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introduction
Sytze Brandenburg
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course literature
book used as guideline for the course
An introduction to particle accelerators
Edmund Wilson
Oxford University Press, 2001
ISBN 0 19 850829
selected topics from
proceedings of CERN accelerator school 1992
General accelator physics course
proceedings of CERN accelerator school 1994
Cyclotrons, linacs and their applications
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additional literature
alternative book for the course (in German)
Physik der Teilchenbeschleuniger und Ionenoptik
Frank Hinterberger
Springer Verlag, 1997
ISBN 3-540-61238-6
links and references on http:\\www.kvi.nl\~brandenburg
search the web
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material on CD-ROM
proceedings CERN Accelerator School 1992
General accelerator physics course
proceedings CERN Accelerator School 1994
Cyclotrons, linacs and their applications
Principles of charged particle acceleration
Stanley Humphries
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prerequisite knowledge
electricity and magnetism
Maxwell equations: differential and integral form
mechanics
pendulum
special relativity
relation velocity vs. energy and momentum
Lorentz transformation
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course structure
why build accelerators
physics case
history
accelerator types
how to keep the particles on track
single particle optics
beam optics - transverse
beam optics - longitudinal
matching beam to accelerator
what makes life difficult
imperfections and resonances
special topics
damping, cooling and synchrotron radiation
cyclotrons
RF
injection and extraction
..
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assessment
assignments
presentation of worked out solutions
exam (combination of written and oral)
assignments and presentation are voluntary, contribute each
for up to 20 % to final grade
exam grade is lower limit for final grade
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d Q1Q2 2 sin
=
d 160Ekin,1 sin4
2
conclusions
Q1, Q2 = Z1e, Z2e; -e is electron charge
mass and positive charge in a small nucleus
deviations at small scattering angle
screening by electrons size of atom (~0.1 nm)
deviations at large scattering angle
hard sphere collision size of nucleus (~10 fm)
Rutherfords conjecture: nucleus = protons and electrons
inconsistent with Heisenberg uncertainty relation for electrons
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electromagnetic force
production of energetic particles for nuclear reactions:
use Lorentz force F = q(E + v B) to accelerate charged
particles
magnetic force q(v B) perpendicular to velocity
does not contribute to acceleration
can be used for focussing and guiding
mv
B determines curvature of trajectory
B =
q
electric force qE
component parallel to velocity: acceleration
component perpendicular to velocity: focussing and
guiding
mv 2
E determines curvature of trajectory
E =
q
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acceleration techniques
linear accelerators
electrostatic
radio-frequency (RF) electric field
induction
particles focussed by accelerating field or separate
magnetic and electric fields
circular accelators
RF electric field
induction
particles guided and focussed by magnetic fields
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i
2
c
2m
phase (axial) focussing by proper choice of
additional transverse focussing needed (in drifttubes)
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G re in a ch e r casca d e
vo lta g e d istrib u te d o ve r
m a n y e lectro d e s to co n trol
fo cussin g
h ig h cu rre n t I = 1 0 0 m A
V m ax 2 M V
in jecto r fo r h ig h en e rg y,
h ig h inte n sity a cce le rators
lo ad e ffects
vo lta g e d ro p n 3 I/ C
vo lta g e rip p le n 2 I/ C
la rge C ; h ig h U 0 a n d
crea te d
m od ified
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1 /1
Greinacher cascade
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RF linear accelerator
RF electric field parallel to velocity
particles in phase with RF field (polarity): bunched beam
RF
length bunches lb
2
spacing bunches db = nRF
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t
dt S
C
pulses in phase with beam
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pulse generator
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circular accelerators
betatron
cyclotron
synchro-cyclotron
isochronous cyclotron
synchrotron
storage ring
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betatron (1923)
Wider design ray transformer
beam secondary winding of transformer
beam guided in circular orbit with separate magnet
B
d
Eidl = Bids
E =
t C
dt S
stable orbit
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d Bguide
dt
1 d Bacc da
=
2 dt r 2
betatron (1940)
Kerst : working prototype
breakthrough: orbit stabilisation with non-homogeneous field
only used for electrons
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orbit stabilisation
F = qvB Fz = q(vrB-vBr)
homogeneous field: Br = B = 0 Fz = 0
vz 0 spiral motion around z-axis, no stability
azimuthally symmetric field: B = 0
Bz decreases with radius Br towards center
Fz towards midplane particle oscillates around midplane
vertical stability, weak focussing
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betatron
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cyclotron (1931)
Lawrence and Livingston
inspired by Wider linac: wound-up linac
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cyclotron
vacuum chamber first cyclotron
10 cm
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cyclotron
homogenous magnetic field isochronous (non-relativistic)
mv 2
mv
Bq
= qvB R =
orb =
R
Bq
2m
accelerate with RF electric field with RF = orb
theory: homogeneous field no vertical orbit stability
large beamlosses
pratice: due to fringefield effects Bz decreases with radius
marginal vertical orbit stability
gradual loss of synchronism: energy limit
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cyclotron
mv 2
relativistic effects
= qvB
R
mv
R=
Bq
orb
Bq
=
= f(R)
2m
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cyclotron
modern isochronous cyclotron at KVI
superconducting coils high field, compact machine
200 MeV protons
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synchrotron (1950)
higher energy: larger radius
200 MeV proton
B = 2.2 Tm
1000 MeV proton
B = 5.7 Tm
for synchro-cyclotron-like accelerators huge magnets
alternative approach
acceleration in several
stages
constant radius orbit
magnetic field and RF
vary during acceleration;
pulsed operation
(cf. synchro-cyclotron)
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synchrotron
requires phase focussing
transverse focussing
weak focussing: dipole magnets with radially decreasing Bz
needs large magnet gaps
strong focussing
combined function
dipole magnets with alternating strong radial fieldgradient
no possibility for fine-tuning
separated function
homogeneous dipole magnets for bending
quadrupole magnets for focussing
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collider ring
two beams in opposite direction
electrons + positrons (LEP)
protons + protons (LHC, under construction at CERN)
experiment performed in ring
interaction zones with very small beamsize
colliding protons with Ekin = 100 GeV:
Ecm = 200 GeV
fixed target
Ecm = 200 GeV:
Ekin = 20000 GeV
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http://hands-on-cern.physto.se
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next lecture
reading
Wilson: chapter 2 Transverse motion
CERN Accelerator School 1992, CERN report 94-01
chapter 2 Basic course on accelerator optics
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orbit deviation x : r = R + x = R 1 +
R
Taylor expansion in first order
1 1
x
= 1
r R R
B y (R )
R B y (R ) x
x = B y (R ) 1 +
B y ( r ) = B y (R ) +
x
B y (R ) x R
B y ( r ) = B y (R ) 1 + n
R
mv 2
x
x
Fr ( r ) =
1
qvB
R
1
n
y ( )
R R
R
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orbit stability
m v 2
at reference orbit F r(R) = 0 :
= evB y (R )
R
d2 x
m v 2 x
Fr ( x ) =
(1 n ) = m 2
R R
dt
particle oscillates around reference orbit with x = 0 1 n
for n > 1 particle orbit becomes unstable (imaginary x)
nomenclature
oscillation around reference orbit: betatron oscillations
Q x , x = x orb : betatron frequency, number of betatron
period per turn
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orbit stability
for vertical stability similar reasoning
Fy ( z ) = qvB x
B x B y
=
B = 0
y
x
y
v2 y
in first order B x ( y ) = nB y (R )
Fy ( y ) = m n
R
R R
particle oscillates around reference orbit with y = 0 n
for n< 0 particle orbit becomes unstable (imaginary y)
simultaneous radial and axial stability 0 < n < 1:
weak focussing
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