ that graphs a1 This type of graph has a wider application; an uncomplicated, visually sym i "several lots of data can be easily and accurately tionship. Graphs are 10! for cca ‘sompared, both visually (comparing the top be teft for line of each bar) end by means of the figures measure, thet must figures.3 106. Pig chart 108. Bar graph 109. Line graphgenerally, a divergence of text and visual will woduce broken concentration and poor learn- ag: for example, showing a picture of a Greek sland when the commentary discusses clim- a@ Statistics in the Mediterranean. Commentary should be directly relevant to the image seen. It should direct attention and give ainphasis; information added must be specific and lini LEGIBILITY (with letters as criteria) agibility will depend on the size of the letter related io the greatest viewing distance: on the legrae of contrast: and on the readability of the pelace and the layout, } Letter size on projected and non- Mojected images Modak specify the following sizes and distan- 454 result of experiment. Those assume imum conditions, 6.9. Maximum contrast of erand surface. (See Fig, 112) = sizé on artwork for projection: mis the correct type size for use on the “Wark 16 be estimated? Sstablish with the writer what the likely Projection image size will be and the ince of the furthest pupil away. “Ms cannot be eslablished, the artist is adwi- ny 2 Gesidn far a specific size and distance have this stated on the materials, Image size and the viewing distance rela- iD Usually recommended is GW, i.e, the Pupil is not more than @ screan widths Other telationships will work, prowi- : when projected, relate to the (Thus, for example, if the ratio is TOW, tr lettering must be bigger on the screen tha for 6W.) Kodak have produced the following quide fa artwork letter sizes ralated to screen size an viewing distance. (See Fig. 113) 2. Typefaces for projection When warking at the minimum legibility size according to the table above, use a sans-serif medium weight face of normal proportions, e.g. Univers, Helvetica Medium, orin the USA ,Tem- po Bold and American Futura Bold. The variation of letter thickness and the actual” beards of serifed faces are not suitable for pro- jection. Exira bold faces tend to fill in; stencil letters, being rounded, become more ill-defined: con- densed letters fill in, particularly if viewed at an’ angle, Typewnitten faces are very indistinet, Upper case or lower case? ; Research into the effectiveness of various tat- ter forms by road research teams. favour lower” ase of a combination. All unper case, particu= larly for two words ot more, is more difficulrte recognize, ad 3. Line weight for projection For graphs and tables Kodak recommend the following: minor rulings and grid lines in Staphs should be about ane half the thickness 9) the descenders of the type: major rulings tables and date lines in graphs equal to the line weight, In tables use a dauble ruling tor majordi 4, Layout for projection Sie Line spacing is an important factor for leaibilitylliam Lines too close together will be hard eystarting pointisto gives line spacing of 2 times the height of the upper case an letters an en can be used between case latters and a thick space between case. often best to centre text, particularly if each » cen be aself contained sub-unit. A projec- ¥ visual rarely contains a big body of text ne main message is usually put above centre the reading direction from top left to lower ‘colour and tone for projection suggestions and tables given above ore for black and white images. Toned or d areas have less contrast, letter & and detail should, consequently, be igh black on white gives the greatest , according to tests, itis also straining 13 eyes. h Marks and dirt show up very badly and signs of wear and tear, lettering against a coloured surface. e.g, blue, is very effective. For long distance Use @ wery rich colour to allow for loss. ipla-use artwork k forbooks and slides) = le fom books are usually unsatisfac- ‘the point of view of legibility, cf. id @ tight setting. Kodak give the following advice le-us0 artwork has to be designed; ing distance and 63/4 in. x 9 Leroy lettering apparatus. 7. Typefaces for books The empirically based decision of an experian= ced gral ic desi Sppropriate result results of researc! Research into th bedevilled by what pe to, by pe conte is as likely to give an 5 4 decision based on the ind other recommendations, ability of typefaces is ple are previously used onal preferences, by the variety of 5, by changes of fashion, Hence, some research is contradictory. However, A Psycholagicel Study of Typogra- phy by Cyril Burt and The Visible World by Herbert Spencer are worth reading, especialh for their knowledgeable discussion of thi character of the various faces. For thase designers new to or inexperience: ommendations guide for the selection of a face and size. could provide a reasonabli ren under twelve: Old Style, and far the over twelves: Imprint, Times Roman and Plantin. For adults Burt suggests, as a result of his ax- perience, 10 point Times New Roman and 17 paint Imprint with two point leading, both in a measure between 20 and 30 ems, Two sans serifed faces, Gill Medium and Univers” are found to be highly readable. However, within reason, there are no radical differences in readability between the major ity of well used typefaces for adults. These suggestions are a starting point only: purpose and fashion are two major variables: which might invalidate them. With relation to these twa variables: when designing a book for sale abroad it might. be useful 10 check what kind of faces are cur- rently used. Faces and layout designed in one country may seem outdated, poor or sonal incomprehensible in another,