2002 CIRP Keynote paper

Process Monitoring in Grinding

H. K. Tnshoff, T. Friemuth, J. C. Becker
Institute of Production Engineering and Machine Tools, University of Hannover, Germany

Abstract
The grinding process is characterized by a high number of cutting edges undergoing non-uniform wear,
this also typifies a highly non-stationary process. Pure process modeling in order to understand the
grinding mechanisms and to predict the work result is difficult. In view of this, several approaches by
academia and by industry were made to address this issue. One such approach is the development and
implementation of process monitoring in grinding. The work presented in this paper summarizes the
various elements and approaches in process monitoring during grinding. The paper deals with the
relevant quantities that describe the grinding process itself and the ensuing work result. Furthermore the
different sensing techniques are introduced to measure the relevant quantities. Finally an overview is
presented as to the strategies and techniques involved in the interpretation of the measured data and the
subsequent control action initiated in order to close the process control loop.

Keywords:
Grinding, sensor, process monitoring

Chap. 4 Presentation Titles

[BriW92] Brinksmeier, E., Werner, F., 1992, Monitoring of Grinding Wheel Wear, Annals of the CIRP,
Vol. 41/1: 373-376 _2
[BroG84] Brodtmann, R., Gast, T., Thum, G., 1984, An optical instrument for measuring the surface
roughness in production control, Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 33/1: 403-406 _2
[KarW00] Karpuschewski, B., Wehmeier, M., Inasaki, I., 2000, Grinding Monitoring System Based on
Power and Acoustic Emission Sensors, Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 49/1: 235-240 _2
[KruL91] Kruszynski, B.W., van Luttervelt, C.A., 1991, An Attempt to Predict Residual Stresses in
Grinding of Metals with the Aid of a New Grinding Parameter, Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 40/1: 335-337
_2
[VarP00] Varghese, B., Pathare, S., Gao, R., Guo, C., Malkin, S., 2000, Development of a SensorIntegrated Intelligent Grinding Wheel for In-Process Monitoring, Annals of the CIRP, Vol.49/1: 231 234
_2
[WebD96]Webster, J., Dong, W.P., Lindsay, R., 1996, Raw acoustic emission signal analysis of
grinding process, Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 45/1: 335-340 _2

1 INTRODUCTION
Accurate process modeling of the grinding process in order to predict the resulting output quality is extremely
difficult considering that abrasive processes are complex, non-stationary in nature and have a large number of
parameters.

- Initiated by Professor E. Brinksmeier, University of Bremen.

- Contributed by Professor I. Inasaki, Keio University, and Professor B. Karpuschewski, Delft University.
- Valuable support by
R. Aerens, J. Corbett, D. Dornfeld, C. J. Evans, J.F. Gomes de Oliveira, F. Hashimoto, H. W. Hoffmeister, F.
Klocke, B. W. Kruszynski, S. Malkin, W. B. Rowe, G. Warnecke, J. A. Webster, K. Weinert, E. Westkmper.

Measurement
(a) Pre-process measurement
(b) On-machine measurement (or process intermittent measurement, stop and measure, In-situ measurement)
(c) In-process measurement (or real time measurement, on-line measurement, during-process measurement)
(d) Post-process measurement

2 MOTIVATION AND OBJECTIVES

Incompleteness of knowledge about grinding process
The grinding process is transient.
Research has not enough contributed to industrial needs to predict the process behavior.
It is dark in front of the grinding grain.
Process models that are able to link input and output variables
considered to be highly complex,
dependant on a large number of input variables,
non-stationary, i.e. the mechanisms change with time.
>>> There is a need to monitor the grinding process.
Roles of a monitoring system
1.

Detecting any unexpected malfunctions.

2.

Optimizing the process by monitored information.

Ex) the wear rate of the cutting tool > used for
minimizing the machining cost or time by modifying
the cutting speed and the feed rate to achieve
adaptive control optimization.

3.

Input-output causalities of the process, which are

useful for establishing a databank regarding the
particular process in order to determine the initial
set-up parameters.

Process inputs (System behavior and setting parameter)

- grinding wheel with its physical, macro- and microgeometric properties
- grinding machine with its static and dynamic behavior
- process environment ; coolant, lubrication and properties of the unfinished part.
- setting parameters are supplied to the operator or to the program in order to achieve the required work result.
Output results
- Static quantities (long term output); wheel topography, coolant lubrication properties, workpiece features
- Dynamic quantities ; process variables/quantities observed or measured during run-time of the process.

To monitor the grinding process means generally

that one or several output signals are observed to
follow different targets

Monitoring targets are

to acquire data and knowledge
- for quality documentation,
- for technological data banks,
- for knowledge representation
to keep constraints with respect to
- the workpiece
- process
- machine
- environment
to optimize the process with respect to
- machining time
- machining costs
- workpiece quality.
Figure 2.4 Monitoring targets

3 DEFINITIONS

Sensor:
from the Latin sentire, meaning to perceive, defined as a device that detects a change in a
physical stimulus and turns it into a signal which can be measured or recorded.
- the conversion of energy from one form to another.
- six important types of signals: radiant, mechanical, thermal, electrical, magnetic, and chemical.
Signal processing:
Conditioning of sensor signal by extraction of the relevant data, which consists of,
- analog signal processing (amplifying, filtering, mathematical transformations),
- analog to digital conversion prior to processing by computer,
- digital signal processing (selection of processing in time domain, frequency domain or others)
Interpretation:
models are required to relate the measured values to the monitoring subjects,
ex) tangential process force is correlated to the surface integrity state in terms of residual stress
Output:
is characterized due to its accuracy, reliability, relation of input and output as well as frequency response.
In case of a malfunction,
the cause of the malfunction must be found.
a diagnosis is carried out by mathematical equation or experience
a recovery procedure (therapy) modifies the process quantities
appropriate control action (actuation).

The interaction of the elements of process monitoring, diagnosis and therapy

together with the grinding process form a closed loop.

Very important !!

4 QUANTITIES AS EVALUATION CRITERION

Which quantities are most suitable to fulfill a monitoring task which is depending on several criteria ?

1.

monitoring targets are of primary importance

2.

grinding process variants

- internal, external or surface grinding
- the kind of material to be machined
- surface integrity, or the geometric quality

3. several properties of the measuring system

- applicability
- sensitivity
- robustness
- time behavior
- response time

Figure 4.1: Appropriate quantities for monitoring purposes

4.1.1 Forces and Power

Figure 4.2: Discretization of force components

Depending on the degree of resolution,
- forces on the individual cutting edges; Fgn and Fgt,
- uniformly distributed contact forces; Fn and Ft
- resultant forces Fn and Ft.
Grain distribution in active surface of the grinding tool must be known.
Direct observation of resulting forces is for the static and dynamic behavior of the machine and the process.

Cylindrical plunge grinding with a constant radial speed,

A difference between the feed velocity set point given by the control vr and the actual velocity vreff,
due to the elasticity of the system with the stiffness k.

First approximation of a proportionality between the MRR Qw and the normal force Fn (constant C,
workpiece diameter dw, grinding width bs),

This normal force increases with

whereby T is a time constant of the growth function

in which C-1 can be considered to be a dimension for

the sharpness of the grinding wheel.

Depending on the hardness of the grinding wheel,

- a wear-dependant dulling of the active cutting edge takes place.
- an asymptotic course of the normal forces does not often occur.

Figure 4.4: Internal grinding, force vs. time profile development (acc. Diss. Juergenhake)

(a) no abrasive effect (completely dull) ; proportionality

of grinding travel and normal forces
(b) Asymptotic ; sharper wheel surface
(c) Asymptotic ; the constant forces after the break-in
phase result from self-sharpening effects, or slow
wear-dependant dulling
(d) typical for non stationary grinding processes

A function for the quantitative description of the cutting volume-dependant dulling, with the dulling factor C1,
the initial proportionality constant C0, and the specific volume of removed material Vw,

- Transient behavior of plunge grinding over a nonlinear inhomogeneous integral equation.

- Measuring of normal forces determines the tool-specific constants which describe the wear process online.
- Monitoring of plunge grinding > forces with time, with the effective radial feed velocity, and with the real
position of the grinding wheel to the workpiece > determine its real diameter, considering the weardependant dulling of the active grinding wheel.

Dynamics of the monitoring system

Figure 4.6: Effects of grinding non-circular

borings using different types of process control

The grinding power ; Pc = vc Ft , over the motor

current as a measurable variable.

There is a good correlation between the

tangential forces and the motor current

Figure 4.7: Current and tangential force

versus material removal rate

- are not suitable for dynamic monitoring.

- used to decrease unproductive 'air grinding'

4.1.2. Acceleration
- Acceleration sensing is used to monitor vibrations.
- The frequency range may go from some Hz (Quasi-static) to kHz and higher.
- used mainly for determining forced vibrations to detect unbalances or other external sources of vibrations
and detecting self-excited vibrations, i.e. chatter.

The unbalance vector has to be determined by two quantities, for instance by the amplitude and the
phase and can be compensated by different devices.

Unbalances can be measured by gravity or centrifugal forces,

This device detects the acceleration by unbalance via a vibration sensor and floods according to this signal
four chambers in front of the grinding wheel with a determined amount of coolant.

4.1.3 Acoustic Emission (AE)

Mechanism
deformations through dislocations and distorted lattice planes, twin formation of polycrystalline structures,
phase transitions, friction, crack formation and propagation as well as thermally and mechanically induced
structural changes.
a class of phenomena
- elastic waves are generated by rapid release of energy from local sources in the material.
- Structure-born noise up to the MHz domain
In grinding industry
- Successfully used for several years
- highly dynamic, suitable for quick contact detection
- However, collisions can not be avoided using AE,
- but damage can be minimized by quickly switching off the feed.
- A correlation between the surface roughness of a ground workpiece and the RMS value of an AE signal

4.1.4 Temperature
Grinding processes transform kinetic energy mainly into thermal energy.
A substantial part of the thermal energy is transferred into the workpiece and heats up the workpiece
surface and subsurface layers.
This may lead to subsurface damages like structure transformation, hardness alterations, residual stress
and in extreme cases also lead to surface and subsurface cracks.

Thermal impact > typical residual stress distributions

Subsurface contain tensile stress leads to fatigue
loading or under chemical and corrosive impact,
resulting in surface cracks.

5 MEASURING TECHNIQUES FOR MONITORING

1. able to determine the quantities when the process is running or during auxiliary times.
2. Able to characterized the abrasive layer while the tool is running.
3. fit within the boundary conditions of the process and the immediate environment
(coolant conditions, chip flow and temperature)

5.1 Sensors for process quantities

-can be located at every component of the abrasive process like on the workpiece side, on the abrasive
wheel or head and on other machine tool components.
- Consideration for location of the sensor
A. the possibilities concerning sensor size, available space and surrounding conditions like temperatures,
centrifugal forces or coolants restrict the sensor positioning.
B. the distance between the signal source and the sensor position influences the signal quality significantly.
>> The best signal quality will be achieved when the sensors are mounted directly on the tool,
however the efforts required to achieve good signal transmission are considerable

5.1.1 Force sensors

Mechanism
- displacement due to the limited stiffness of the system ; strain gauges
- disadvantage is the significant reduction of the total system stiffness > piezo electric quartz force transducers
The piezo quartz
- is stiff enough to be mounted directly into the flux of force.
- is anisotropic > stacked to form a three-component force measuring sensor
- needs an additional charge amplifier to transform the charges coming from the piezo electric effect into a
voltage for further analysis.
Other sensors for force determination
- are based on an indirect measurement of displacements and a constant system stiffness
- eddy current changes or pressure changes
- magnetostrictive effect

Figure 5.1: Comparison of force sensing techniques

5.1.2 Power sensors

- measurement of power consumption of a spindle drive
- Current, voltage and/or phase shift
- no negative impact on the process
- Low investment > attractive for industrial application.
- Limited sensitivity > used to prevent overload of the spindle and to detect collisions

5.1.3. Acoustic emission (AE) sensors

- Every single contact generates stress waves > noise (acoustic emission)
- Better sensor output depends on the location of the sensor and the transmission path of the signal
- Any components or the workpiece can be equipped with a sensor
- mounted to grinding wheel core and transferring the signals via a slip ring (fluid coupled) to the computer.
- Quantities are RMS value, raw AE signal and frequency analysis.
- RMS value; an average statistical quantity, usually often low-pass filtered
- Raw AE signal ; burst type single grit analysis with a special high speed massive storage data acquisition

5.1.4 Temperature sensors

- based on heat conduction or heat radiation
- heat conduction using thermocouples.
- Single wire method ; Metal in a thermocouple is a workpiece material itself
> CALIBRATION is necessary for every different work material
- Open circuit ; insulation by sheet mica
- Closed circuit ; contact of the thermal wire
and the workpiece
by welding or brazing
> measure temperatures at different distances
from the zone of contact until thermocouple
is finally exposed to the surface.

Figure 5.2: Temperature measurement systems based on head conduction

Two-wire method ; measure the temperatures in different distances from the zone of contact.
the most popular for temperature measurement in grinding.
Thin film thermocouples > an extremely small contact point or area to resolve temperatures to measure a
temperature profile for every single test

Heat radiation
1. Infrared radiation pyrometer through optical fiber
- measure the temperature of working grains of the grinding wheel with use of coolant
- need careful calibration, considering material, the optical fiber and the sensitivity of the detector cell.
- single grain can be measured depending on the diameter of the optical fibers

2. Thermography [Macroscopic]
- Not suitable for wet grinding
- a high speed video thermography system to investigate the potential of dry or MQL grinding.
- good to get average information about the conditions in the contact zone.

5.1.5 Sensor location

For best results the sensor must be mounted as close as possible to the origin of the signal.
Sensor integrated grinding wheels [innovative]
- the information of the process status is delivered by small sensors integrated inside the tool.
- Modular set-up with temperature, force and vibration sensors positioned within rotating part of the tool
Continuously new-performed reconnection of the thermocouple:
-The upper margin of the layer package passes each revolution through the contact zone.
- Force and vibration sensors can be located beneath the grinding layer segment.

The transfer of the process data is performed

by an attached telemetry unit

Figure 5.3: Design of measurement chain for in-process

temperature measurement (acc. Brinksmeier)

5.2 Sensors for output quantities

5.2.1 Macro, micro geometry and surface integrity of workpieces
Two essential quality;
A. geometrical quality ; dimension, shape and waviness [macro]. roughness [micro]
surface integrity
B. physical properties ; hardness and residual stresses on the surface and in sub-surface layers
Sensors for macro geometry of the workpiece
-

A large variation of in-process gauges for any kind of operation

contact based system made of tungsten carbide or diamond
repeatability ~ 0.1 m, minimum internal diameters ~ 3 mm.

(a) a moving gauge with contacting pins

(b) higher scanning frequency > three contacting pins
(c) a measuring pin mounted in the machine tool
The use of a measuring head in a complex
gear, tool or turbine blade grinding machine is not a
pure sensor application.
The measurement is only possible in auxiliary process
time, but between succeeding process steps
Figure 5.4: Sensors for workpiece macro geometry
(contact mode)

Sensors for micro geometry of the workpiece

- Micro geometrical quantities on a moving workpiece by using contacting sensor is a challenging task.
> not possible >> Only intermittent contacts
- Measuring direction is perpendicular to the grinding or honing direction

Sensors for surface integrity of the workpiece

-

only very few sensors are available ; eddy-current / micro magnetic / ultra-sonic for crack detection

1.

Eddy-current measurement

> Crack detection of conductive materials such as nickel, cobalt and titanium based alloys.
> On-machine measurement is possible to determine the cracks immediately after grinding
> In-process is not possible because measuring speed was lower than the grinding table speed
> Penetration depth is determined by the excitation frequency.

2. Micro magnetic techniques

> Residual stress, hardness and sub-surface structure influence the magnetic domains of ferromagnetic materials
> Bloch-wall motions > change of total magnetisation of the workpiece.
> The magnetisation process is characterised by the well-known hysteresis loop.
> Compressive stress reduces the intensity of the Barkhausen noise. (Tensile ?)
> Important quantities ; Barkhausen noise Mmax and the coercivity HcM.
> Application depends on the flexibility of the sensors, adapted to the shape of the workpiece.
> Barkhausen noise amplitude is detected with an air coil and coercive strength with a Hall probe.
> Minimum achievable penetration depth is approximately 15 m.
> Measurement time is very short (only a few seconds)
> Multi-parameter system separates the influence of initial material properties from the changes due to machining

Non-contact based workpiece sensors

Optical sensing systems
1. Laser scanner ; Very fast, macro geometry (a)
- Transmitter (HeNe-laser, polygonal mirror and a collimating lens for paralleling diffused laser beam.
- Receiver contains a collective lens and a photo diode
- Electronic evaluation unit counts the time that the photo diode is covered by the shadow of the object.
- System can be protected from coolant by air barriers and mechanical shutters
- Measure the thermal displacement of machine tool components or to determine the profile accuracy of the
dressed grinding wheel
2. Scattered light sensor
- for macro geometrical quantities
- alignment of the sensor is important
- for optical roughness from the intensity distribution
- directly mounted on the grinding machine
- very sensitive in high quality surfaces
3. Two optical fiber sensors (b)
- in-process roughness measurement
- No. 1 photo sensor register less intensity, whereas
No.2 photo sensor detect more intensity with larger
light scattering due to increased roughness. The
ratio of both is related to roughness changes.
- independent with work material
- wet measurement using clean coolant
4. Coolant issue
- a negative impact on optical systems > not practical
for robust sensing in industrial production.

Figure 5.6: Sensors for workpiece geometry

characterisation (non-contact mode)

Pneumatic sensor (c)

- based on the nozzle-bounce plate principle
- used for a macro geometric evaluation of the diameter
due to a change in pressure
- small, robust against impurities and coolant, and area
evaluation not trace without any movement.

Inductive sensor (d)

-For the macrogeometrical quantities of the ferrous
workpiece
- Distance change between workpiece surface and
sensor position causes a change in the magnetic
characteristic of the sensing system
- used in gear grinding machines to identify the exact
position of tooth slot at the circumference
- High speed signal is evaluated in the control unit of the
grinding machine.

5.2.2 Macro and micro geometry of abrasive tools

- dominant features of the process and useful for an indirect determination of the properties of the workpiece.
1.

Macroscopic shape of the wheel ; eccentricity caused by

- clamping errors
- unbalance
- overlapping waviness which follows from periodic wear and chatter vibrations.
2. Microscopic topography influenced by the grain size and structure of the abrasive surface
- Dressing and sharpening in initial stage
- Wear of the abrasives > flattening, breakage, even pullout of whole grains
- Number of cutting edges and the ratio of active/passive grains
Sensors for macro geometrical quantities of the tool
Tactile (a)
- short touching pulses with small forces by using a very hard tip material
- Eccentric drive oscillate the pin to measure the radial wheel wear at speed up to 35 m/s
- Limited application resulting from coolant supply, porosity of the wheel
Pneumatic (b)
-Nozzle diameter of 1mm or more
-Resolution 0.2um
-Easy set-up and moderate cost, already accepted
1. With compressed air supply
- nozzle-bounce plate (grinding wheel)
2. Without compressed air supply
- by measuring the airflow around the rotating wheel

Acoustic Emission (c)

- A single point diamond tool with an AE-sensor to detect contact with the abrasives on the wheel surface.
- Each contact generates an impulse and the intensity is recorded by a computer system.
- distinguished as non-, elastic- and brittle contact.
- Elastic contact range to monitor the exact position of the grinding wheel.
- Single point diamond tool > disadvantage

Radar sensing (d)

- Known for speed and traffic control,
- accuracy in the centimeter range.
- interferometric (frequency of 94 GHz and = 3,18 mm, range of 1 mm and a resolution of 1 m).
- robust against any dust mist or coolant particles and measurable on any solid surface.
- A control loop was established to detect and control the wear of the grinding wheel.

Figure 5.7: Sensors for the macro geometry of abrasive tools

Sensors for micro geometrical quantities of the tool

Sampling frequency issue
- necessity for extremely high time resolution to observe the active surface.
- in the domain of 100 kHz and more
- mechanical or pneumatic (X), Electrical and photonic (O)
Inductive (a)
- Sensor consists of a high permeability core and a winding.
- Metallic particles generate a change of the impedance, which determine the state of wheel loading.
- Magnetic tape recorder head detect the presence and relative size of ferrous particles
- Special type did not reach practical application.
Scattered light sensor with CCD arrays (b)
- First optical based measurement of the topography at cutting speed.
Opto-electronic sensor with a fast
Si-photo diode and light source (c)
- measure the pulses of reflected light on
the wear flat areas
- Light source limitations > a laser source
with 670 nm wavelength
- Flat areas of wet grinding wheels could
be measured during grinding at 30 m/s.

Figure 5.8: Sensors for the micro geometry of abrasive tools

Laser triangulation (d)

- a laser diode and a position sensitive detector (PSD) with amplifier and two lenses
- Two traces in the normal and in axial direction to the grinding wheel surface circumference.
- Micro geometrical measurement < 20 m/s, based on hardware and software limitations.
- supervision of super abrasives, CBN-grinding wheels.
- The deterioration of the topography often leads to thermal damage on the workpiece.
- tested during profile grinding of gears with an electroplated CBN-grinding wheel.

Figure 5.9: The principle of optical triangulation

6 INTERPRETATION
Procedure of the interpretation in process monitoring
1. How to make a decision
2. Process models to identify dependencies between process quantities and work result quantities.
3. Output of the interpretation must be the identification of any malfunction.
4. Finally, the process monitoring elements have to be integrated into the machine tool system as part of
a process control loop.
6.1 Strategy of decision making
1. Conventional
- The distinctive values of the processed signals are to be compared with a predetermined threshold in
order to identify the status of the process.
- Reliable identification > database preparation in advance.
- used to interpret output quantities.
2. Model based identification.
- the calculated value is compared with a
threshold in order to evaluate the process.
- used to monitor the process quantities.

6.2 Methods for process modeling

A model is the abstract representation of a
manufacturing process which serves to link causes and
effects.
The description of the correlations of different quantities
of a real system into a modeled system is the dominant
task of process models.
Of particular interest for process monitoring is
the modeling of output quantities related to process
quantities.

Two origins of models

1.Physical model
- from an understanding of the fundamental physical
principles underlying the process
- established using a mathematical function of the
qualitative model
2.Empirical model
- established by the means of measured values which
have been obtained in
Figure 6.3: Methods of process modelling

Empirical models
1.Correlation
- Coefficients are determined by the aid of regression on the basis of numerous measured values
2.Neural networks
- develop a model of the process during a training session.
- achieved by strengthening network weights after successful training outcomes and weakening weights
after unsuccessful outcomes.
3.Fuzzy logic
- deals with uncertainty and complexity.
- A mathematical set can be regarded as a synopsis of elements that contain at least one characteristic in
common. If a characteristic describes an element, it belongs to the set.

Grinding
- combinations of physical and empirical models
- for grinding wheel topography, chip thickness, grinding forces, grinding energy, temperature, surface
integrity, and surface roughness
- based on physical laws, but remaining coefficients are determined by experimental data.

6.3 Dependencies between process quantities and work result

- Process quantities are a superior indicator for the resulting workpiece quality
- Measurement of process quantities can be regarded as 'early warning systems.
- Process quantities depends on the process setting and system parameters such as tool topography
- Process quantities (e.g. forces, temperatures) lead to tool wear and, finally, a loss of the desired tool
topography.

Figure 6.4: Different levels of models as example for residual stress generation (acc. Brinksmeier)

6.3.1 Macro geometry of the work result

- The dimensional accuracy of the ground component depends on the actual deflection between tool and
workpiece at the end of the grinding cycle.
- The deflection is predominantly influenced by the normal process force
- Both cycles end up at different force levels after roughing, finishing, and sparking out. The applied
grinding strategy with fixed feeds and sparking out time is not able to eliminate dimensional and form
differences of the ground components .

Figure 6.5: Normal process forces as a consequence of different stock allowances (acc. Diss. Zinngrebe)

Adapted Control (AC) systems

- Process forces can be kept at defined levels.
- Lange applied an AC system in order to control the tangential force in surface grinding
- The generated heat ~ grinding power (Pc) ~ cutting speed (vc) tangential grinding force (Ft)
- Ft control > Longitudinal form variance was reduced by half

Figure 6.6: Influence of tangential force control on workpiece variance (acc. Diss. Lange)

6.3.2 Micro geometry of the work result

The vibrations in the contact zone lead to dynamically changing deflections of the tool-workpiece system.
Unacceptable waviness of the ground surface
3-step plunge grinding process over roughing, finishing and fine-finishing
- AE-RMS-signal followed the RZ roughness significantly
- Dressing overlap of Ud = 2 > Coarse grinding wheel topography of Rz = 5 m > Owing to continuous
wear of the grains, the roughness even increases over the material removal.
- Finer dressing overlap of Ud = 10 > a smaller initial roughness with a significant increase
Higher dressing overlaps lead to more cutting edges thus resulting in a higher AE activity. The sensitivity of
the fine finishing AE-signal is higher, because the final roughness is mainly determined in this process step.

Figure 6.7: Correlation of AE signal to

workpiece surface roughness
(acc. Diss. Meyen)

6.3.3 Surface integrity of the work result

Surface integrity after grinding depends on the tangential force of the process Ft ~ Pc

Figure 6.8: Residual stress determination

as function of specific grinding power in a
qualitative manner (acc. Brinksmeier)

The residual stress state is a result of mechanical and thermal interactions.

1.
2.
3.
4.

At low Pc, Only thermally induced residual stress by external friction

When plastically deformed by mechanical loads, significant compressive stress surges
With an increase of Pc, the thermal load increases
At very high PC, further rise of the tensile stress may be hindered due to phase transformation in the
work material such as rehardening zones.

1. No thermal damage at the lowest Pc

2. Increase of tensile residual stress and
an extended annealing zone
3. Highest P''c makes rehardening zones with
subsurface annealing

Figure 6.9: Influence of specific grinding power on

workpiece surface integrity (acc. Diss. Karpuschewski)

- Dependency between the Pc based on force measurement and the Xray calculated residual stress
- Compressive stress under the low grinding power
- CBN grinding wheels higher heat conductivity
> reduced thermal load

- Impossible to predict the residual stress state only

based on the specific grinding power without knowing
the corresponding transfer function.
- However, tangential force is a suitable method to
control surface integrity of the ground workpieces.
Figure 6.10: Residual stress as a function of specific
grinding power (acc. Brinksmeier)

- Pc shows a steady increase due to continuous

wear of the grinding wheel, especially when using
superabrasives.
- Power monitoring is a suitable to avoid thermal
surface and subsurface damage.

Figure 6.11: Power monitoring to detect grinding burn

(acc. Haupt, Seidel, Karpuschewski)

Grinding burn detection with AE-sensors

- High MRR, reduced coolant supply
> increase of the AE activity in grinding
> frequency analysis after grinding ; bad
> AE-signal in the time domain
1. - With the aid of ANN, a dimensionless grinding
burn characteristic value could be identified
from the AE signal of different frequency ranges
viewed in the time domain.

6.4 Integration of process monitoring into machine tool system

Basically, the information gained by the sensors can be fed back on three levels.
(1) Process quantities and output quantities are measured in-process and are utilized to adapt the process in
a machine internal control loop. This might be to the benefit of the currently machined part.
(2) Process quantities and output quantities are used to adapt the following grinding cycle as part of the post
process control loop. This is to the benefit of the next workpiece.
(3) In the superior control loop, the direct use of sensor signals to influence the grinding operation on a
short term base is not scheduled. In fact, the information obtained by sensor signals measuring process
quantities and/or output quantities is processed and forwarded to a high-level information system. As a
result, the process design and process optimization is performed by improved models.

Information system
large databases
suitable software platform
applying different types of models
further developed, including techniques of fuzzy logic and artificial neural networks.
Adaptive control (AC) systems as Parts of the machine internal control loop
(1) Adaptive Control Constraint (ACC) approach
; a chosen process quantity (such as normal force) is not allowed to exceed a fixed limit value.
(2) Adaptive Control Optimization (ACO) approach
This optimum has to be defined. As input to the module (regulating quantity), this type of system operates
with process as well as output quantities.
In principle, an ACO-system represents a higher level of organizational structure compared to an ACC-system.
Generally using ACC permits an increase in process performance.
With single phenomenon monitoring this aim can often not be met, so the application of multiple sensors in one
process is part of many activities to achieve an intelligent system.

Figure 6.14: Design of an intelligent grinding system (acc. Karpuschewski)

7 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE TRENDS IN PROCESS MONITORING

1.
2.
3.
4.

Demands to increase productivity and quality of grinding require to lead the process in a narrow process
window.
Consequently, process modeling has to become sharper, to choose appropriate setting parameters.
Monitoring has to be introduced in a growing extent.
The well-balanced use of process modeling and monitoring is the solution.

Reliability, Performance and sensitivity

1. The miniaturization of sensors
close to the source
integration of multi-functions into one sensor.
2. Sensor fusion
increase the flexibility of the monitoring system
a fusion of information gained from different
sensor sources.
> This may provide the basis for a fully controlled
manufacturing system with process monitoring,
diagnosis and control actuation.