Analogue Electronics

TOPIC 2

The Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

The BJT also called the junction transistor or bipolar transistor is a three-element device
capable of current amplification. It is formed from two junctions who share a common
semiconductor layer. The two types of bipolar transistors are pictorially represented in
Fig.12. In the pnp transistor (Fig.12a), the common n-type region is sandwiched between
two p-type layers. npn, on the other hand, a p region is common to two n-type layers
(Fig.12b). The three elements of a BJT are referred to as the emitter, base and collector.

Fig.12
The BJT consists basically of two (diodes) junctions. The emitter to base junction is
usually forward biased (Fig.13). The base to collector junction is usually reverse biased
(Fig.13).

Fig.13
Since, the emitter to base junction in the pnp transistor is forward biased, and then holes
are injected in the N-type centre region. It is called emitter because it acts as a source of
hole carriers. The centre region is common to both parts (i.e. emitter and collector) and is
termed base. Now, if the life time of the hole carriers is long enough and the base is
narrow enough, then almost all the holes injected from the emitter to the base will travel
across the common part i.e. the base. Since, the other junction (base-collector) is reverse
biased, then holes drop into the right hand region (Fig.13) and hence the name collector.
This is the basis of transistor operation of pnp.
The npn transistor works on exactly the same principles with the sole exception that the
majority carriers in this case are electrons

Qn.

Draw the block schematic diagram of npn transistor, showing the junctions and
reverse bias connections.

The transistor can be connected in three different configurations. These are common
emitter, common base and common collector. Because of the importance of common
emitter in industry we will only consider this type. Fig.14 shows the basic circuit
connections of common emitter configuration for both npn and pnp transistors.

Fig.14
Qn.

Draw the basic circuit connections of common base configuration for npn
transistor.

Output Characteristics of BJT

This measures the output current of the transistor at various values of output voltage.
Thus for common emitter configuration, we have IC (output current) plotted against VCE
(output voltage) for various values of IB (input current). Fig.15 shows the common emitter
output characteristics. In the characteristics it can be seen that with zero input current IB,
there is still a small collector current. This is the leakage current known as ICO.

Fig.15 Transistor Output Characteristics

Qn.

Sketch the transistor input characteristics.

Transistor currents
The total current flowing into the transistor must be equal to the total current flowing out of
it and hence emitter current IE is equal to the sum of the collector and base currents IC and
IB respectively.
i.e. IE = IC + IB
Example
In a transistor a charge in emitter current of 1 mA produces a charge in collector current of
0.99 mA. Determine the base current.

Current gain factor

Current gain factor is defined as the ratio of collector current IC to emitter current IE.
IC
I.e. =
IE
Another important parameter is the amplification factor B.
i.e. = IC =
IB

1-

Example
A transistor exhibits a charge of 0.995 mA in its collector current for a change of 1 mA in
its emitter current. Calculate the
(i)

Current gain

(ii)

Amplification factor .

Ac signals
We have discussed so far the application of D.C. signals to the transistor. In the A.C.
signals a small fluctuating at the input would produce a large fluctuation at the output.
I.e.

AC =

IC

IE
AC =

IC

IB

Example
If an increase from 25 to 50 A in base current produced an increase of 1.5 to 3.25 mA in
collector current. Calculate the
(i)
(ii)

Emitter current
Current gain.

The BJT as an Amplifier

The Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is essentially a CURRENT AMPLIFYING DEVICE,
since a small current measured at one terminal maybe used to control a much larger
current flow between the other two terminals - in the common emitter connection for
instance, IB which is measured in A give rise to a larger value of IC (measured in mA)
such that
IC = IB
For common emitter connection IB results from the bias voltage applied to the base emitter junction whilst IC may be converted to an equivalent VOLTAGE by measuring the
volt drop across a resistor

Fig.16 Simple Amplifier

Hence for the common emitter connection shown above (Fig.16), a LOAD RESISTOR RL
is added in the collector circuit to give a simple VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER. Voltages
measured at the output terminals are VCE (collector emitter voltage) and voltage drop
across RL. By Kirchoff's voltage law we have
VCC = VCE + ICRL

Biasing the Bipolar Junction Transistor

We have seen that in order for the transistor to be used as a VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER it is
essential for the operating POINT to be defined - i.e. the steady (quiescent) currents and
voltages around the transistor must be set up.

Fig.17 Base Bias Method

1.

Consider the simple base bias resistor arrangements in which the steady base
current is provided through RB as shown above (Fig.17).

In this case, IB is determined from

IB =

VCC - VBE

RB

Typically, for silicon transistor, VBE is of the order of 0.7V.

This method of biasing the transistor is simple, but, it has a major drawback since any
change in the supply voltage mean that the voltage drop across RB (=VCC - VBE) will
change so that IB (and hence the operating point) will vary. Consequently, this method of
biasing is not used for practical circuits.

Example

If the common emitter transistor shown above in the amplifier circuit is a silicon device (VBE
= 0.6V), and the voltage drop across RL is 4.7V, find the
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

IB, IC and IE

Qn.

For the common emitter transistor circuit shown above, calculate

(i)
(ii)

IC
VCE

2. The most commonly used biasing arrangement is the potential divider circuit.

Fig.18 Potential Divider Bias Method

In this circuit (shown above), R1 and R2 form a POTENTIAL DIVIDER network across the
supply rails. Values of R1 and R2 are chosen so that IB remains approximately constant.
This circuit also incorporates EMITTER CURRENT STABILISATION. This is achieved by
means of RE.
VBE = VB - VE = VB - IERE

The supply rail is labelled VCC since the transistor is npn, and then VCC is positive (if
however, the transistor is pnp, and then VCC is negative). Using the sum of voltage rule we
have
VCC = VCE + VL + VE
VCE is the voltage drop across the transistor i.e. between collector and emitter
VL is the voltage drop across the load (RL) i.e. VL = ICRL

Thus VCC = VCE + ICRL + VE

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Example

For the above potential divider circuit determine

(i)
(ii)

IC
VCE.

Qn.

The above figure shows a common emitter amplifier, calculate

(i)
(ii)

VCE
VBE

Capacitance CE is included in the potential divider circuit (Fig.18) to prevent the

ALTERNATING COMPONENT of IC caused unwanted changes in IB by acting as a short
circuit to the ac component of IE. This is known as the BYPASS CAPACITOR and is
essential for ac operation.

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Input coupling capacitor C1 is required for ac operation to block any input dc current. The
gain at high frequencies will decrease with increase in frequency because of the
unavoidable circuit capacitances which effectively shunt the signal bath. Further loss of
gain will occur if the current gain of the transistor falls with increase in frequency but this
effect can be avoided by choosing a transistor with a sufficiently high frequency cut off.
The BANDWIDTH of an amplifier is the band of frequencies over which the gain is not less
than 1/ 2 times the maximising gain as shown below (Fig.19).

Fig.19 Frequency Response of a Common Emitter Amplifier

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APPENDIX
Load line analysis
For any particular circuit VCC and RL are fixed quantities.
But
IC RL = VCC - VCE

Rearrange
IC =

VCC - VCE

RL
RL

(1)

Equation (1) of the form y = mx + c

Where m =

-1
RL

And c =

VCC

RL

This is the equation of a straight line which may be drawn on the output characteristics as
shown in the following example. The line is known as a LOAD LINE, since its position on
the output characteristics is determined by the value of the load resistor RL. The load line
enables important voltages and currents in the transistor circuit to be predicted. Hence it
may be seen that for a given input current (IB in this case), we can determine the
corresponding values of IC and VCE. At the same time, the effect of changes in the circuit
voltages and currents may be deduced. A change in IB given rise to corresponding
changes in IC and VCE. This is the case for dc values. In practice Ac current signals are
commonly encountered in amplifier applications. But, this will not be treated here.

Example
Determine the IC and VCE values for IB = 30 A in a transistor amplifier whose output
characteristics shown below and VCC = 10V and RL = 2 K

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We have to locate two points in order to draw the line on the output characteristics.
Use equation (1)
i.e. IC =
RL

VCC - VCE
RL

To determine point 1, we assume

IC = 0
Equation (1) becomes
VCC = VCE
RL
RL

i.e. VCE = VCC

To determine point 2 we assume

VCE = 0
Equation (1) becomes
IC =

VCC
RL

Once the line is drawn, it will intersect with the IB curves. In this example the curve of
interest when IB = 30 A and point of intersection P (operating point) is then located P can
enable us to determine the real values of IC and VCE by drawing a dotted line to intersect
intense of their corresponding axes as shown in this figure. This gives IC 3.4 mA and
VCE 4.3V.

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