DC MOTOR CONTROL USING FOUR

QUADRANT OPERATION

ABSTRACT
DC Motor speed control is carried out by use of Four Quadrant
Chopper drive. Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors are used for speed
control of the motor and the IGBT triggering is carried out by use of
PWM converters under various loading conditions and by varying
armature voltageand field voltage.Their Speeds below the base speed can
be controlled by armature voltage control. Speed above the base speed is
obtained by field-flux control. The output voltage and current can be
controlled both in magnitude as well as in direction so the power flow can
be in either direction.The ac supply in fed to the setup through an
isolation transformer and it is rectified to dc for its use. The above
mentioned project proposed carried out using thyristors and a
comparative made.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO.

TITLE

LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
1

INTRODUCTION

BLOCK DIAGRAM

POWER SUPPLY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 TRANSFORMER
3.3 BRIDGE RECTIFIER
3.4 FILTER CIRCUIT

PIC MICROCONTROLLER
4.1 FEATURES
4.2 DESCRIPTION
4.3 ARCHITECTURE
4.4 PIN DIAGRAM
4.5 PIN DESCRIPTION

LM-358 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE

L293D MOTOR DRIVER

6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 FEATURES

DC MOTOR DETAILS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 OVER VIEW

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS
8.1

PIC MICROCONTROLLER

8.2

LM 358 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

8.3 L293D MOTOR DRIVER

PROGRAMMING OF PIC MICROCONTROLLER

10

DATA SHEETS
10.1 PIC MICROCONTROLLER
10.2 LM358 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
10.3 L293D MOTOR DRIVER

11

PROJECT IMAGE
11.1 ADVANTAGES
11.2 APPLICATION

12

CONCLUSION

13

REFERENCE

LIST OF SYMBOLS

1) Capacitor

2) Capacitor, polarized

3) Capacitor, variable

4) Diode

5) Zener diode

6) LED

7) Photodiode

8) Inductor

9) Transformer

10) NPN transistor

11) Earth or ground

12) Fuse

13) Battery

14) SPST (on-off switch)

15) SPDT (2-way switch)

16) Relay

17) Resistor

18) Variable resistor

19) And gate

20) Not gate

HARD WARE COMPONENTS USED IN THIS

PROJECT
Semi conductors
IC1

PIC Microcontroller

IC2

L293D Motor driver

IC3

LM 358 operational amplifier

IC4

7805 voltage regulator.

IC5

Crystal oscillator

D1-D4

Bridge rectifier IN 4007

LED1

5mm red LED

Resistors (all -watt,5% carbon)

R1

1-kilo-ohm,1W

R2

470ohm

R3

10-kilo-ohm

R4

2.2-kilo-ohm

R5

12-kilo-ohm

R6

330-ohm

R7

560-ohm

Capacitors:
C1

10F, 40V electrolytic

C2

22nF ceramic disc.

C3

2200F, 25V electrolytic.

Miscellaneous:
X1

230V primary to 12V,500mA secondary transformer

OUTPUT

Connectors

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Objective of the project:
.

To understand to the pulse width modulation of speed control of the

motors and to control the one and four control of dc motor. it is possible
to develop positive or negative torque by controlling voltage, which is
less than or more than the back emf. Hence the separately excited DC
motor inherently exhibit four quadrant operation.
The below figure shows four quadrant operation of a separately excited
DC motor in which a dot symbol on one of motor terminals indicates the
sign of the torque.

Need For Automation:

Speeds below the base speed can be controlled by armature voltage
control. Speed above the base speed is obtained by field-flux control.
The output voltage and current can be controlled both in magnitude as
well as in direction so the power flow can be in either direction.The ac
supply in fed to the setup through an isolation transformer and it is
rectified to dc for its use. The above mentioned project proposed carried
out using thyristors and a comparative made.

OVERVIEW OF THE TECHNOLOGIES USED

Embedded Systems:
Hardware Implementation of the
Project
This chapter briefly explains about the Hardware Implementation
of the project. It discusses the design and working of the design with the
help of block diagram and circuit diagram and explanation of circuit
diagram in detail. It explains the features, timer programming, serial
communication, interrupts of microcontroller. It also explains the various
modules used in this project.

Project Design
The implementation of the project design can be divided in two
parts.
Hardware implementation
Firmware implementation
Hardware implementation deals in drawing the schematic on the
plane paper according to the application, testing the schematic design
over the breadboard using the various ICs to find if the design meets the
objective, carrying out the PCB layout of the schematic tested on
breadboard, finally preparing the board and testing the designed
hardware.

The firmware part deals in programming the microcontroller so

that it can control the operation of the ICs used in the implementation. In
the present work, we have used the Orca design software for PCB circuit
design, the Keil v3 software development tool to write and compile the
source code, which has been written in the C language. The Flash maic
programmer has been used to write this compile code into the
microcontroller. The firmware implementation is explained in the next
chapter.

The project design and principle are explained in this chapter using
the block diagram and circuit diagram. The block diagram discusses
about the required components of the design and working condition is
explained using circuit diagram and system wiring diagram.

CHAPTER 2
2.O Block diagram
The block diagram of the project is as shown in the figure

Fig 2.0 : block diagram

Brief explanation of functioning of each block of the system is
given below the detailed is given in next chapters

CHAPTER 3
POWER SUPPLY UNIT
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Power supply is an integral parts a vital role in every electronic
system and hence their design constitutes a major part in every
application. In order to overcome mal-operation which results due to
fluctuations in the load and discontinuity in the supply proper choice of
power supply is indeed a great need in this hour.
The present chapter introduces the operation of power supply
circuits built using filters, rectifiers, and then voltage regulators. Starting
with an AC voltage, a steady DC voltage is obtained by rectifying the AC
voltage, then filtering to a DC level, and finally, regulating to obtain a
desired fixed DC voltage. The regulation is usually obtained from an IC
voltage regulator unit, which takes a DC voltage and provides a
somewhat lower DC voltage, which remains the same even if the input
DC voltage varies, or the output load connected to the DC voltage
changes.
A block diagram containing the parts of a typical power supply and
the voltage at various points in the unit is shown in fig 19.1. The AC
voltage, typically 120 V RMS, is connected to a transformer, which steps
that AC voltage down to the level for the desired DC output.
A diode rectifier then provides a full-wave rectified voltage that is
initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a DC voltage. This

resulting DC voltage usually has some ripple or AC voltage variation. A

regulator circuit can use this DC input to provide a DC voltage that not
only has much less ripple voltage but also remains the same DC value
even if the input DC voltage varies somewhat, or the load connected to
the output
DC voltage.

POWER SUPPLY COMPONENTS

TRANSFORMER

FULLWAVE RECTIFIER

VOLTAGE REGULATOR

FILTER CIRCUIT

POWER SUPPLY BLOCK DIAGRAM

The AC voltage, typically 220V RMS, is connected to a
transformer, which steps that AC voltage down to the level of the desired
DC output. A diode rectifier then provides a full-wave rectified voltage
that is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a DC
voltage. This resulting DC voltage usually has some ripple or AC voltage
variation.

TRANSFORMER

RECTIFIER

FILTER

IC REGULATOR

FIG POWER SUPPLY UNIT

LOAD

WORKING PRINCIPLE
3.1 TRANSFORMER
Transformer is a static device, which transfers electrical energy
from one alternating current circuit to another without change in
frequency. The working principle behind its operation is faraday laws of
electromagnetic induction, which states that, "whenever current carrying
conductor is moved in a magnetic field, flux linked with the conductor
changes and EMF is induced in the conductor".

Transformer is used in step down mode of operation in the sense it

provides an output, which is reduced in form compared to input. It
depends upon number of turns in the winding i.e., turns ratio.

Primary winding is fed with a supply of 230V, 50Hz A.C., which

appears as an voltage approximately 15V across secondary winding. This
voltage is fed into the rectifier circuit for the purpose of rectification i.e.,
converting A.C. input to D.C. output.

The potential transformer will step down the power supply voltage
(0-230V) to (0-6V) level. Then the secondary of the potential transformer
will be connected to the precision rectifier, which is constructed with the
help of OP-AMP. The advantages of using precision rectifier are it will
give peak voltage output as DC, rest of the circuits will give only RMS
output.

3.2 BRIDGE RECTIFIER

When four diodes are connected as shown in figure, the circuit is

called as bridge rectifier. The input to the circuit is applied to the
diagonally opposite corners of the network, and the output is taken from
the remaining two corners.
Let us assume that the transformer is working properly and there is
a positive potential, at point A and a negative potential at point B. the
positive potential at point A will forward bias D3 and reverse bias D4.

The negative potential at point B will forward bias D1 and reverse

D2. At this time D3 and D1 are forward biased and will allow current
flow to pass through them; D4 and D2 are reverse biased and will block
current flow.
The path for current flow is from point B through D1, up through
RL, through D3, through the secondary of the transformer back to point
B. this path is indicated by the solid arrows. Waveforms (1) and (2) can
be observed across D1 and D3.
One-half cycle later the polarity across the secondary of the
transformer reverse, forward biasing D2 and D4 and reverse biasing D1

and D3. Current flow will now be from point A through D4, up through
RL, through D2, through the secondary of T1, and back to point A. This
path is indicated by the broken arrows. Waveforms (3) and (4) can be
observed across D2 and D4. The current flow through RL is always in the
same direction. In flowing through RL this current develops a voltage
corresponding to that shown waveform.
One advantage of a bridge rectifier over a conventional full-wave rectifier
is that with a given transformer the bridge rectifier produces a voltage
output that is nearly twice that of the conventional full-wave circuit.

This may be shown by assigning values to some of the components

shown in views A and B. assume that the same transformer is used in
both circuits. The peak voltage developed between points X and Y is
1000 volts in both circuits. In the conventional full-wave circuit shown
in view A, the peak voltage from the center tap to either X or Y is 500
volts. Since only one diode can conduct at any instant, the maximum
voltage that can be rectified at any instant is 500 volts.

The maximum voltage that appears across the load resistor is nearly-but
never exceeds-500 volts, as result of the small voltage drop across the
diode. In the bridge rectifier shown in view B, the maximum voltage that
can be rectified is the full secondary voltage, which is 1000 volts.
Therefore, the peak output voltage across the load resistor is nearly 1000
volts. With both circuits using the same transformer, the bridge rectifier
circuit produces a higher output voltage than the conventional full-wave
rectifier circuit.

3.3 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Voltage regulator is a device, which provides a stable and a
constant D.C. voltage irrespective of the change in the load current.
Stable

and constant D.C, output voltage necessities the usage of voltage

regulator in this power section.

They are of many types namely:

Fixed voltage Regulator
Adjustable voltage Regulator

Switch Regulator

IC VOLTAGE REGULATORS:

Voltage regulators comprise a class of widely used ICs. Regulator

IC units contain the circuitry for reference source, comparator amplifier,
control device, and overload protection all in a single IC. Although the
internal construction of the IC is somewhat different from that described
for discrete voltage regulator circuits, the external operation is much the

same. IC units provide regulation of either a fixed positive voltage, a

fixed negative voltage, or an adjustably set voltage.

A power supply can be built using a transformer connected to the AC

supply line to step the AC voltage to desired amplitude, then rectifying
that AC voltage, filtering with a capacitor and RC filter, if desired, and
finally regulating the DC voltage using an IC regulator. The regulators
can be selected for operation with load currents from hundreds of milli
amperes to tens of amperes, corresponding to power ratings from milli
watts to tens of watts.

THREE-TERMINAL VOLTAGE
REGULATORS:
Fig shows the basic connection of a three-terminal voltage
regulator IC to a load. The fixed voltage regulator has an unregulated DC
input voltage, Vi, applied to one input terminal, a regulated output DC
voltage, Vo, from a second terminal, with the third terminal connected to
ground.

For a selected regulator, IC device specifications list a voltage

range over which the input voltage can vary to maintain a regulated
output voltage over a range of load current. The specifications also list
the amount of output voltage change resulting from a change in load
current (load regulation) or in input voltage (line regulation)

FIXED POSITIVE VOLTAGE

REGULATORS:
The series 78 regulators provide fixed regulated voltages from 5 to 24 V.
Figure shows how one such IC, a 7805, is connected to provide voltage
regulation with output from this unit of +12V DC. An unregulated input
voltage Vi is filtered by capacitor C1 and connected to the ICs IN
terminal. The ICs OUT terminal provides a regulated + 12V which is
filtered by capacitor C2 (mostly for any high-frequency noise).

These limitations are spelled out in the manufacturers specification

sheets. A table of positive voltage regulated ICs is provided in table.

TABLE POSITIVE VOLTAGE

REGULATORS IN 7800 SERIES
Output Voltage

IC Part

Minimum Vi (V)

(V)

7805

+5

7.3

7806

+6

8.3

7808

+8

10.5

7810

+10

12.5

7812

+12

14.6

7815

+15

17.7

7818

+18

21.0

7824

+24

27.1

LM 78XX SERIES VOLTAGE REGULATORS

GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The LM 78xx series of three terminal regulators is available with
several fixed output voltages making them useful in a wide range of
applications. One of these is local on card regulation, eliminating the
distribution problems associated with single point regulation.
The voltages available allow these regulators to be used in logic
systems, instrumentations, HiFi, and other solid state electronic
equipment.
Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators these
devices can be used with external

components to obtain adjustable

voltages and currents.

The LM78xx series is available in an aluminium T0-3 package
which will allow over 1.0A load current. Current limiting is included to
limit the peak output current to a safe value. Safe area protection for the
output transistor is provided to limit internal power dissipation.
If internal power dissipation becomes too high for the heat sinking
provided, the thermal shutdown circuit takes over preventing the IC from
overheating. Considerable effort was expanded to make the LM78xx
series of regulators easy to used and minimize the number of external
components. It is not necessary to bypass the output, although this does
improve transient response.

Input by passing is needed only if the

regulator is located far from the filter capacitor of the power supply. For
output voltage other than 5V, 12V, 15V, the LM117 series provides an
output voltage range from 1.2V to 57V.

FEATURES:.
Output current in excess of 1A
Internal thermal overload protection
No external components required
Output transistor safe area protection
Internal short circuit current limits
Available in the aluminium T0-3 package.

Voltage Range
LM 7805 C 5V
LM 7812 C 12V
LM 7815 C 15 V

In many low current application, compensation capacitors are not

required.

However, it is recommended that the regulated input be

byepassed with the capacitor if the regulator is connected to the power

supply filter with long wire lengths are if the output load capacitance is
large. An input bypass capacitor made of ceramic is chosen to provide
good frequency characteristics to ensure stable operation under all load
condition. The bypass capacitor mounted with the shortest possible leads
directly across the regulators input terminals.

3.4 FILTER CIRCUIT

The output of the voltage regulator is given to this filter unit.
Filters are frequency selective electronic circuitry, which allows certain
specified band of frequency and attenuate frequencies other than the
specified frequencies. Here capacitor is used to short the ripple with
frequency of 120 Hz to ground. It is also called bypassing capacitor or
decoupling capacitor, which acts as surge arrestors.

All the characteristics are measured with capacitor across the input of
0.22 f. All characteristics except noise voltage and ripple rejection ratio
are measured using pulse techniques (two 10 ms, duty cycle 5%)
output voltage changes due to changes in internal temperature must be
taken into account separately.
Absolute maximum ratings indicate limits beyond which damage to the
device may occur. For quaranted specifications and the test conditions,
see electrical characteristics.

CHAPTER 4
PIC MICROCONTROLLER
PIC MICROCONTROLLER 16F877A
4.1 FEATURES:
This powerful 200 nanosecond instruction execution yet easy-to program
only

35

single

word

instructions

CMOS

FLASH-based

8-bit

microcontroller packs Microchip's powerful PIC architecture into an

40- or 44-pin package and is upwards compatible with the PIC16C5X,
PIC12CXXX and PIC16C7X devices. The PIC16F877A features 256
bytes of EEPROM data memory, self programming, an ICD, 2
Comparators, 8 channels of 10-bit Analog-to-Digital converter, 2
capture/compare/PWM functions, the synchronous serial port can be
configured as either 3-wire Serial Peripheral Interface or the 2-wire InterIntegrated Circuit bus and a Universal Asynchronous Receiver
Transmitter. All of these features make it ideal for more advanced level
A/D applications in automotive, industrial, appliances and consumer
applications.

4.2 DESCRIPTION:
PIC 16F877 is one of the most advanced microcontroller from Microchip.
This controller is widely used for experimental and modern applications
because of its low price, wide range of applications, high quality, and
ease of availability. It is ideal for applications such as machine control
applications, measurement devices, study purpose, and so on. The PIC
16F877 features all the components which modern microcontrollers
normally have.

4.3 ARCHITECTURE:

4.4 PIN DIAGRAM:

4.5 PIN DESCRIPTIONS:

As seen in above figure, the most pins are multi-functional. For example,
designator RA3/AN3/Vref+/C1IN+ for the fifth pin specifies the
following functions:
RA3 Port A third digital input/output
AN3 Third analog input
Vref+ Positive voltage reference
C1IN+ Comparator C1positive input
This small trick is often used because it makes the microcontroller
package more compact without affecting its functionality. These various
pin functions cannot be used simultaneously, but can be changed at any
point during operation.

Memory
This microcontroller has three types of memory- ROM, RAM and
EEPROM. All of them will be separately discussed since each has
specific functions, features and organization.

ROM Memory
ROM memory is used to permanently save the program being executed.
This is why it is often called program memory. The PIC16F887 has
8Kb of ROM (in total of 8192 locations). Since this ROM is made with
FLASH technology, its contents can be changed by providing a special
programming voltage (13V).
Anyway, there is no need to explain it in detail because it is automatically
performed by means of a special program on the PC and a simple
electronic device called the Programmer.

General-Purpose Registers
General-Purpose registers are used for storing temporary data and results
created during operation. For example, if the program performs a
counting (for example, counting products on the assembly line), it is
necessary to have a register which stands for what we in everyday life
call sum. Since the microcontroller is not creative at all, it is necessary
to specify the address of some general purpose register and assign it a
new function. A simple program to increment the value of this register by
1, after each product passes through a sensor, should be created.
Therefore, the microcontroller can execute that program because it now
knows what and where the sum which must be incremented is. Similarly
to this simple example, each program variable must be pre assigned some
of general-purpose register.

SFR Registers
Special-Function registers are also RAM memory locations, but unlike
general-purpose registers, their purpose is predetermined during
manufacturing process and cannot be changed. Since their bits are
physically connected to particular circuits on the chip (A/D converter,
serial communication module, etc.), any change of their contents directly

affects the operation of the microcontroller or some of its circuits. For

example, by changing the TRISA register, the function of each port A pin
can be changed in a way it acts as input or output. Another feature of
these memory locations is that they have their names (registers and their
bits), which considerably facilitates program writing. Since high-level
programming language can use the list of all registers with their exact
addresses, it is enough to specify the registers name in order to read or
change its contents.

RAM Memory Banks

The data memory is partitioned into four banks. Prior to accessing some
register during program writing (in order to read or change its contents),
it is necessary to select the bank which contains that register. Two bits of
the STATUS register are used for bank selecting, which will be discussed
later. In order to facilitate operation, the most commonly used SFRs have
the same address in all banks which enables them to be easily accessed.

STACK
A part of the RAM used for the stack consists of eight 13-bit registers.
Before the microcontroller starts to execute a subroutine (CALL
instruction) or when an interrupt occurs, the address of first next
instruction being currently executed is pushed onto the stack, i.e. onto one
of its registers. In that way, upon subroutine or interrupt execution, the
microcontroller knows from where to continue regular program
execution. This address is cleared upon return to the main program
because there is no need to save it any longer, and one location of the
stack is automatically available for further use.
It is important to understand that data is always circularly pushed onto the
stack. It means that after the stack has been pushed eight times, the ninth
push overwrites the value that was stored with the first push. The tenth
push overwrites the second push and so on. Data overwritten in this way
is not recoverable. In addition, the programmer cannot access these
registers for write or read and there is no Status bit to indicate stack
overflow or stack underflow conditions. For that reason, one should take
special care of it during program writing.

Interrupt System
The first thing that the microcontroller does when an interrupt request
arrives is to execute the current instruction and then stop regular program
execution. Immediately after that, the current program memory address is
automatically pushed onto the stack and the default address (predefined
by the manufacturer) is written to the program counter. That location
from where the program continues execution is called the interrupt
vector. For the PIC16F887 microcontroller, this address is 0004h. As
seen in Fig. 1-7 below, the location containing interrupt vector is passed
over during regular program execution.
Part of the program being activated when an interrupt request arrives is
called the interrupt routine. Its first instruction is located at the interrupt
vector. How long this subroutine will be and what it will be like depends
on the skills of the programmer as well as the interrupt source itself.
Some microcontrollers have more interrupt vectors (every interrupt
request has its vector), but in this case there is only one. Consequently,
the first part of the interrupt routine consists in interrupt source
recognition.
Finally, when the interrupt source is recognized and interrupt routine is
executed, the microcontroller reaches the RETFIE instruction, pops the
address from the stack and continues program execution from where it
left off.

CHAPTER-5
LM-358 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
INTRODUCTION
An Operational Amplifier, or op-amp for short, is fundamentally
a voltage amplifying device designed to be used with external
feedback components such as resistors and capacitors between its
output and input terminals. These feedback components determine
the resulting function or operation of the amplifier and by virtue
of the different feedback configurations whether resistive,
capacitive or both, the amplifier can perform a variety of different
operations, giving rise to its name of Operational Amplifier.
An Operational Amplifier is basically a three-terminal device
which consists of two high impedance inputs, one called
the Inverting Input, marked with a negative or minus sign, ( - )
and the other one called the Non-inverting Input, marked with a
positive or plus sign ( + ).

Available in 8-Bump DSBGA Chip-Sized Package,

Internally Frequency Compensated for Unity Gain
Large DC Voltage Gain: 100 dB
Wide Bandwidth (Unity Gain): 1 MHz
Wide Power Supply Range:
Single Supply: 3V to 32V
Or Dual Supplies: 1.5V to 16V
Very Low Supply Current Drain (500A)Essentially
Independent of Supply Voltage
Low Input Offset Voltage: 2 mV
Input Common-Mode Voltage Range Includes Ground

5.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE

The LM358 op-amps are used in transducer amplifiers, dc gain blocks

and all the conventional op-amp circuits which now can be more easily
implemented in single power supply systems. For example, the LM358
op-amp can be directly operated off of the standard +5V power supply
voltage which is used as a part of digital systems and will easily provide
the required interface electronics without needing the extra 15V power
supplies.
It comes in an 8-pin DIP package is shown in below.

Pin Description:
o
o
o
o
o

Pin 1 and 7 are outputs of comparator

Pin 2 and 6 are inverting inputs
Pin 3 and 5 are non-inverting inputs
Pin 4 is ground (GND)
Pin 8 is VCC+

Features:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Internally frequency compensated for unity gain

Large dc voltage gain: 100 DB
Wide bandwidth
Wide power supply range: single supply: 3V to 32V
Very low supply current drain essentially independent of supply
voltage
Low input offset voltage: 2 mV
Input common-mode voltage range includes ground
Differential input voltage range equal to the power supply voltage
Power drain suitable for battery operation

Advantages:
o
o
o
o
o

Two internally compensated op amps

Eliminates need for dual supplies
Allows direct sensing near GND and VOUT also goes to GND
Compatible with all forms of logic
Power drain suitable for battery operation

Working of LM358:
The inverting input of the comparator LM358 i.e., pin 2 is given to the
fixed voltage i.e., in the ratio 47k:10k and the non inverting input of the
comparator is pulled down and is given to sensing terminal. When the
resistance between the positive supply and the non inverting input is high
then resulting is the non-inverting input less than the inverting input
making comparator output as logic low at pin1. And when the resistance
falls making available a voltage to the non-inverting input higher than
inverting input, so that the output of comparator is logic high.

5.3 AREAS OF APPLICATION

The LM1458/LM1558 or similar op amps exhibit several important
limitations when operated from a single positive (or negative) supply.
Chief among these is that input and output signal swing is severely
limited for a given supply as shown in Figure 1. For linear operation, the
input voltage must not reach within 3 volts of ground or of the supply,
and output range is similarly limited to within 35 volts of ground or
supply. This means that operation with a +12V supply could be limited as
low as 2 Vp-p output swing. The LM358 however, allows a 10.5 Vp-p
output swing for the same 12V supply. Admittedly these are worst case
specification limits, but they serve to illustrate the problem.

CHAPTER 6
L293D MOTOR DRIVER CIRCUIT
6.1 INTRODUCTION
L293D is a dual H-bridge motor driver integrated circuit (IC). Motor
drivers act as current amplifiers since they take a low-current control
signal and provide a higher-current signal. This higher current signal is
used to drive the motors.

L293D contains two inbuilt H-bridge driver circuits. In its common mode
of operation, two DC motors can be driven simultaneously, both in
forward and reverse direction. The motor operations of two motors can be
controlled by input logic at pins 2 & 7 and 10 & 15. Input logic 00 or 11
will stop the corresponding motor. Logic 01 and 10 will rotate it in
clockwise and anticlockwise directions, respectively.

Enable pins 1 and 9 (corresponding to the two motors) must be high for
motors to start operating. When an enable input is high, the associated
driver gets enabled. As a result, the outputs become active and work in
phase with their inputs. Similarly, when the enable input is low, that
driver is disabled, and their outputs are off and in the high-impedance
state.

6.2 Features:
Easily compatible with any of the system
Easy interfacing through FRC (Flat Ribbon Cable)
External Power supply pin for Motors supported
Onboard PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) selection switch
2pin Terminal Block (Phoenix Connectors) for easy Motors Connection
Onboard H-Bridge base Motor Driver IC (L293D)

Pin Diagram:

CHAPTER 7

DC MOTOR DETAILS
DC motors consist of one set of coils, called armature winding,
inside another set of coils or a set of permanent magnets, called the stator.
Applying a voltage to the coils produces a torque in the armature,
resulting in motion. Stator The stator is the stationary outside part of a
motor.
The stator of a permanent magnet dc motor is composed of two
or more permanent magnet pole pieces.

The magnetic field can alternatively be created by an

electromagnet. In this case, a DC coil (fieldwinding) is wound around a

magnetic material that forms part of the stator. Rotor The rotor is the
inner part which rotates.
The rotor is composed of windings (called armature windings)
which are connected to the external
circuit through a mechanical commutator. Both stator and rotor
are made of ferromagnetic materials. The two are separated by air-gap.
Winding A winding is made up of series or parallel connection of
coils. Armature winding - The winding through which the voltage is
applied or induced.
Field winding - The winding through which a current is passed
to produce flux (for the electromagnet)
Windings are usually made of copper.

 DC Motors 3 4.3. DC Motor Basic Principles 4.3.1 Energy

Conversion If electrical energy is supplied to a conductor lying
perpendicular to a magnetic field, the interaction of current flowing in the
conductor and the magnetic field will produce mechanical force (and
therefore, mechanical energy). 4.3.2 Value of Mechanical Force There
are two conditions which are necessary to produce a force on the
conductor. The conductor must be carrying current, and must be within a
magnetic field. When these two conditions exist, a force will be applied
to the conductor, which will attempt to move the conductor in a direction
perpendicular to the magnetic field. This is the basic theory by which all
DC motors operate. The force exerted upon the conductor can be
expressed as follows. F = B i l Newton (1) where B is the density of the
magnetic field, l is the length of conductor, and i the value of current
flowing in the conductor. The direction of motion can be found using
Flemings Left Hand Rule. Figure 3: Flemings Left Hand Rule The first
finger points in the direction of the magnetic field (first - field), which
goes from the North pole to the South pole. The second finger points in
the direction of the current in the wire (second - current). The thumb then
points in the direction the wire is thrust or pushed while in the magnetic
field (thumb - torque or thrust).

Principle of operation
Consider a coil in a magnetic field of flux density B (figure 4).
When the two ends of the coil are connected across a DC voltage source,
current I flows through it. A force is exerted on the coil as a result of the
interaction of magnetic field and electric current. The force on the two
sides of the coil is such that the coil starts to move in the direction of

force. Figure 4: Torque production in a DC motor In an actual DC motor,

several such coils are wound on the rotor, all of which experience force,
resulting in rotation. The greater the current in the wire, or the greater the
magnetic field, the faster the wire moves because of the greater force
created. At the same time this torque is being produced, the conductors
are moving in a magnetic field. At /dt) as shown indifferent positions,
the flux linked with it changes, which causes an emf to be induced (e = d
figure 5. This voltage is in opposition to the voltage that causes current
flow through the conductor and is referred to as a counter-voltage or back
emf. Figure 5: Induced voltage in the armature winding of DC motor The
value of current flowing through the armature is dependent upon the
difference between the applied voltage and this counter-voltage. The
current due to this counter-voltage tends to oppose the very cause for its
production according to Lenzs law. It results in the rotor slowing down

CHAPTER 8
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS
8.1 PIC MICRO CONTROLLER

8.2 LM 358 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

8.3 L293D MOTOR DRIVER

CHAPTER 9
PROGRAMMING OF PIC MICROCONTROLLER
CODE:
/***** *****
PWM MODULE

LOW FREQUENCY PWM GENERATION WITHOUT

#include<pic.h>

void main()
{
mc_init();
RC0=0;
RB6=0;
RB7=0;
do
{
if(RB0==1&&RB1==1)
{
ON=ON+1;
}
if(RB0==0&&RB1==1)
{
ON=ON-1;
}
if(ON>950)
{
ON=950;
}
if(ON<1)
{
ON=1;
}
RB6=1;
OFF=1000-ON;
for(i=0; i<=ON; i++)

{
RB5=1;
}
for(i=0; i<=OFF; i++)
{
RB5=0;
}
}while(1);
}
void mc_init()
{
TRISA=0xFF;
PORTD=0X00;
PORTC=0X00;
}

void delay(unsigned long del_del)

{
while(del_del--);
}

CHAPTER 10
10.1 DATA SHEET PIC MICRO CONTROLLER

10.2 LM-358 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

10.3 L293D MOTOR DRIVER CIRCUIT

CHAPTER 11

11.1 Project image

11.2 Advantages

Four quadrant operation allows the motor to make torque in either

direction regardless of the speed or direction of the motor.
This is required if you need to actively slow down the motor and
load

11.3 APPLICATIONS

Electric traction system

Battery operated vehicles

Lifts and cranes

Engine test loading systems

Spindle and tool drives in machine tools

Auxiliary drives in robotic systems

Position control systems

CHAPTER 12
Conclusion
The cycle speed of DC motor can be varied by the duty cycle of
PWM signal the controller can operate all four quadrant of DC motor
regenerative breaking can be studied easily by changing to be a bigger
size motor.

CHAPTER 13
REFERENCES
1. http://www.aimglobal.org/technologies/rfid/what_is_rfid.asp
2. http://www.rfidjournal.com/faq
3. http://www.technovelgy.com/ct/Technology-Article.asp
4. http://www.perada.eu/documents/articles-perspectives/anintroduction-to-rfid-technology.pdf
5. http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-98/SP80098_RFID-2007.pdf
6. www.ieee.org
7. http://www.zntu.edu.ua/base/lection/rpf/lib/zhzh03/8051_tu
torial.pdf
8. http://www.taltech.com/TALtech_web/resources/intro-sc.html
9. http://focus.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/max232.pdf
10 http://www.kmitl.ac.th/~kswichit/89prog/index.html