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101
57
101
3 AUTHORS:
Adolfo Calvo-Cases
Carolina Boix-Fayos
University of Valencia
SEE PROFILE
SEE PROFILE
Anton Imeson
Foundation 3D EC and FSD Wageningen
118 PUBLICATIONS 2,730 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
a
Department of Geography, University of Valencia, Avda. Blasco Ibanez 28, 46010 Valencia, Spain
Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Achtergracht 166, 1018 Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Received 1 September 2000; received in revised form 1 March 2001; accepted 15 July 2002
Abstract
An interpretation of soil hydrology and erosion data obtained from limestone areas in southeast Spain is presented in the
framework of recent hypotheses on runoff generation mechanisms in Mediterranean environments. The main objective is to
synthesise and harmonise the data in theoretical concepts or behavioural models of hydrological functioning of Mediterranean
limestone slopes. For this purpose, data were collected in a typical limestone area, with climatic characteristics ranging from
subhumid to semiarid. Several sites were chosen with comparable slopes, vegetation and soils along a transect of 20 km to carry
out several research projects. The data discussed in this paper consist of information on water redistribution within the soil
profiles obtained from long duration (up to 5 h) rainfall simulation experiments with continuous monitoring of soil moisture at
different depths. Runoff and sediment concentration data were obtained (i) from rainfall simulation experiments with different
antecedent soil moisture conditions and (ii) as natural results from open Gerlach plots on runoff and sediment movement over 4
years.
Three conceptual models of water redistribution during the infiltration process could be observed, two of them imply
nonuniform water redistribution within the soil profile due mainly to macropore flow caused by specific soil surface
characteristics. At the plot scale, runoff generated in bare patches is mainly Hortonian. In plots with previously wetted soils or
soils with high infiltration capacities, the generated runoff implies the saturation of the upper soil. Both types of runoff are
discontinuous through time and space. The runoff generation mechanisms at the slope scale have been synthesised into two
conceptual models: a Hortonian discontinuous runoff model that takes place in the most degraded slopes or during high
intensity rain events and, a mixed runoff generation model in less degraded slopes or in previously wet soils, where infiltration
excess runoff as well as saturation excess runoff can happen on the same slope. In both cases, slopes behave as a patchwork of
runoff and runon areas, the size of the runoff or runon patches is dependent on the climatological conditions. These control the
hydrological disconnection between different parts of the slopes. Hortonian and saturation runoff can both be generated and
infiltrated downslope.
D 2002 Published by Elsevier Science B.V.
Keywords: Mediterranean; Spain; Runoff; Infiltration; Erosion
Corresponding author.
270
1. Introduction
1.1. Runoff generation mechanisms in Mediterranean
ecosystems
The hydrological behaviour of the soils in the
Mediterranean concerning infiltration, soil water redistribution and runoff generation mechanisms does
not fit the traditionally accepted models for humid
ecosystems. Very often, the infiltration process and
the runoff generation mechanisms in Mediterranean
environments occur in a nonuniform way in space and
time. Since the beginning of the 70s and more
recently, research has demonstrated that Mediterranean slopes behave as a mosaic of runoff generation
and infiltration patches (Yair and Klein, 1973; Yair,
1983; Yair and Lavee, 1985; Yair and Enzel, 1987;
Lavee et al., 1998) depending enormously on the
morphometrica characteristics of the slopes, the lithology, the different development of the soils and the
past land uses.
On one hand, a nonuniform pattern of runoff
generation in the catchments characterised by a flux
discontinuity due to a hydrological disconnection
between the elements of the slopes takes place. The
slopes behave like a mosaic of runoff and runon areas
(sources and sinks) described by many authors in
different parts of the Mediterranean Basin (Cerda` i
Bolinches, 1995; Nicolau et al., 1996; Puigdefabregas
and Sanchez, 1996; Bergkamp, 1998, Lavee et al.,
1998). Yair (1996) points out the existence of a
systematic nonuniform pattern of contribution area
to runoff after analysing runoff generation mechanisms in Mediterranean arid areas of different lithologies. This nonuniform pattern is caused by the local
differences in soil infiltration capacity.
On the other hand, very frequently water under
clusters of vegetation moves through preferential
paths within the soil profile causing a nonuniform
model of infiltration and water redistribution (Bergkamp et al., 1996). The Bodman and Colman (1943)
model of soil water redistribution where the soil water
content decreases progressively at deeper soil horizons during the infiltration process is not widely
applicable in this type of environment. Furthermore,
the research carried out on the spatial distribution of
soil moisture at catchment scale (Coronato and Bertiller, 1997; Western et al., 1998; Fitzjohn et al., 1998)
271
272
Table 1
Hydrological and erosional data obtained under natural or simulated rainfall on limestones in different Mediterranean environments in the last 15 years
Study area
Annual
average
pp (mm)
Lithology
Soil type
Applied or
registered pp
Negev
desert
(Israel)
70 250
Limestones
and gypsum
Grazing
Wilcox et al.
(1988)
Sierra de
Guadalupe
(New Mexico,
USA)
500
Limestones
and
dolomites
Lithic
Forest,
Calciustolls,
seasonal
Lithic
grazing
Argiustolls,
Aridic
Haplustalfs cos
Closed
plots,
1 m2
136 mm
(natural
and in
1 year),
72 mm (natural
and in 1 year)
59.5 mm
(applied)
Fort Staton
330 406
Experimental
Range (New
Mexico, USA)
Benidorm
393
(Alicante,
Spain)
Limestones
Litic
Haplustolls
Grazing
Closed
plots,
1 m2
Limestones
and marls
Grazing,
patchwork
of small
forest fires
Grazing
Llovet et al.
(1994)
Lefka Ori
(Crete,
Greece)
Desierto
de Judea
(Israel)
Cerda` i Bolinches Genoves
(1995)
(Valencia,
Spain)
Cerda` i Bolinches Vall de
(1995)
Gallinera
(Alicante,
Spain)
260 330
Limestones
Chromic
Luvisols,
Eutric
Regosols
688
Limestones
985
Limestones
and
dolomites
Closed
plots,
0.24 m2
Closed
plots,
0.24 m2
Forest fires Closed
plots,
0.24 m2
Abandoned Closed
agricultural plots,
terraces
0.24 m2
Runoff/
infiltration
Runoff:
27 mm
(in the
same year),
6.5 mm (in
the same year)
Steady
infiltration
rate:
69 91 mm h 1
(on dry soil),
41 76 mm h 1
(on wet soil)
506 mm
Steady
(applied)
infiltration rate:
528 998
mm h 1
60 mm (on dry Runoff
soil. (applied), coefficients:
0.00 0.12,
55 mm
(on wet soil,
0.05 0.52
applied)
41.25 mm
Runoff
(applied on
coefficient:
wet and
0.37 0.69
dry soil)
36.80 mm
Runoff
(applied)
coefficient (%):
82 91, 50 82
55 mm
Runoff
(applied
coefficient
on dry soil)
(%): 18
55 mm
Runoff
(applied on
coefficient
dry soil)
(%): 10
Sediment
Erosion
concentration
0.96 1.06,
0.87 3.23
gl 1
7.79 18.63,
2.21 54.50
gm 2h 1
1.40 9.26
gl 1
33.40 356.19
gm 2h 1
0.99 9.42,
0.18 2.31
gl 1
39.43 228.75,
5.11 98.62
gm 2h 1
Source
Bolbens
(Valencia,
Spain)
688
Limestones
Romero Daz
et al. (1995)
El Ardal
(Murcia,
Spain)
276
Limestones
Petric
calcisol
Lopez
Bermudez
et al.
(1996)
Bergkamp
et al. (1996)
El Ardal
(Murcia,
Spain)
276
Limestones
Petric
calcisol
El Ardal
(Murcia,
Spain)
Majahadillas
(Cuenca,
Spain)
276
Limestones
Petric
calcisol
Abandoned
fields,
cereals and
shrubland
Abandoned
fields,
cereals and
shrubland
Abandoned
fields
394
Limestones
Calcic
luvisols,
Petric
calcisols
Bergkamp
et al. (1996)
Wainwright
(1996)
Mollans-surOuve`ze
(France)
Alluvial
terrace on
Quaternary
or limestones
Limestones
Lithic
leptosols
Diamantopoulos
et al.
(1996)
Petralona
(Thessaloniki,
Greece)
Cerda` (1997)
Valencia
(Spain)
688
Limestones
Calvo Cases
et al. (1998)
Benidorm
(Alicante,
Spain)
350
Limestones
Lithic
leptosols
Kosmas
et al. (1997)
Spata
(Greece)
496
Limestones
Tipic or
Calcis
xerochreptsp
2 8,
2 10 m
55 mm
applied
on dry soil),
55 mm
(applied
on wet soil)
? (natural)
2 8,
2 10 m
713,
315 mm
Halfclosed,
2 10 m
35 mm
(applied)
Shrubland
Halfclosed,
2 10 m
35 mm
(applied)
Vineyards
and other
crops
Closed,
61 61 cm
50 mm
(applied)
Grazed
Closed:
shrubland
2 10 m
and cereals
30 mm
(natural),
45 mm
(natural)
Shrubland Closed,
55 mm
and old
0.25 m2
(applied on
agricultural
different
terraces
soil moisture
conditions)
Shrubland Open
187 mm
(trap 50 cm) (natural)
Olive trees
Closed,
3 10 m
450 575
mm
(natural)
Runoff
coefficient
(%): 8, 29
Runoff
coefficient
(%):
0.35 2.38
Sediment
yield:
0.08 5.13
gm 2
100.52,
1.19 g m
Runoff
coefficient:
0.01
Runoff
coefficient:
0
30 g l
Steady
infiltration
rate: 87.1 87.9
mm h 1
Runoff
coefficients:
0.8 and 0.2
Infiltration
rate: 8 55 mm
Runoff/
pp rate:
from 2.1%
to 24%
Total
runoff:
0 2.6%
From 3.8
to 68 g l 1
on average
0 2.8
t km 2 a
Cerda` i
Bolinches
(1995)
274
Table 1 (continued)
Source
Study area
Annual
average
pp (mm)
Lithology
Soil type
Vegetation/
land use
Plot size
and type
Applied or
registered pp
Runoff/
infiltration
Sediment
concentration
Erosion
Calvo Cases
et al. (1998)
Cocoll
(Alicante,
Spain)
826
Limestones
Shrubland
Open
trap 50 cm)
191.6 mm
(natural)
Serra
Grossa
(Valencia,
Spain)
Benidorm
(Alicante,
Spain)
Callosa
(Alicante,
Spain)
Ifach
(Alicante,
Spain)
Finestrat
(Alicante,
Spain)
Coll de
Rates
(Alicante,
Spain)
Givat
Yearim
(Israel)
Mishor
Adumin
(Israel)
Kalia
(Israel)
688
Closed,
0.25 m2
55 mm
(applied rain)
Runoff/
pp rate:
from 0.2%
to 10%
Runoff
coefficient:
0 0.38
From 0.95
to 6.67 g l
on average
Cerda`
(1998)
Lithic
leptsols and
Chromic
luvisols
Regosols
and
Luvisols
Closed,
0.24 m2
17 mm
(applied)
2.55 g l
Closed
plots,
0.24 m2
Closed
plots,
0.24 m2
Closed
plots,
0.24 m2
Closed
plots,
0.24 m2
30 mm
(applied)
Runoff
coefficient:
0.36
Runoff
coefficient:
0.54
Runoff
coefficient:
0.31
Runoff
coefficient:
0.55
Runoff
coefficient:
0.11
Closed
plots,
3 21 m
Closed
plots,
3 21 m
Closed
plots,
3 21 m
Closed,
0.25 m 2
210 mm
(natural)
Runoff
coefficient:
0.007
Runoff
coefficient:
0.01
Runoff
coefficient:
0.03
Infiltration
rates: 30 38
mm h 1
Imeson
et al. (1998)
Imeson
et al. (1998)
Imeson
et al. (1998)
Imeson
et al. (1998)
Lavee
et al. (1998)
Lavee
et al. (1998)
Lavee
et al. (1998)
Cerda` (1999)
Valencia
(Spain)
350
550
Limestones
Limestones
Shrubland
Shrubland
Shrubland
550
Limestones
Shrubland
350
Limestones
Shrubland
850
Limestones
Shrubland
620
Limestones
Grazing
260
Limestones
Grazing
120
Limestones
Grazing
400 600
Limestones
Shrubland
47 mm
(applied)
25 mm
(applied)
33 mm
(applied)
200 mm
(natural)
50 mm
(natural)
55 mm
(applied
rain)
0 3.96 g l
0.84 g l
0 0.7 g l
20.22
gm 2h
18.94
gm 2h
11.30 g l
0.30 g l
0 34
g m2 h
202.79
gm 2h
0.60
gm
13
g m2 h
Imeson
et al. (1998)
Limestones
El Ardal
(Murcia,
Spain)
300
Limestones
and
conglomerates
Kerollic
Paleothirds
Cultivated
cereals
Closed
plots,
8 2 and
10 2 m
Limestones
and
conglomerates
Kerollic
Paleothirds
Fallow
Closed
plots,
8 2 and
10 2 m
Limestones
and
conglomerates
Kerollic
Paleothirds
Shrubland
Limestones
and
conglomerates
Kerollic
Paleothirds
Cut shrubs
324
Limestones,
gypsum,
clay and
marls
Dry farming
abandoned
Open plots,
1385 cm2
Central Ebro
Depression
(Spain)
324
Limestones,
gypsum,
clay and
marls
Dry farming
abandoned
with chemical
fertilizer
Open plots,
1385 cm2
Lasanta
et al. (2000)
Central Ebro
Depression
(Spain)
324
Limestones,
gypsum,
clay and
marls
Cereal
(barley)
Lasanta
et al. (2000)
Central Ebro
Depression
(Spain)
324
Limestones,
gypsum,
clay and
marls
Petric
calcisols,
gypsisols
and
solonchaks
Petric
calcisols,
gypsisols
and
solonchaks
Petric
calcisols,
gypsisols
and
solonchaks
Petric
calcisols,
gypsisols
and
solonchaks
Natural
rain from
January
1991 to
August 1994
Natural
rain from
January
1991 to
August 1994
Natural
rain from
January
1991 to
August 1994
Natural
rain from
January
1991 to
August
1994
30 mm
(applied rain)
Romero
Daz et al.
(1999)
El Ardal
(Murcia,
Spain)
300
Romero
Daz et al.
(1999)
El Ardal
(Murcia,
Spain)
300
Romero
Daz et al.
(1999)
El Ardal
(Murcia,
Spain)
300
Lasanta
et al. (2000)
Central Ebro
Depression
(Spain)
Lasanta
et al. (2000)
Fallow land
Closed
plots,
8 2 and
10 2 m
Closed
plots,
8 2 and
10 2 m
Runoff:
11 15 l m
Runoff:
19 l m
Sediment yield:
39 110 g m 2
Sediment yield:
1 18 g m 2
Runoff:
1 11 l m
Sediment yield:
2 18 g m 2
Runoff:
9 10 l m
Sediment yield:
21 70 g m 2
Runoff
coefficient:
0.75 F 9.2
1.2 F 0.2 g l
30 mm
(applied rain)
Runoff
coefficient:
0.40 F 12.0
2.1 F 0.3 g l
Open plots
1385 cm2
30 mm
(applied rain)
Runoff
coefficient:
0.47 F 9.2
6.1 F 1.2 g l
Open plots
1385 cm2
30 mm
(applied rain)
Runoff
coefficient:
0.53 F 7.4
1.8 F 0.5 g l
Romero
Daz et al.
(1999)
275
276
2. Methods
Fig. 1. Location map of the study areas with expression of the mean
annual rainfall. CC = Cocoll, CS = Callosa, BE = Benidorm.
277
278
3. Results
3.1. Runoff production
The results of the rainfall simulation experiments
show that in general low runoff coefficients, low
erosion rates and high infiltration capacities are found
in all the studied areas (Table 2). The hydrological and
erosive response of the soils is similar to the findings
of other authors on the same type of lithology and
under similar environmental conditions (Table 1). In
general, soils react differently to rainfall depending on
the antecedent soil moisture conditions and on the
associated changes of bulk density.
Under low soil moisture conditions (summer), soils
follow the expected degradation gradient, which
means that the bare and vegetated patches of the most
arid zone suffer more erosion than those in the wetter
areas. The factors that influence the hydrological and
erosive response of the soil under these conditions are
vegetation, bedrock outcrops, stoniness, slope angle
and soil organic matter content (Table 3).
Under high soil moisture conditions (winter), the
soils on the south facing slopes suffer more degradation than those on the north facing slopes. The
vegetation controls the soil hydrological response
over the climate conditions of each study area. In
other words, higher infiltration capacities appear in
the vegetated soil patches independently of their
situation along the gradient and of the climatological
characteristics. Under these conditions, the factors that
control the hydrological and erosive behaviour of the
279
Table 2
Some soil hydrological and erosional parameters derived from the 1-h rainfall simulations on all the slopes
Time to
ponding
(min)
aa
mg
mg
cvh
Pob (min)
cvh
mg
cvh
Fcc
(mm h
Tcd (min)
Rce
Scf
(g l
Sediment
yield (g)
Erosion
(g m 2 h
cvh
mg
cvh
mg
1.4
0.19
0.28
0.76
0.07
0.02
119
164
163
102
117
2.54
2.06
0.69
8.33
3.15
1.53
0.39
104
141
191
153
248
212
mg
cvh
mg
cvh
mg
cvh
mg
96
202
187
98
150
122
0.77 60
0.43 84
0.53 70
0.95 127
0.26 93
0.29
2.17
Summer
BESi 1.3 116 0.26
BENj 3.42 126 1
CSSk 6.42 72 0.79
CSNl 6.12 26 0.9
CCSm 9.15 153 0.2
CCNn 9.47 31 0.93
119 3.07 67
161 6.77 82
268 2.43 153
161 11.1 105
209 4.79 142
162 9.1
78
33.2
37
17.01
49.37
20.77
38.09
55
66
148
11
129
69
28.49
10.43
3.34
19.71
12.05
16.91
141
85
228
83
163
148
0.17
0.0
0.02
0.08
0.01
0
Winter
BESi
BENj
CSSk
CSNl
CCSm
CCNn
135
148
101
203
218
130
35.29
41.75
23.39
28.54
26.66
41.79
38
42
76
62
76
51
59.99
25.07
10.23
7.49
61.62
33
221
168
68
127
236
1.75
2.37
2.22
1.13
1.02
1.35
2.27
76
98
96
71
86
84
0.65
0.74
1.02
2.58
1.27
1.13
1.94 86
4.43 93
1.12
0.67
2.05 89
1.48 96
5.38 118
cvh
6.61
0.88
1.16
4.2
0.33
0.1
124
174
163
106
119
2.52
11.58
3.56
47.28
17.89
6.5
1.86
134
149
196
167
2.43
2.14
280
Table 3
Correlation matrix between hydrological and erosional indicators and morphological characteristics of the rainfall simulation plots derived from
the experiments carried out in summer (N = 58, p = 0.05)
Summer
Slope
(j)
Time to
ponding (min)
Runoff
coefficient
Fce
Sediment
concentration
(g l 1)
Erosion
(g m 2 h 1)
a
b
c
d
e
Lichens
(%)
Moss
(%)
Vega
(%)
Litter
(%)
Stones
(%)
Rock
(%)
Soil
depth
(cm)
BDb
(g cm
SMc 0
3 cm
(cm3 cm
SMc 3
7 cm
(cm3 cm
OMd
(%)
3
0.29
0.27
0.41
0.30
0.25
0.29
0.48
0.31
0.55
Vegetation cover.
Bulk density.
Volumetric soil moisture.
Organic matter content.
Infiltration rate according to Horton when Tl.
Table 4
Correlation matrix between hydrological and erosional indicators and morphological characteristics of the rainfall simulation plots derived from
the experiments carried out in winter (N = 57, p = 0.05)
Winter
Time to
ponding (min)
Runoff
coefficient
Fce
Sediment
concentration
(g l 1)
Erosion
(g m 2 h 1)
a
b
c
d
e
Slope
(j)
Lichens
(%)
Moss
(%)
Vega
(%)
Litter
(%)
Stones
(%)
Rock
(%)
Soil
depth
(cm)
BDb
(g cm
SMc 0
3 cm
(cm3 cm
SMc 3
7 cm
(cm3 cm
OMd
(%)
3
0.28
0.39
0.51
0.30
0.32
0.29
0.25
0.36
0.27
0.27
Vegetation cover.
Bulk density.
Volumetric soil moisture.
Organic matter content.
Infiltration rate according to Horton when Tl.
281
Fig. 3. Soil moisture in Benidorm and Cocoll after the 55-mm rain applied in winter (antecedent wet soil conditions) and summer (antecedent
dry soil conditions) compared with soil moisture at pF 0.4 and 2.7 determined in the laboratory for the same soils.
282
Fig. 4. Average values during the measuring period (August 1996 February 2000) of runoff/pp ratio, sediment concentration, total runoff and
total sediment yield in the open erosion plots.
283
Fig. 5. Evolution of soil moisture at different depths in monitored soil profiles at Cocoll study site during rainfall simulation experiments.
However, in Benidorm, the deeper soil reached saturation in all the profile, indicating that the runoff
generated in that area after 110 mm of rain was
saturation excess runoff.
3.3. Sediment movement
The exported sediment collected in the erosion
plots of the semiarid site was 16.4 times higher in
BE (1739 g m 1) than in CC (106 g m 1) in the
measurement period (21/8/1996 to 16/2/2000). This
284
Fig. 6. Evolution of soil moisture at different depths in monitored soil profiles at Benidorm study site during rainfall simulation experiments.
285
Table 5
Sediment concentrations (g l 1) obtained in the erosion plots in the above-mentioned events (only sediments < 2 mm) compared with the
average sediment concentration obtained in the rainfall simulation experiments at the same areas
Natural
rain events
18/10/96,
55 mm
17/12/97,
69 mm
16/1/98,
47.6 mm
21/7/99,
51.8 mm
Event
13/7/97,
56 mm
22/9/97,
50 mm
27/11/98,
59 mm
12/4/98,
62.4 mm
BE1
BE2
BE3
BE4
BE5
BE6
BE7
Average
3.1
1
0.8
0
0
2.7
9
2.37
2.4
1.8
0
0
0
0.8
1
0.86
1.1
0
1.5
2.7
0
0.8
1
1.01
4.4
1
0.8
0.6
14.3
1
0
3.16
CC1
CC2
CC3
CC4
CC5
0
0
0
0.8
3.6
0.2
0.6
0.8
0.1
1.2
0
0
0
0
0
0.3
0
0
0
0
Average
0.88
0.58
0.23 Variation
coefficient
1.15
CC
0.84 Variation
coefficient
0.73 Average
286
Table 6
Correlation matrix between hydrological and erosional parameters and surface parameters in the erosion plots
Runoff
(l m 1)
Average distance
to vegetation (cm)
Maximum distance
to vegetation (cm)
Minimum distance
to vegetation (cm)
Average distance
to the crust (cm)
Maximum distance
to the crust (cm)
Minimum distance
to the crust (cm)
Vegetation cover (%)
Crust cover (%)
Stones cover (%)
Precipitation (mm)
Aggregates 10 mm (%)
Aggregates 10 5 mm (%)
Aggregates 5 2 (%)
Aggregates 2 1 (%)
Aggregates 1 0.105 (%)
Aggregates < 0.105 (%)
Stones >10 mm (%)
Stones 5 10 mm (%)
Stones 2 5 mm (%)
MWDa
RMMb
Erosion
(g m 2 h
Sediment
concentration
(g l 1)
Runoff
coefficient
0.83 *
0.78 *
0.21
0.94 *
0.85 *
0.75 *
0.22
0.86 *
0.58 *
0.59 *
0.10
0.74 *
0.67 *
0.27
0.02
0.62 *
0.57
0.27
0.03
0.53
0.46
0.04
0.09
0.43
0.54
0.64 *
0.47
0.06
0.32
0.17
0.42
0.07
0.10
0.08
0.08
0.14
0.44
0.43
0.26
0.70 *
0.74 *
0.63 *
0.46
0.12
0.04
0.25
0.04
0.28
0.34
0.32
0.44
0.68 *
0.05
0.34
0.51
0.41
0.50
0.59 *
0.54
0.11
0.56
0.06
0.34
0.28
0.06
0.31
0.42
0.49
0.50
0.67 *
0.83 *
0.58 *
0.39
0.17
0.17
0.03
0.03
0.22
0.25
0.20
0.44
0.71 *
0.08
0.21
sediment concentration (0.25), rock outcrops associates positively with runoff coefficient (0.3) and
stoniness and organic matter content with the infiltration capacity (0.29 and 0.48, respectively). For the
experiments carried out in winter, stoniness (0.3) and
bulk density (0.32) associate positively with runoff
coefficients and negatively with infiltration capacity.
Soil moisture correlates negatively with runoff coefficients ( 0.29) (Tables 3 and 4).
Results obtained from the analysis of the variables
at the erosion plots show that runoff and erosion
correlate positively with the distance to the plants
(in a range of 0 1 m) and with the crust cover. When
the distance to the plants and the crust cover is higher,
runoff and erosion rates are also higher. The coverage
287
Fig. 7. Models of water redistribution in the soil profile during the infiltration process: 1, 3: nonuniform water redistribution; 2: uniform water
redistribution process.
288
Similar nonuniform soil water redistribution processes have been described by Bergkamp et al. (1996)
in other limestone slopes in Spain. They observed
how rapid nonuniform infiltration near vegetation
clusters occurred, related to preferential flow paths
of water. This prevented the development of runoff
over distances larger than 1 m. The results shown here
are quite similar to those of Bergkamp et al. (1996)
with the addition of at least two types of nonuniform
infiltration behaviour depending on the thickness and
development of the soil profile. This nonuniformity of
the infiltration is probably causing a feedback mechanism where water is being rapidly reinfiltrated in the
clusters of vegetation improving the soil conditions
for the growth of the vegetation cluster.
4.2. Runoff generation mechanisms
The two traditional mechanisms of runoff generation (runoff by infiltration excess and runoff by
Fig. 8. Models of runoff generation in Mediterranean limestone slopes, (A) Hortonian discontinuous runoff model, (B) mixed discontinuous
runoff model. Q0 = Hortonian overland flow, Q0(s) = Saturation excess overland flow. Arrows indicate the water paths.
corresponds to a saturation runoff type, also discontinuous in space, because it is reinfiltrated before it
reaches the bottom of the slope.
The long duration rainfall experiments have demonstrated that in deeper soils, the saturation of the
profile can occur after 110 mm of rain and the runoff
generated is then due to a saturation excess of the soil
profile.
At the slope scale, this behaviour implies a hydrological disconnection between the different slope segments. Thus, both Hortonian and saturation runoff can
be generated but both can be reinfiltrated downslope.
In the most degraded slopes, or during high intensity
rain events, the most suitable hydrological model is
the Hortonian discontinuous runoff model (Fig. 8A).
On less degraded slopes or during rain events with
previously wetted soils, a mixed runoff generation
model fits better (Fig. 8B). In this case, infiltration
excess runoff as well as saturation excess runoff can
happen on the same slope.
Upscaling this behaviour to the small basin scale,
it is difficult to predict under which type of conceptual
model runoff would reach riverbeds close to these
slopes. It is logical to think that, with sufficient
amounts of rainfall, a saturated area could occur
downslope, but in general during most of the rainfall
events in these areas, this saturated zone does not
occur. If runoff does reach the riverbed, it will be
generated by isolated contributing areas adjacent to
the riverbed, where runoff can be the result of both an
excess of infiltration or an excess of saturation.
The vegetation plays a very significant role in
controlling runoff generation and erosion. More
important than the total cover of vegetation, however,
is the size of the bare patches (measured as distance to
the plants in the erosion plots). This parameter can
generate a higher or lower runoff and erosion rate.
These Mediterranean limestone slopes behave as a
patchwork of runoff and runon patches as described
by Lavee et al. (1998) where the size of the bare
patches (contributing areas to runoff) depends on the
climatic characteristics. Wetter climatological conditions (subhumid areas or rainy periods) produce runoff generated by the Hortonian mechanism or by the
saturation of the upper soil layer. This is always
discontinuous in space with a decrease of the size of
source areas. More arid climatological conditions
produce an increase in the size of the contribution
289
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the Commission of the
European Union for the support provided by the
research contracts ERMES I (EV5V-CT91-0023) and
ERMES II (ENV4-CT95-0181). The Spanish Ministries of Environment and of Science and Education is
also acknowledged because of the support through the
contract RESEL (Contribucion Espanola al Desarrollo
del Convenio Mundial para Prevenir la Desertificacion: I.Red de Cuencas y Parcelas Experimentales
de seguimiento y Evaluacion de la Erosion y
Desertificacion) and project SENSI (AMB99-1246),
respectivelly. A. Corell, J. Cuenca, B. Garca, L.
Ramrez, A. Reus, M.D. Soriano and L. Navarro are
greatly acknowledged because of their valuable work
in the field and in the laboratory. C. Fitzjohn, J.
Wainwright and A. Mather are thanked for improving
earlier versions of the manuscript.
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