Nigerian Basic Science Project

Pupils' Textbook 1
NEW EDITION 2007
::
Science Teachers Association of Nigeria
::
Volume 2 of 3 Volumes
Chapter 6-11
::

Transcribed by CNIB Canada

for production by
Nigerwives Braille Book Production Centre
P.O. Box 54224 Falomo, Lagos
Ref: NJ-Sci01 (2011)
::

Published by
HEBN Publishers Plc
Jericho, Ibadan
Science Teachers Association of Nigeria 1971, 1982, 2005, 2007
New Edition 2007
ISBN 978-978-081-048-1
Contents
UNIT 1: YOU AND ENVIRONMENT
(cont.)

6: Energy and Materials for Communities 516.1 Introduction 51

6.2 Communities 51
6.3 Energy for Communities 52
6.4 Food Chains and Food Webs 52
6.5 Materials for the Community 52
6.6 Carbon dioxide (Carbon IV Oxide) 52
6.7 Water 53
6.8 Water Cycle 54
6.9 Oxygen 55
6.10 Nitrogen Compounds 56
6.11 Photosynthesis 56
6.12 Respiration 57
6.13 Two Related Cycles in Nature 57
6.14 Summary 58
Exercise 587: Balanced Environments 597.1 Introduction 59
7.2 Tropical Rain Forest Communities 59
7.3 Tropical Savanna Communities 61
7.4 Pyramids of Numbers 62
7.5 Energy Pyramids 63
7.6 Balance in Nature 64
7.7 Our disappearing Wildlife 64
7.8 Wildlife Game Reserves 64
7.9 Summary 66
Exercise 668: Effect of Human Activities on the Environment 678.1 Introduction 67
8.2 Farming 67
8.3 Construction of roads and houses 67

8.4 Use of Transportation 67

8.5 Construction of Industries 67
8.6 Disposal of Refuse, Sewage, Industrial Effluent and Waste 68
8.7 Characteristics of a healthy Environment 68
8.8 Making the Environment Clean 69
8.9 Disposal of Refuse in the Home 70
8.10 Disposal of Sewage 70
8.11 Air Pollution 70
8.12 Effects of Air Pollution 71
8.13 Prevention of Air Pollution 72
8.14 Prevention of Accidents 73
8.15 Water Supply and Water Pollution 73
8.16 Environmental Sanitation 74
8.17 What Causes Organic matter to break down? 75
8.18 Refuse Disposal 76
8.19 Making a Compost Pit 77
8.20 Sewage 77
8.21 Safe Pit Latrines 78
8.22 Other Methods for the disposal of Human Waste 78
8.23 Summary 79Exercise 80
9: Disease Vectors 819.1 Introduction 81
9.2 The Mosquito 81
9.3 Life Cycle of the Mosquito 82
9.4 Control of the Mosquito 82
9.5 The Housefly 83
9.6 Life Cycle of the Housefly 83

9.7 Control of the Housefly 84

9.8 The Tsetse Fly 84
9.9 Life Cycle of the Tsetse Fly 85
9.10 Control of the Tsetse Fly 85
9.11 Blackflies and Bugs 85
9.12 Life Cycle of the Aphid 87
9.13 Control of Aphids 879.14 Summary 87
Exercise 8710: Preventing Disease 8810.1 Introduction 88
10.2 Water - related Diseases 88
10.3 Purification of Water 89
10.4 Getting Pure Water from a Solution 92
10.5 Distilling a Mixture of Liquids 92
10.6 Applications of Fractional Distillation 92
10.7 Spring Water 93
10.8 Uses of Water 93
10.9 Immunisation 93
10.10 Meningitis 94
10.11 STIs 94
10.12 HIV-AIDS 94
10.13 Preventing Drug Abuse 9810.14 Summary 99
Exercise 99

UNIT 2: LIVING AND

NON-LIVING THINGS 100
11: Living Things 10111.1 Introduction 101
11.2 Observing Living Things 101

11.3 Characteristics of Living Things 101

11.4 Movement 101
11.5 Feeding 102
11.6 Respiring 103
11.7 Growth 103
11.8 Responding to the Environment 104
11.9 Reproduction 104
11.10 Excreting Waste 106
11.11 Characteristics of Living Things 107
11.12 Differences Between Plants and Animals 107
11.13 The Building Blocks of Plants and Animals 108
11.14 Other differences between Plants and Animals 110
11.15 Variety In Plants and Animals 111
11.16 Single-celled Organisms 111
11.17 Many-celled Organisms 112
11.18 Sorting out Organisms 112
11.19 Grouping of Organisms 113
11.20 Classifying Animals 114
11.21 Animals with or without Backbones 115
11.22 Classifying Plants 115
11.23 Summary 117
Exercise 118
51
Nigerian Basic Science Project
Pupils' Textbook 1
NEW EDITION 2007Unit 1 YOU AND THE ENVIRONMENT (cont.)

Chapter 6
Energy and Materials for Communities
6.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 6
In this chapter we shall learn about plants and animals found in a place, the
materials they need and how these plants and animals interact with themselves and
with these materials.
6.2 COMMUNITIES
Any group of plants and animals living together in one place is called a community.
You may wonder how a community is different from a habitat. They can be the same
thing. They are different in that there are two ways of thinking about the
environment. When we think of habitats we are thinking of one organism or
population and the place where it lives. When we are thinking of communities we
are thinking of plant and animal populations and how they affect each other, and
their environment.
You may call your village, or school, or town a community. You may think of only one
population - the population of human beings - when you think of a community.
However, you should remember that in a biological community you must think of
populations of many kinds of organism. You must think of the populations, for
instance, of various kinds of palm trees, butterflies, ants, grasses, and every other
kind of living thing.
Fig. 6.1 A tropical savanna community
52
6.3 ENERGY FOR COMMUNITIES
All the populations in a community need energy to carry out their life activities. Do
you remember these activities? Where does a community get its energy?
Let us think of ourselves as a population in the community and try to find out the
source of our energy. You probably think at once of the food that you eat. There is
energy stored in food. The stored food contains chemical energy. How does the
energy get into the food? You have learnt earlier that some of the food we eat
comes from plants, and some of it comes from animals. The animals get their
energy from other animals or from plants. Plants get their energy from the light of
the Sun. They use this energy to make food. Later in this chapter you will learn how
plants use the Sun's energy to make food.

6.4 FOOD CHAINS AND

FOOD WEBS
In a community, all the populations are dependent on each other. If we take a
community of living organisms we can arrange them in a food series, so that each
member of the series eats as food the member preceding. In a community of grass,
cattle, and man, they can be arranged in order:
grass cattle man
Cattle eat the grass, man eats the cattle. Since grass produces food materials on
which the beef cattle feed we say grass is a primary producer. Beef cattle is a
consumer in this chain. It is called a primary consumer. We can summarise our
chain as follows:
grass (producer) cattle (primary consumer) man (secondary consumer)

Another example of a food chain would be

hawk - (tertiary consumer)
snake - (secondary consumer)
rabbit - (primary consumer)
maize - (producer)
Fig. 6.2 A simple food web

:::::::.
grass
::.ccccccj

:::::::::::::.

::::::::::.

grasshoppers conccj::: rodents

::::.ccccccccccccccj

:conccccj:::::.

.:::::.ccccj

:conccccccj::.

lizards

snakes

:::.ccccccccccj

::::.ccccj

:::::::::::::::jccccccccccj:.
hawks
ccccccccccccccccj
Activity 6.1 Making a food chain
1 Make up a food chain starting with a plant and ending with a lion.
2 Think of an area of woodland and trace some of the food chains which occur
there.
3 Make up a food chain which includes fish and man.
Did you include a mushroom in any of your food chains? A mushroom is a non-green
plant, and does not make its own food. The bread mould is another non-green plant
that does not make its own food. So are bacteria. These kinds of non-green plants
are energy consumers in the community. They also decompose the materials from
which the community is made. They are therefore called decomposers.
When you were making your food chain you must have thought of many instances
where more than one population was eating or being eaten by other populations.
The complex interrelationships between producers and consumers which involve a
large number of intermediate consumers is called a food web. Fig 6.2 is an example
of a food web. You will do more work with food chains in the next chapter.
6.5 MATERIALS FOR
THE COMMUNITY
Food contains chemical energy and is made up of chemicals. Plants use several
basic materials to make food; which the community uses in order to grow, develop,
and carry on its activities.
The basic materials in the community are carbon dioxide, water, oxygen, gas, and
nitrogen compounds. Let us look at the role of each of these materials in the
community.
6.6 CARBON DIOXIDE
(CARBON IV OXIDE)

You know one test for carbon dioxide. This is the lime water test. To test for a very
small amount of carbon dioxide you can use hydrogencarbonate (IV) indicator. We
will first find out how it works.
Activity 6.2 The hydrogencarbonate (IV) indicator
Take three test tubes labelled A, B, and C. Put some hydrogencarbonate (IV)
indicator in each. Bubble ordinary air through A. Blow through a straw into B.
53
Into C pass air from which all the carbondioxide has been removed. Fig 6.3 shows
you how to do this. What happens to the hydrogencarbonate (IV) in each case?
Fig. 6.3 There are two test tubes showing air going into them. Tube on the left
contains potassium hydroxide solution (to remove carbon dioxide) and the one on
the right contains hydrogentrioxocarbonate (IV) indicator tube C.
How the hydrogencarbonate (IV) indicator works
test-tubeABC
:::::::::::::::::::::::::: gas ordinaryexhaled airair with no air (with carbon carbon
dioxide) dioxide
colour of
indic.

You now know how the hydrogencarbonate (IV) indicator works. In the next activity
you will use this knowledge to find out if a green plant can remove carbon dioxide
from water.
Activity 6.3 Is carbon dioxide a source of food material?
Set up three test-tubes as in Fig. 6.4. Leave the tubes in bright sunlight for about an
hour. What is now the colour of the indicator in each tube? Record your observations
in a table like the one under fig 6.4.
What colour did the indicator in tube A turn?
Fig. 6.4 three test tubes A, B and C (wrapped): hydrogentrioxocarbonate (IV)
indicator. Tube A contains pond weed and Tube C has pond weed and tin foil to
exclude light.

Test-tube ;A B C
:::::::::::::::::::::: : : :
Initial colour of indicator
Final colour of indicator

Compare the colour with that of the tubes in the previous activity. Why did this
happen? What form of energy did test-tube A have that was missing in test-tube C?
This experiment is a very important one. It shows us that plants take up carbon
dioxide in the presence of light. What do plants do with the carbon dioxide that they
take up? In the next activities you will find the answer to this question. If you leave
test-tube C for some time in the dark; you will notice that the plant also gives off
carbon dioxide. This will be discussed later.
6.7 WATER
We use water every day. It is needed for life on earth. Where does water come
from? Water covers three quarters (75%) of the earth's surface and it affects almost
all living and non-living things. The word "water" makes us think of streams, rivers,
oceans, lakes
54
or rainfall. But these are not the only places where water can be found. It is all
around us. Even in hot, dry parts of the country, there is always water in the
atmosphere in the form of vapour and also in the soil in the form of moisture.
Water behaves differently from other substances on earth.
6.8 WATER CYCLE

The sea is the source of all water in the world. The sun heats the sea and some of
the water changes into vapour. The air containing water vapour rises and cools and
forms clouds. When the clouds are blown over high ground they release the water
as rain. Rainwater seeps through the soil and runs as rivers back to the sea. If
rainwater reaches a layer of rock through which it cannot seep, it may accumulate
and later reappear as a spring, which eventually runs back to the sea. This
continuous movement of water from the land, rivers and oceans to the atmosphere
and from the atmosphere to the land, rivers and oceans, is known as the water
beacycle.
Fig. 6.5 The water cycle

Shows land with impervious rock slightly above the level of the sea beside it. Rain
falls from a cloud and forms a spring over the rock. The stream flows into the sea.
The sun is over the sea and evaporation forms clouds.

Air which contains as much water vapour as it can hold is said to be "saturated"
with water vapour. The air can hold only certain amount of water vapour at a
particular temperature. Warm air can hold more water vapour than cold air. If then,
we cool air which is saturated with water vapour, the extra water which it can no
longer hold is squeezed out. It comes out in the form of a cloud - a lot of tiny drops.
Have you ever noticed that when you suddenly let the air out of a bicycle tyre by
opening the valve, the air that comes hissing out is quite cool? Let us try an
experiment which uses this fact.
Activity 6.4 Making clouds
Your teacher will set up the apparatus shown in Fig. 6.6. Air is pumped into the
bottle through tap A. At the bottom of the bottle is some water, so the air above the
water gets fill up with water vapour. The clip B is suddenly opened to let the
compressed air escape. The thermometer will show whether there is a rise or fall in
temperature. What do you see in the bottle as the air escapes?
Fig. 6.6: bottle; pump; thermometer; water
Activity 6.5 Demonstrating water cycle
Heat some water until it is near the boiling point. Half-fill a beaker with the hot
water and rotate the beaker to moisten the sides right to the top. Put some ice-cold
water into a round-bottomed flask and place the flask on the beaker at an angle as
shown in Fig. 6.7.
Water will evaporate from the hot water, condense on the cold surface of the flask
and fall in droplets back into the glass beaker. This experiment demonstrates the
water cycle in nature.
Water is not only lost from water surfaces like the sea, rivers and ponds, but also
from other sources. Plants absorb water from the ground and lose it to the
atmosphere through their leaves. Animals lose water through perspiration, through
elimination of waste and
55
in the process of breathing. The water lost by plants and animals by these
processes enters the air, can be condensed to form a cloud and can fall again as
rain.
Fig. 6.7: round bottomed flask; cold water; boiling water

In the next activity you will find out how water is carried up the stem of a plant to
the leaves.
Activity 6.6 Movement of water in a stem
Your teacher will give you some coloured water in a beaker. Place a stem of the
balsam plant in it as shown in Fig. 6.8. Can you see where the coloured water goes
in the plant?
Fig. 6.8 Can you see where the coloured water goes in the plant?: flower; stem; leaf;
fruit
Water from the soil is absorbed by the roots of plants. The water passes up the stem
of the plant and finally evaporates from the leaves of the plant. The evaporation of
water from the leaves of plants is called transpiration.
Fig. 6.9 The transpiration stream: water absorbed by roots from soil; water passes
up trunk; evaporation into atmosphere from leaf surface;
6.9 OXYGEN
Oxygen is very important to all living things. In the next activity you will find the
source of oxygen in the community.
Activity 6.7 How is oxygen in the community maintained?
Place a piece of pond weed under a funnel in a beaker of water as shown in Fig.
6.10. Fill a test-tube with water and invert it in the water in the beaker, standing it
over the stem of the funnel. Allow the beaker and its contents to stand in the sun for
a few hours. What do you see happening? Test the gas which collects by seeing
what happens when you put a glowing splint into the tube. What is the gas? How is
the community supplied with oxygen?
Fig. 6.10: test-tube (completely filled with pond water); pond water; pond weed;
beaker; plasticine to lift up funnel
56
6.10 NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
You have learnt that foods rich in protein are necessary for growth and repair in
animals. The basic chemicals in proteins are nitrogen compounds.
Nitrogen moves in a cycle in the community just as water does. Study Fig. 6.11 and
see how the nitrogen compounds used by the community are replaced. Write a
paragraph to explain the diagram.

Fig. 6.11 The nitrogen cycle

Cycle is brailled as an indented list.
1 mitrogen in air and soil1.1 soil, root tree2 omnivores, 2.1 herbivores, 2.2
carnivores3 decomposition (ammonia)4 oxides of nitrogen5 denitrifying bacteria o
11.1, 2 o 1.1
1.1, 6 trioxonitrates (V) in soil, 5 o 14, 4.1 acids of nitrogen, 6, 5 o 11, 7 root
nodules, 6, 5, o 1
1, 1.2 lightening, 1.2.1 oxides of nitrogen, 4.1, 6, 5, o 1
6.11 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
In sunlight, plants put carbon dioxide and water together to form carbohydrates and
give off oxygen. The process by which plants make carbohydrates is called
photosynthesis. You have come across words with photo in them before.
Photography is a very common example. Photo in a word means light. The word
synthesis is a word meaning put together. Photosynthesis is the most important
chemical reaction in the world.
In the next activity you will test a leaf to find out if there is starch in it.
Activity 6.8 Do plants contain starch?
Remove the green material, the chlorophyll, from the leaf of a Hibiscus plant. To do
this, put the leaf in a test-tube or beaker with some alcohol. Put the entire test-tube
into a boiling water bath as shown in Fig. 6.12. Warning: There should be no flames
near while you do this. Alcohol very easily catches fire. Allow the alcohol to boil until
the leaf loses all of its green colour. Rinse the leaf in cold water and put it into a
dish. Add a drop of iodine solution to the leaf. What happens? Is starch present in
the leaf?
Fig. 6.12: test-tube; beaker containing water; Hibiscus leaf; alcohol boiling; burner
extinguished
You have now seen that starch is found in the leaves of plants. Is light necessary in
photosynthesis? We have earlier carried out an experiment that can help us to
answer this question. Remember the leaves left in the hydrogencarbonate (IV)
indicator. Was the carbon dioxide used up in the wrapped test-tube? If the carbon
dioxide is not used, photosynthesis cannot take place. Therefore, light is necessary
for photosynthesis.
There is one other substance that is important in photosynthesis. You learnt in Book
1 that most plants were green in colour. The green colouring matter in plants is
called chlorophyll. In the next activity you will see why chlorophyll is important. You
will use a plant that contains green colour in parts of the leaf.

57
Activity 6.9 Is chlorophyll necessary for the production of starch?
Remove a leaf from a plant which has variegated leaves. The plant must have been
in the Sun for some hours to make sure that there will be some starch in the leaf. In
your notebook make a drawing of the leaf showing the areas where chlorophyll is
and is not present. Now test the leaf for starch.
In what areas is starch formed in the leaf? What can you infer about the importance
of chlorophyll in starch formation?
Photosynthesis can be summarised thus:
carbon dioxide + water + light chlorophyll + carbohydrates + oxygen
You should not be too surprised to see oxygen at the end of this summary.
Remember Activity 6.7. Oxygen is formed during the process of photosynthesis.
6.12 RESPIRATION
Energy is released in plants and animals during a process called respiration.
During photosynthesis plants capture the energy of the sun and change it to
chemical energy stored in food. This food is then used by the community as a
source of material and energy. Food is used as a material when it helps your body to
grow and repair itself. It is used for energy to perform the activities of life. How is
food used for energy?
Read the reaction below:
carbohydrate + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
At first it may look like the photosynthesis reaction. A closer look will show you that
the materials have changed sides. Instead of using energy, this reaction gives off
energy. This reaction is called respiration. If photosynthesis is the most important
reaction on Earth, respiration is the second most important one. It is through
respiration that energy is released in living things so that they may perform their
life's activities. You may remember that you have met a reaction like this before. If
you burn paper in oxygen you will get energy as light and heat. You will also get
carbon dioxide and water. You saw evidence that plants take up carbon dioxide in
Activity 6.3. Look back at this activity. In which test-tube did you observe the
release of carbon dioxide?
6.13 TWO RELATED CYCLES
IN NATURE

By now you may feel that photosynthesis and respiration are two related cycles in
nature due to the common materials that the two processes use. You are correct.
Through these process, carbon dioxide and oxygen move around and around in the
community. Figs. 6.13 and 6.14 shows you how these materials circulate in a
community. The key to this movement is photosynthesis in plants and respirations
in plants and animals.
Fig. 6.13 Circulation of oxygen and carbon dioxide in nature
Diagram is brailled as an indented list.
carbon Dioxide (Co2) in airphotosynthesis and radiation sungreen
plantsrespirationcarbon dioxide (Co2) in air
oxygen (O2) in airrespiration animalcarbon dioxide (Co2) in air
58
Fig 6.14 The carbon cycle
Cycle brailled as an indented list.
carbon dioxide (Co2) in airradiation sungreen plantsrespiration o Co2dead plants
(humus)soildecomposition o Co2wood, coal, oildomestic fuel o Co2
truck
industries o Co2animals and foodbreathing o Co2
dead animalsdecomposition o Co2
6.14 SUMMARY
In this chapter you have learnt the following things.
1 Any group of plants and animals living together is called a community.
2 If we take a community and arrange the living organisms in a food series so that
one eats the other, we can call this series a food chain.
3 Food chains are composed of producers, consumers, and decomposers.
4 The complex inter-relationships between producers and consumers which involve
a large number of intermediate consumers is called a food web.
5 Plants provide materials and energy for the community.
6 Photosynthesis is the process by which plants make carbohydrates.

7 The reaction for photosynthesis is as follows: Carbon dioxide plus water in the
presence of light energy and chlorophyll yields carbohydrate and oxygen.
8 Respiration releases energy from carbohydrates for the community.
9 Oxygen, carbon, nitrogen and water move in cycles in the community.
EXERCISE
1 Is a group of palm trees a community? Explain.
2 Make a food chain including a pawpaw and a human being. Is the human being a
primary, or a secondary consumer in this chain?
3 Define the following terms: producer, consumer, decomposer.
4 Make a food web with ten organisms.
5 How is photosynthesis the opposite of respiration?
6 Draw an oxygen, a carbon, and a water cycle.

;;;;;;;;;;;;
59
Chapter 7
Balanced Environments

Chapter 7
7.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 7
Imagine what was in the place your school is now located in about one hundred
years ago. Also imagine what was in the place your house is now located. What
about the different buildings in your street?
All these places were most probably thick forests one hundred years ago. Now
imagine all the trees, plants and animals that used to be in these forests. Where
have they all gone to? The animals have probably all been killed and the trees used
up for our various needs.

You probably see some bushes or forests either near your homes or as you travel
from one place to another. Do you think these bushes and forests will still be there
in one hundred years from today?
These forests are very important because the foods we eat come from these forests.
The plants are also used for various medicines we use. The paper you are writing on
is made from trees; so also the wooden materials used for your house and school
buildings.
Have you ever thought of what will happen when these are all used up? What will
the coming generations use? This is why we have to be careful as we use these
resources (things) in our forest so as not to waste or destroy them, but to leave
some for the coming generations. This is the idea of sustainable development.
Sustainable development means the development that takes care of the needs of
the present generation without damaging or destroying (jeopardising) the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.
This gives an idea of the importance of this chapter where we will learn about how
various plants and animals live in a given place and use the resources there without
wasting or destroying them (resources) but creating a good balance in nature.
Fig. 7.1 A Biogeographical map of Africa
Map shows the major natural habitats regions as listed below:
Chaparral (winter rain region)
Desert
Arid grassland or semi-desert
Tropical savanna and grassland
Tropical rain forest
Montana
7.2 TROPICAL RAIN FOREST COMMUNITIES
The map in Fig. 7.1 shows the major natural habitats of Africa. As you can see from
the map, Nigeria is divided into two major natural habitats: tropical rain forest, and
tropical savanna. Fig. 7.2 is a scene from the tropical rain forest zone of Nigeria. The
tropical rain forest habitat is found in the southern part of Nigeria. A tropical rain
forest community is composed of many kinds of plants and animals. They range in
size from microscopic algae and protozoans in the soil to the tallest trees. The major
habitat can be subdivided into habitats of different layers. The top layer is called
60

the canopy. Many organisms live in the various layers above the ground. Others live
in the soil.
Fig. 7.2 A tropical rain forest scene

Figure 7.3 shows some of the animals and plants that live in the rain forest. It also
shows the layer in which the animal lives. In Fig. 7.4 you can see close up pictures
of some of the animals.
Fig. 7.3 A tropical rain forest community: palm tree, banana tree, saplings, ferns,
herbs, soil, flycatcher bird, weaver bird, tree frogs, spiders, flies, pigeon, monkey,
bush baby, leopard, insectivorous bat, horn bill, goshawk, gecko, tailor ants, bush
buck, earthworms, frogs, guinea fowl, lizard, rats, army ants, termites
In this community the green plants trap the energy from the Sun. A monkey may
eat the fruit from one of the banana trees found there. If the monkey is unlucky, a
leopard may eat it. If the leopard dies, a vulture may feast upon its remains.
Mushrooms and other non-green plants continuously decompose dead material
making the products available for plants to use in growth again.
Activity 7.1 Food chains in the tropical rain forest
1 A goshawk is a carnivorous bird. Using the organisms in Fig. 7.3 make a food chain
with the goshawk as a tertiary consumer.
2 A fourth order consumer eats a tertiary consumer. Make a food chain with a
goshawk as a fourth order consumer.
3 Make a food chain with a leopard as a fourth order consumer.
61
Fig. 7.4 Some animals found in tropical rain forests
Animals: scarlet macaw, gorilla, toucan, eland, leopard
7.3 TROPICAL SAVANNA COMMUNITIES
During the rainy season tropical savanna is covered by tall grasses. Here and there
you can see a few shrubs and trees. Unlike the rain forest, where many animals live
above the ground, in the savanna, many animals live on the ground. Grasses are
the main producers, therefore most food chains start with them. Fig. 7.5 is a scene
from the tropical savanna.
Fig. 7.5 A tropical savanna scene
62

Fig. 7.6 Some animals and plants found in tropical savannas: jackal, lion, elephant,
trees and grasses
Tropical savanna is found in the northern part of Nigeria. As in all communities, a
great many of the living organisms are microscopic. Most of the organisms that can
be seen with the eye are either grasses or insects. Fig. 7.6 shows some of the bigger
plants and animals that can be found naturally in the savanna in Nigeria.
7.4 PYRAMIDS OF NUMBERS
Look at the following food chain from the tropical savanna. All of the organisms are
taken from Fig. 7.4.
goshawks
mice
grassesThink about the entire population of each kind of organism represented in
the food chain. You will find that there could be many grass plants growing in an
area. The number of mice will not be as great as the number of grass plants. The
number of goshawks will not be as great as the number of mice. For example, one
ecologist reported that in a 600 km2 area, only one goshawk lived there! There
would be hundreds of mice in this area and thousands of grass plants. Take the food
chain and spread it out so that each level shows the relative size of each population.
This will form a pyramid.
A drawing of this relationship would look like the one in Fig. 7.7.
The drawing is called a pyramid of numbers. In this pyramid, the populations at the
higher orders of the chain have smaller sizes or numbers and populations at the
lower levels of the chain have larger size or number.
Fig. 7.7 A pyramid of numbers:
Triangle from point at top shows: goshawk (1); mice (2); grass (many plants)
63
Activity 7.2

Make two pyramids of numbers using the organisms in Fig. 7.7.

7.5 ENERGY PYRAMIDS
We have seen the importance of green plants in the two major habitats found in
Nigeria. Green plants form the material and trap the energy for the community of
plants and animals. Green plants are converted into the flesh of animals which eat

them. There is a certain amount of energy stored in plants after they have
performed their life activities. There is also a certain amount locked up in the
chemicals of which the flesh of the animals is made. The difference in the amounts
of energy is made up of the energy used by animals in performing their life
activities and the energy that is lost to the atmosphere. Refer to Fig. 7.8.
Fig. 7.8 Energy use in a community:
energy stored in a cow = energy stored in grasses (energy for cow's activities +
energy lost to atmosphere)

Energy stored in animals is about two-sevenths of the energy stored in the plants
they eat. The amount of energy that can be passed to the next consumer in a food
chain is therefore always, less than that contained in the producer, or the previous
consumer. We showed in Fig. 7.8 that only about two sevenths of the energy stored
in the producers can be stored in the consumers that eat them. Because of this, we
find that a community will have many producers or plants. Primary consumers are
less in number. As we go up the chain, to tertiary consumers and beyond, the size of
the populations continue to decrease. At the same time, the mass of, the individual
organisms in the chain generally increases. This is illustrated in Fig 7.10.
Fig. 7.9 An energy pyramid:
Numbers decrease from bottom to top of pyramid and the size of consumers
increases. Hibiscus flowers; vast numbers; bees (many); bee eaters (several); falcon
(few)
On the energy pyramid in Fig 7.9, we have the mass of the individual organisms and
the size of its population both illustrated. By calling this an energy pyramid we
observe that energy flows one way through a community. It does not move in a
cycle like the materials do. It moves from the producers at the bottom of the
pyramid up to a point where it cannot be used by living things any more. It is used
by the organisms in the community or it is lost to the atmosphere. Therefore the
community depends upon its green plants to continue to trap the energy from the
sun. Without the green plants and the sun the community would die.
A pyramid of mass (size increasing) is shown in Fig. 7.10. It forms part of an energy
pyramid. It is called
64
a pyramid of mass because organisms at the higher orders of a food chain are often
larger in size. Of course, decomposers disobey this rule since they are smallest in
size. Yet they are at the top of any food chain drawn in this way.

Fig 7.10 A pyramid of mass:

mouse grass plant
7.6 BALANCE IN NATURE
All living things survive because of a balance in nature. There is a balance in the
matter of materials that living things use. There is also a balance in the amount of
energy being used by the community.
Producers, consumers, and decomposers use energy. They use energy during
respiration. A lot of energy is lost to the atmosphere. For example, the warmth that
you can feel coming from your body, is lost as heat energy. No other living thing can
use this lost energy. Energy used by the community, or lost to the atmosphere, has
to be replaced through photosynthesis. Fig. 7.11 is a drawing to illustrate this
balance in nature. It is a very complex and important balance. Without it you would
not be able to live on this Earth.
7.7 OUR DISAPPEARING WILDLIFE
The leopard used to roam throughout Nigeria. In the tropical rain forests of the
south, the big cat was feared by villagers, as it was known to attack their goats,
chickens, and even their children. Most of you, however, have never seen a leopard
or any of the big cats except in a zoo or a game reserve. Neither have you seen the
herds of antelope that once roamed the tropical savanna of the northern part of
Nigeria and still live in the game reserves of East Africa today.
There are many animals that are disappearing, or have already disappeared, from
Nigeria. The chimpanzee is only seen in zoos. The same is true of the gorilla. All
kinds of rhinoceros are in danger of extermination. In 1974, there were only 250
white rhinoceroses left on earth. The crocodile, a carnivorous reptile at the top of an
energy pyramid, is also in danger of disappearing from the earth. Animals at the top
of energy pyramids are often the first to disappear from Nigeria. Can you use your
knowledge of energy pyramids to explain this?
There is a population of omnivorous animals that was missing from our drawings
earlier in this chapter on communities in Nigeria. This population can act as a
primary or secondary consumer. It can change the environment by burning it, or
planting it and making it into a farm. This population has reduced the tropical rain
forest of southern Nigeria to an area so small that the rain forests themselves may
disappear while you are reading this book.
Do you know the population that is causing all of this change in our natural
environment in Nigeria? The scientific name for this group of animals is Homo
sapiens, the population of human beings. As the population of human beings grows,
it controls and changes more and more of the natural environment. These changes

often make our wildlife disappear. The wildlife either moves away, dies, or is killed.
Without game reserves, more of our wildlife would disappear.
7.8 WILDLIFE GAME
RESERVES
In the Yankari Game Reserve in Bauchi State in the north-eastern part of Nigeria you
can find lions and elephants living in their natural habitats. Grasses grow high.
Shrubs and a few trees dot the landscape. Warthogs and antelope graze. Families or
clans of baboons and other monkeys roam in search of food. Out of notice of the
casual observer, many animals feed on the grasses. Grasshoppers and rabbits are
among them. Scenes like this are repeated in other parts of Africa.
Further to the south of Nigeria, you can see similar scenes at the Borgu Game Park
in Niger State. In the eastern part of Africa, every year, thousands of visitors come
to see the big animals in their game reserves. Game reserves are large expanses of
land where the animals are protected from human activities. In addition to game
reserves in Nigeria we have forest reserves where the trees and the animals are
protected.
Game reserves are very important. There is still a great deal about life in
communities that scientists do not understand. Game reserves allow scientists to
study
65
communities of living things. Scientists know that the population of human beings
will be affected by the same laws that govern other populations in communities.
Scientists also study life in these communities to try to improve the quality of our
lives. For example, we learn from the balance of nature that we need producers in
our cities to provide oxygen and to use up the carbon dioxide that is exhaled from
our bodies and our cars.
There are other uses of game reserves. Many countries use them to earn money
from visitors who come to see the game. But for many, game reserves are kept just
for us to be able still to see some beautiful natural things. For you as a pupil, a
game reserve will give you an opportunity to see and learn first hand about the
balance of nature at work.
Fig. 7.11 The balance of nature:
Drawing shows energy from the sun; abiotic substance; producers; primary
consumers; secondary consumers; decomposers. The information is listed bel.
The sun is the main source of energy for living things

Trees are called producers because they manufactuire food for such consumers as
deer.
Trees and other producers absorb nourishing substances called nutrients from the
soil.
Mice are primary consumers when they eat seeds, leaves and other products.
Rabbits are called primary consumers because they feed on clover and other plants.
Squirrels are primary consumers that feed on nuts and plants. They are often eaten
by martens.
Foxes, left and martens, right are called secondary consumers. They feed on small
animals.
Hawks are secondary consumers that prey on rabbits, snakes and other small
animals.
Snakes are secondary consumers. They eat other animals such as mice and insects.
Bacterial and fungi are decomposers. They break down dead bodies into simple
nutrients.
Phosphorus and water are among abiotic (non-living) substances living things need.
When trees die, decomposers break the compounds in them into nutrients that
plant can use.
66
7.9 SUMMARY
In this chapter you have learnt the following things.
1 The major natural habitats in Nigeria are the tropical rain forest and the tropical
savanna.
2 Food chains can be related to energy pyramids.
3 The balance in nature involves a balance of both materials and the flow of energy.
4 The key to the balance of nature is green plants. No community can exist without
green plants.
5 Due to human activities, natural tropical rain forests and tropical savanna are
disappearing taking with them our wildlife.
6 Wildlife game reserves preserve our wildlife in their natural environment.

EXERCISE
1 Descibe a tropical rain forest community. Give an example of a food chain from
one.
2 Describe a tropical savanna community. Give an example of an energy pyramid
from one.
3 Complete the following sentence:The process of traps energy for the community.
The process of releases the energy of the community.
4 Name four materials in the community that move in cycles between living and
non-living things.
5 Why doesn't energy move in a cycle? What happens to it in the community?
6 What is the source of energy for the community?
7 Why do animals at the top of energy pyramids often disappear first?
8 What are the causes of the disappearance of some of our wildlife?
9 Why do governments set up game reserves?

67
Chapter 8
Effect of Human Activities
on the Environment
8.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 8

Chapter 8
Human beings often carry out activities which have effect on the environment.
These activities are usually carried out in attempts to make the environment
suitable for human convenience and habitation. Some of the human activities are:
farming

construction of roads, houses, etc.

use of transportation
construction of industries
disposal of refuse, sewage, industrial effluent and waste.
8.2 FARMING
Farming is one of the first activities carried out by the early man. This resulted from
the increase in human population and the need to find more food for the increasing
population. The same need still exists today and on a very large scale. To carry out
farming, large expanse of land is cultivated by cutting down trees clearing and
burning of bushes. This activity results in the destruction of forests, killing of wild
animals and rare species of both plants and animals. Many animals are forced to
migrate from their natural environment and become extinct. These all have
negative impact on the ecosystem.
8.3 CONSTRUCTION OF
ROADS AND HOUSES
Construction of roads and houses, also result from increase in human population
and the need to provide comfortable accommodation for the people. Also as in
farming, large expanse of land is cleared by felling of trees and clearing of bushes.
These activities equally result in the loss of plant and animal species as described
earlier.
8.4 USE OF TRANSPORTATION
As human population increase and people live apart in distant places, the use of
transportation to reach these places becomes necessary. The most common means
of transportation is the use of motor vechicles. These motor vehicles often emit
smoke and gases which can cause air pollution and also have an impact on the
ozone layer and cause global warming. Air transportation is also very common. This
equally causes air pollution, resulting in ozone layer depletion and global warming
as well as noise pollution. Apart from this, large expanses of forests are cleared to
build airports with other negative effects on the environment.
8.5 CONSTRUCTION OF INDUSTRIES
Construction of industries often require very large expanses of land unlike building
of houses. Forests are destroyed, animals are killed, some become extinct as a
result of construction of industries. This equally affect and alter the plant and
animal species of the ecosystem.
8.6 DISPOSAL OF REFUSE,

SEWAGE, INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT

AND WASTE
The disposal of refuse, sewage, industrial effluent and waste constitue one of the
most problematic services of relevant government authorities and industries. This is
because these wastes are produced on a daily basis and any delay in disposing of
the waste soon results in heaps of refuse that are common in the major cities.
68
As an easy way out but to the detriment of our environment, refuses are dumped on
drainages and waterways, raw sewage are dumped in streams and rivers while
industrial effluents are also dumped in rivers. These unwholesome activities result
in pollution of our streams and rivers causing the death of organisms that live in the
rivers. This again has negative effect on the ecosystem.
In all, we can see that some of these activities though intended to improve the
living condition of human beings have in turn affected the environment adversely;
thereby making it unhealthy. Some diseases arise from poor sanitation and pollution
of the environment. One way in which we can all help to prevent pollution is by
seeing that we have good methods of disposing waste.

8.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF A
HEALTHY ENVIRONMENT

Activity 8.1 Types of home environment

Look carefully at the pictures in Fig. 8.1 (a) (b) One is a picture of a home in a good
environment, the other is of a home in a bad environment. What are the differences
between them? Make a list in your Workbook. Which of the two surroundings would
you prefer to live in? Why?
Fig. 8.1 (a) Clean home environment: large houses with neat lawns and a nice road.
(b) Dirty home environment: smaller houses, some with scaffolding and a run down
shed; lawn covered with garbage.

Of course people prefer nice things, including good or attractive environment. A

good environment is not only pleasant to look at, but it is also a healthy place in
which to live. A healthy environment:

1 is clean
2 is airy and well ventilated;
3 is not too hot, nor too cold;
4 does not have domestic waste lying around;
5 has no insect pests or carriers of disease, such as flies;
6 does not have an unpleasant smell;
7 is not damp;
8 is not noisy;
9 is free from objects that can cause accidents;
10 has a safe water supply.
This is a rather long list, but we should do our best to make sure that our homes
have all these qualities. If they do not they may cause harm to the people dwelling
in them; they may be the cause of an unhealthy environment.
Activity 8.2 The effect of a clean environment
You will work in groups of four or five. Your teacher will provide each group with
three small covered dishes, called Petri dishes, containing sterile agar jelly or
cooked custard. The word "sterile" means that the jelly contains no germs or microorganisms and your teacher has made it carefully so that it should not be
contaminated. Mark the dishes A, B, and C. Keep them covered until you start the
experiment.
Take one of the dishes - that is marked A - and open it in your toilet or near a
rubbish bin for fifteen minutes. Then cover it again. Take dish B and add to it a few
scrapings from a dirty part of your classroom. Then cover it again. Do not open dish
C at all.
Put the three dishes away in a cupboard, making sure that they are still properly
covered, for two or three days. Then look at them WITHOUT TAKING OFF THE LIDS.
Describe what you see in your Workbook and make a drawing of each dish.
69

WARNING: Your teacher must dispose of all the dishes properly after the
experiment.

Germs and bacteria grow on jellies like agar and custard. They show up as patches
described as "colonies" of germs. Which of your dishes had the most evidence of
colonies of germs?
A clean environment has no harmful germs in it, and no insects which carry microorganisms. One of these insect carriers is the housefly. You will learn more about the
way in which it carries germs from one place to another later. An insect which
carries germs like this is called a vector. An unhealthy environment can be made
healthy, just as a healthy environment can be made unhealthy, by man's activities.
Let us see how an environment can be made unhealthy.
Activity 8.3 Sources of an unhealthy environment
Look at the pictures in Fig. 8.2. Make a list of the things shown there which can
make an environment unhealthy. If you can think of any others, add them to your
list.
Fig. 8.2 Sources of unhealthy home environment:
Items in 10 sections of a circle are listed below:
1. open bottles and cans with contents spilling out on floor
2. pan of food sizzling on open fire
3. dishpan of dirty dishes with flies around
4. dirty clothes strewn on the floor
5. exhaust from two cars
6. rubbish strewn on ground
7. very windy with papers flying
8. tree very close to window of house, leaning against it
9. rubbish in gutter right outside house
10. overflowing full rubbish bin
8.8 MAKING THE ENVIRONMENT
CLEAN
One very important way of improving our environment is by maintaining a high level
of sanitation. Sanitation means the removal of waste matter of all kinds from the
home and its immediate surroundings.
70

Activity 8.4
Make a list in your Workbook of waste and unwanted things which are thrown away
in your school or in your home. This waste is usually of two kinds:
1 Refuse or dry waste which is made up of kitchen rubbish, paper, empty cans, and
so on.
2 Sewage or liquid waste. This is made up of human faeces, urine, and waste water.
8.9 DISPOSAL OF REFUSE
IN THE HOME
You should make sure that all refuse is collected in a bin or some other container
with a lid. It is important to keep the lid on to keep vectors, such as house-flies out.
The bin must be emptied daily otherwise some of the materials in it may start to rot.
It will contain organic matter, that is, waste that was at one time living, such as
uneaten vegetables and scraps of meat. When germs breed on these things they
begin to rot.
8.10 DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE
Faeces and urine must be properly disposed of. If they are not, they can
contaminate food and water, and so help in spreading disease.
One of the oldest ways of disposing of sewage, and one which is relatively safe, is
the pit latrine. It is just a deep hole in the ground into which the waste matter is
dropped. The pit is dug outside the home, and it may have a shelter built over it. Pit
latrines must be properly constructed and must be in such a position that they
cannot contaminate the water supply from well for example. The hole into which the
waste matter is dropped should have a lid. This prevents vectors getting in and
carrying away harmful micro-organisms.
The most modern method of sewage disposal is the water flushing system. Water
flushes the faeces and urine away through pipes to a central disposal point.
Fig. 8.3 (b) Also shows a picture of water flushing system
Fig. 8.3 (a) A pit latrine with a shelter: lid, shelter, earth, pit (b) Water flushing
system
Activity 8.5
Discuss the various methods used in sewage disposal in your homes and
communities. What are the advantages and disadvantages of sewage disposal?
8.11 AIR POLLUTION

Air in the home can be polluted, or contaminated, in many ways. Make a list in your
Workbook of as many ways as you can think of.
71
Fig. 8.4 Some causes of air pollution: (a) smoking open cooking fire in house (b) 5
children sleeping close together on floor of small room (c) burning refuse in open air
near house (d) car showing exhaust
Did your list include some of the following:
1 fumes from frying food in a room;
2 exhaust fumes from passing cars or motor cycles, or from electricity generating
plants;
3 smoke from kerosene, wood, and coal fires;
4 overcrowding in a poorly ventilated room;
5 smoke from bush fires, or burning refuse near the house;
6 smoke and other fumes from factories near the house;
7 unlighted cooking gas;
8 fumes from burning mosquito coils;
9 fumes from burning incense;
10 smells from decaying food and refuse;
11 air from dirty toilets;
12 dust in the air.
8.12EFFECTS OF
AIR POLLUTION
Contaminated air produces a number of bad effects. When you go into a room full of
smoke, what effect does it have on your eyes, on your throat and nose, and on your
breathing? The most serious of these effects is on your breathing. It may give rise to
infection of the lungs. Air pollution also cuts down the amount of oxygen you can
breathe in, and this can affect the functioning of the whole body.
8.13PREVENTION OF
AIR POLLUTION

One of the best ways of preventing air pollution is by good ventilation. Ventilation
means the removal of used air from a room and its replacement by fresh air. In a
well ventilated room the air circulates freely. A room can be ventilated by natural or
by mechanical means. When the doors and windows of a room are opposite or
nearly opposite each other it helps air to flow freely. Fans can be used to cause air
to circulate. Air conditioners bring about ventilation by mechanical means. Not only
do they remove stale air, they also bring in cool air to replace warm air.
72
Fig. 8.5 Types of ventilation
(a) Natural ventilation
(b) A room with an electric fan: section (i) Direction of wind shows wind coming into
house high and low and going straight through and out the other side
section (ii) Wind comes in house low down and curves up and out higher up
Noise is an important cause of pollution of the environment. Noise is unwanted
sound. It can also be caused by a mixture of sounds competing with each other.
Noise prevents us from concentrating and from relaxing, so it can harm our health.
A very loud noise is often said to be "deafening", and can be painful to the ears.
Activity 8.6
There are things in the home and around the home which can make noise. Write
down a list of as many as you can think of. Compare your list with the one bel.
Things in the home
Radio
Television
Stereo record player
Vacuum cleaner
Things outside the home
Large trucks
Police/fire siren
Aeroplanes
Machines in factories
Grass mower

Sawmills
Football crowds
Motor cars and motor cycles
Fig. 8.6 Some causes of accidents in the home:
(a) Unguarded fire
(b) Broken plates, bottles and cans
(c) Damaged steps
(d) Poisonous substances like cleaning fluids
(e) Wrong handling of electricity
(f) Careless handling of Fire
73
A healthy environment should, as far as possible, be free of objects that can cause
accidents.
In the list below are some things in and around the home which may cause
accidents. Can you add to the list?
1 Open unguarded fires
2 Faulty electrical appliances
3 Slippery floors
4 Broken bottles and plates
5 Empty cans with jagged edges
6 Broken staircases and steps
7 Broken furniture
8 Drugs and medicines
9 Cleaning materials
10 Potholes round the house
11 Kitchen knives
8.14 PREVENTION OF ACCIDENTS

It has been said that accidents do not just happen; there is always a cause for them.
Most of the causes of accidents are due to our own carelessness or that of other
people. We can prevent accidents by removing objects likely to cause them from our
homes and by taking care when using dangerous articles like knives.
8.15 WATER SUPPLY AND
WATER POLLUTION
A safe water supply is one of the most important requirements for a healthy
environment. Water is used for a great number of purposes in the home. Write down
as many as you can think of.
By safe water we mean water that has not been polluted by dangerous chemicals,
for example from a factory, sewage or refuse from homes. Safe water should not
contain harmful micro-organism which can cause disease.
Water used in the home comes from many sources. It may have come from a well, a
stream, or a river. It may have come through the tap which gets its water through
pipes from a reservoir. It may have come from a container which has collected rain
water. Before it gets to your home it may pick up dangerous germs; if it does you
may get one of a number of diseases called gastro-intestinal enteritis. It is not easy
to tell whether water is safe just by its appearance. However, generally speaking,
clean water is clear, colourless, odourless, and is free from harmful substances.
Most public water supplies are quite safe because the Government employs people
to test it. When water is contaminated, it is said to be polluted. Such polluted water
can usually be made harmless by boiling. This kills many micro-organisms. You will
learn more about the purification of water later.
Fig. 8.7 Some uses of water in the home: person washing body using a bucket of
water; person standing under a shower; boy drinking from a glass; girl washing
clothes in a large pot.
74
8.16 ENVIRONMENTAL
SANITATION
What do you do with your wastes or the things you have used in your homes? Do
you observe heaps of refuse in your towns and villages? Things that people throw
away are called refuse.
Heaps of refuse occur when people in a community have no other way of getting rid
(disposing) of the things they have used.

When did you last see a refuse heap like the one in Fig. 8.8. Do you remember the
odour from it? Do you remember how it made you feel? Can you remember some of
the things in it?
Fig. 8.8 An urban refuse dump
In some Nigerian villages today we do not have a problem with refuse. Why is this
so? Can you think of some of the things that villagers throw away?
Fig. 8.9 A clean village
Fig. 8.10 A clean urban street
Fig. 8.11 A pile of Guinea corn stalk after harvest
Fig. 8.12 Refuse corn cobs
Fig. 8.13 Cassava peelings
75
In towns and cities we throw away many things. Figures. 8.13 and 8.14 show some
of the things that are thrown away.
Fig. 8.14 Some items found in refuse dumps: old tyres, papers, bottles
Activity 8.7 How can we classify refuse?
Look at the picture (Fig. 8,14) of some of the things we throw away. Make a list of
items that are thrown away. Predict what will happen to each if it is left outside for
one month and for one year. Will the item rot or decay? Record your predictions in a
table in your Workbook like the one bel.
Three columns headed: Refuse item; Will it rot or decay after one month?; Will it rot
or decay after one year?
Look closely at your predictions. Make a new list by classifying all the items
according to the amount of time it will take for them to break down. Which kind of
refuse breaks down most easily? Which kind of refuse takes a long time to break
down?
As you know, matter which is made up of living material or material which was
living is called organic matter. Does organic matter usually take more than a month
to break down? How can you classify most of a farmer's refuse?
8.17 WHAT CAUSES
ORGANIC MATTER TO BREAK DOWN?

Have you ever carefully observed a piece of bread as it decomposes? (To

decompose means to rot or to decay). When something decomposes it breaks down
into simpler parts.
Activity 8.8 Decomposing bread
Put a piece of bread into a container. If the bread is very dry add a little water to it.
All living things need water. Don't let it get too wet. Note the condition of the bread
and record your observations in your Workbook. Observe the bread daily for one
week. What do you see?
Fig. 8.15 A mould which grows on bread: sporangium, linking hyphae, rooting
hyphae
The organism that grows on the bread is called mould. Where did the mould come
from? On what day did you first discover it? What seems to happen to the bread as
the mould grows? Do you think that the bread will completely decompose?
A mould is a kind of plant that does not make its own food. It reproduces by means
of spores. Spores are very tiny and float in the air. You may see some if you gently
shake your bread mould on to some plain white paper. Since moulds do not make
their own food, they must get their nutrients from other organic matter.
76
In Activity 8.8 the mould gets its nutrients from the bread. The bread is partially
decomposed in this way.
Moulds are quite small but we can see them. There are other living things that are
smaller than the moulds that help to decompose organic matter.
These micro-organisms are called bacteria. Like moulds they cannot make their own
food. They have to decompose organic matter to get food. They also float in the air
like the spores of the mould.
Bacteria can be found everywhere. Most bacteria are harmless but some can make
us ill. Some bacteria can even help us. When bacteria break down organic matter
they are helping us to dispose of refuse. The broken down organic matter adds
nutrients to the soil.
Fig. 8.16 Types of bacteria. Bacteria can be both harmful and helpful Bacteria are
listed below.
Spherical bacteria (cocci)
Diplococcus (pneumonia)
Streptococcus (sore throat, scarlet fever)

Staphylococcus (boils, blood poisoning)

Rod-like bacteria (bacilli)
Bacillus tuberculosis (tuberculosis)
Clostridium tetani (lockjaw or tetanus)
Bacillus typhosus (typhoid fever)
Spiral forms (not always classified as bacteria)
Spirochaete (syphilis)
Vibrio (cholera)
Spirillum (free-living)
Fig. 8.17 Streptococcus bacteria can give us a sore throat
8.18 REFUSE DISPOSAL
People throw away many things. Some of the things that we throw away decompose
and add nutrients to the soil (bio-degradeableeg. food items. Other things do not
break down for a very long time. For example, plastics, polythene bags, rubbers and
metalsnon-biodegradeable.
In villages and on farms, people have a lot of land around them. Organic matter can
be thrown away and allowed to decompose. Things that do not decompose can
often be reused (recycled) or buried in the ground. For example, metals are taken
back to smelting industries where they are smelted and fabricated into metal
sheets. Plastics and rubbers are collected washed and sold to those who need them.
Such materials should not be thrown into stagnant waters or rivers or sea because
they can cause pollution and flooding.
In cities and town, people do not have much land around them, and yet refuse has
to be removed from our homes and streets. One way of disposal is to burn the
refuse and this should not be encouraged because it causes air pollution. In some
cities, refuse is used to fill up pits or low areas of land that is, it is used for landfill. In
many cities for example, Lagos, Ibadan,
77
Kano, refuse is used for landfill. In Jos, refuse is used to fill up abundant mining pits.
Everyone knows that uncollected refuse makes our cities and towns ugly. However,
many people do not know that heaps of refuse also contribute to making people in
our community ill. You will learn later how this happens.

Fig. 8.18 A container for refuse

Modern methods of waste management centre on reduce, reuse, recycle (or the
3Rs). In this way, very little is thrown away, making the entire practice to be
sustainable and environmentally friendly.
Activity 8.9
Collect refuse from your school or home. Sort the refuse into metals, plastics, wood,
organic (decomposable) and inorganic (non-decomposable) wastes. Determine how
some of these can be recycled and reused or reduce their being thrown away as
waste.
8.19 MAKING A COMPOST PIT
You can accumulate a lot of organic matter when keeping a garden. When clearing
the land you have grasses and weeds to throw away. While your garden is growing
you pull up many weeds. At harvest you throw away the parts of the plant that you
will not eat or use for seed. All of this refuse can be used to add nutrients to the soil.
This can be done by keeping a compost pit in a corner of your garden.
Activity 8.10 A compost pit
In this activity you will learn how to make a compost pit.
Put the ingredients listed in the table below, in layers in a pit which is 1-1.15 metres
deep. Add enough water to keep them moist. Turn the materials over every two or
three days.
Recall what you have learnt in this chapter to explain why each ingredient is added.
Make a table like the one below in your notebook and fill in your answers.
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Ingredient

Use in compost pit

:: ::::::::::::::: Plants parts,

weeds, grasses
Animal dung _
Ashes from the kitchen Add more nutrients
Water
8.20 SEWAGE

In earlier sections of this chapter we learnt about refuse. We will now look at how a
community can keep its environment free from human waste. A mixture of human
and liquid waste is called sewage.
Disposal of human waste is a serious problem for community health workers.
Human waste carries many micro-organisms. They live in the human digestive
system. Coliform bacteria are harmless to human beings. Other micro-organisms
which get into the human body can cause illness. These are parasites.
Most human parasites are microscopic like bacteria. Worms are also parasites but
they are not microscopic. Another group of microscopic parasites are one-celled
animals called protozoa.
Fig. 8.19 A public toilet
Viruses are not plants or animals. Sometimes they are more like crystals. They often
make us very sick. Many parasites can be found at one time or another in human
waste.
A sewer is a drain that carries waste material mixed with water away from our
homes. Sewers are one example of the many ways that technology has been used
in the removal of waste from people's homes.
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8.21 SAFE PIT LATRINES
You learnt in Chapter 6 that in most villages human waste is disposed of in pit
latrines. Pit latrines must be built so that the micro-organisms from the human
waste do not find their way into the water that people use. In the next activity you
will learn how this can be done.
Activity 8.11
How do we build a latrine scientifically so that it is safe?
Look at the diagram in Fig. 8.20. It shows how water flows underground through an
area of rock and soil that is saturated with water. This water is called ground water
and flows through the ground to rivers and to the sea. The level of the top of the
ground water is called the water table. Fig 8.21 shows how the water table can
change during the dry season and the rainy season. Why do you suppose this
happens?
Fig. 8.20 What is a water table?:
water seeps through porous earth; ground water;
RIVER; water table

When a pit latrine is being built, sanitation workers want to make sure that the
latrine will not contaminate the ground water. The latrine is therefore built above
the water table. However, in some parts of Nigeria it is impossible to build the pit
latrine above the water table. This is because the water table is very high.
This happens in delta areas. Look at Fig. 8.20 again. See how the water table is very
close to the surface of the ground near the river. In places like these, pits should be
built with cement linings to keep the micro-organisms inside the pit. However, if
there are many people living in an area there is a problem as the cement-lined pits
will soon fill up.
In some countries where the water table is very high people use a latrine that is
attached to two brick boxes that are above ground. They use one box at a time.
When one is filled up they close it for forty-five days. At the end of this period the
contents are used as a safe, harmless and odourless fertilizer. People in these
countries have traditionally used human waste to add nutrients to the soil.
8.22 OTHER METHODS FOR THE
DISPOSAL OF HUMAN WASTE
In some parts of our cities in Nigeria pit latrines are not in use. People dispose of
human waste using the bucket system. In this method of disposing of human waste,
night soilmen regularly remove human waste from homes. In some places it is
buried in the ground. In other places it is thrown into rivers or lagoons. Either
method introduces harmful parasites into the environment which endanger our
health. Can you think of a safe way to dispose human waste apart from the bucket
system?
In modern homes in Nigeria we find a system of removing human waste from the
home using a water closet (w.c.) connected to a septic tank. In some new towns we
can even find the water closet connected to a central sewage system.
79
Fig. 8.21 Pit latrines should not contaminate ground water: latrine; the ground;
porous earth; water table in the rainy season; water table in the dry season; ground
water; non-porous earth
The central sewage system carries all the sewage of the community to one place.
Here it is often treated with chemicals to kill the harmful micro-organisms. It is then
dumped into a nearby river or lake.
The use of a water closet by everyone in a city can be very expensive. Sanitation
scientists are busy trying to invent low-cost technologies to remove human waste
safely.

Fig. 8.22 A double vault composting latrine

Fig. 8.23 A flush toilet
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8.23 SUMMARY
In this chapter you have learnt the following things.
1. Some human activities adversely affect the environment.
2. A healthy environment is clean, well ventilated and free from damp, noise, an
objects that cause accidents. It also has a safe water supply.
3. An unhealthy environment encourages the growth of micro-organisms and has
insects which carry them from one place to another (vectors).
4. Good sanitation helps to make an environment healthy. Sanitation is the removal
of waste products from the environment of waste products.
5. Accidents are caused by our carelessness in leaving faulty and damaged objects
in the places where we live and work.
6. A good water supply must be free from dangerous chemical and micro-organisms.
Water contaminated by micro-organisms can usually be made harmless by boiling
it.
7. Things that people throw away are called refuse. Refuse made of organic matter
will decompose and add nutrients to the soil.
8. Decomposition of organic matter is caused by micro-organisms.
9. Community health workers are people who help us to ensure that our community
is healthy and clean.
10. Community health scientists use knowledge about micro-organisms in their
work.
11. Community health scientists use knowledge about the structure of the Earth to
prevent us from spoiling our water.
12. There are many forms of technology used to remove sewage from our homes.
13. The emphasis in terms of refuse or waste management is to recycle, reuse and
reduce, which ever practice is sustainable and environment friendly.
EXERCISE
1. List three human activities that affect the environment.

2. State two effects of human activities on the environment.

3. Which do you think is a more healthy environment, a village or a town? Give
reasons for your choice.
4. Describe four ways in which you can make your environment healthy.
5. Would you describe a desert island as a healthy environment? If so, why do we
not go and live on one?
6. Why is it unsafe to drink stagnant water?
7. How could you make water containing micro- organisms safe to drink?
8. What is meant by the following terms:(a) micro-organism
(b) decompose
(c) mould
(d) bacteria
(e) organic matter
(f) environmental sanitation(g) refuse
(h) sewage
(i) parasite
(j) water table
(k) ground water
9. Name three kinds of microscopic human parasite.
10. Describe three ways of disposing of human waste in Nigeria.
11. Why are water tables important to the health of the community?
12. Public health scientists recommend to government the kinds of sewage system
that new homes should have. If you were a public health official would you say that
a growing village should change to a system with water closets only. Organize a
debate on this topic.

81

Chapter 9
Disease Vectors
9.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 9

Have you heard of the saying "Health is wealth?" Why is this so? You know that
when someone is sick, that person is suffering from one form of disease or another.
Such a person cannot work to generate wealth. In Chapter 5 and 8, we have
stressed the importance of keeping ourselves and our environment healthy to
prevent diseases. We can distinguish two different groups of diseases. There are
diseases that can be passed from person to person or from other animals to man.
These are called communicable (infectious) diseases. Such diseases are caused by
micro-organisms like bacteria, viruses and protozoans. Organisms that cause
diseases are called pathogens. Diseases that are not passed on to other people are
called non-communicable (non-infectious) diseases.In this chapter, we are going to
look at some vectors which carry micro-organisms that cause diseases. A vector is
an animal which can carry micro-organisms that cause disease from one animal to
another. Examples of vectors are rats, ticks, fleas and other insects such as
mosquitoes, flies and lice. We shall study the mosquito, the housefly, the blackfly
and the tsetse fly. In particular, we want to learn something of their life history and
how we can prevent them from spreading diseases.
Look at Fig. 9.1. Which of the vectors can you identify? Make a list of other vectors
not shown in the illustrations.
Fig. 9.1 Some disease vectors: rat, fly, tick, mosquito
9.2 THE MOSQUITO
The mosquito is the carrier of the micro-organism which causes malaria. This microorganism is a protozoan called Plasmodium. It lives in the blood cells, passes waste
matter into them and eventually destroys them.
The malaria parasite is carried by the female of one type of mosquito. When the
mosquito bites a person it passes the parasite into the blood.
More people all over the world suffer from malaria than from any other disease.
Have you ever had malaria fever? How did you feel during your sickness? What
medicine were you given? If you yourself have never had malaria ask about these
things from someone who has had it.

Fig. 9.2 A malaria-carrying mosquito on the skin of its victim

82
9.3 LIFE CYCLE OF
THE MOSQUITO
Activity 9.1
Find and examine the various stages in the life cycle of a mosquito in a specimen of
water from a nearby pond, ditch, or river. Keep the water in a wide mouthed bottle
or jar covered with white cloth.
Look at the water daily for a week and make a note of what you see. Look for the
various stages in the life cycle of the mosquito, first with your eyes alone and then
using a hand lens. Record the activities and behaviour of the various stages (e.g.
feeding, swimming, breathing). Draw and label the stages in your Workbook.
Fig. 9.3 The life cycle of a mosquito
eggs: laid in water; larva breathing trumpets, lives in water, breathing air at
surface; pupa: breathing trumpets, resting stage, breathing air at surface; adult.
9.4 CONTROL OF THE MOSQUITO
A knowledge of the life cycle of the mosquito is useful in its control. Let us see why
this is so.
Activity 9.2
Obtain some water containing mosquito larvae and in a small beaker. Put a drop of
oil (kerosene) on top of the water. Look carefully at what happens and record your
results. Can you explain what takes place? What is one method of breaking the life
cycle mosquito?
Activity 9.3
Put two or three minnows into an aquarium in which there is water containing
mosquito larvae and pupae. Note what happens.
What is another method of breaking the life cycle of the mosquito?
Activity 9.4 More ways of controlling mosquito
Find out methods by which adult mosquitoes are controlled in your home and in the
immediate environment and your community.
83

Look out for empty containers around your home that can contain water. Can you
see mosquito eggs, larva, pupa in such containers?
Look out for pools of water around your home. Do you also observe the different
stages of the life cycle of mosquito there? Are there bushy areas around your home?
See if mosquitoes can breed among the weeds and other plants there. Look at the
picture in Fig. 9.4. Explain the method used for the control of mosquito in Fig. 9.4.
What stage of the life cycle of the mosquito is being controlled in Fig. 9.4? Mention
other ways used in killing mosquitoes in our homes.
Fig. 9.4 Person sleeping under mosquito netting.
There are different types of mosquitoes. One of them, the female Anopheles
mosquito, carries the malaria parasite. The malaria parasite spends the first part of
its life in the mosquito and the second part in the blood of man. The female
mosquito has mouth-parts which can pierce our skin and suck our blood. While
feeding on our blood the mosquito passes the malaria parasite into us.
Malaria is widespread in swampy areas where mosquitoes breed and where the
adults hide during the day. Malaria brings sickness and death to millions every year
all over the world and especially in tropical countries. It also slows down growth and
it is responsible for the death of many children in some areas of the world.
In some tropical countries all the malaria-carrying mosquitoes have been killed and
so the disease has been stopped altogether. From your knowledge of the breeding
place and life cycle of the mosquito can you suggest a way in which it can be
controlled?
9.5 THE HOUSEFLY
The housefly is a common insect which is found wherever human beings live. It is a
carrier of many diseases which you will learn about later, but unlike the mosquito,
the housefly spreads germs without biting anyone.
Activity 9.5
Look carefully at some houseflies with a hand lens. Note the large eyes, the short
mouth-parts, the well developed wings, and the legs ending in a claw and pad. Note
the many hairs all over the fly's body.
Look for the black lines on the top of the thorax. How many legs has the housefly?
Draw and label the insect in your Workbook.
Fig. 9.5 An adult housefly
9.6 LIFE CYCLE OF

THE HOUSEFLY
Fig. 9.6 The life cycle of a housefly.
(a) EGGS (b) PUPA: Anterior spiracle, Posterior spiracle
(c) LARVA (maggot): Mouth with hook, 1st segment, Antereior spiracle, Posterior
spiracle, Pads
(d) ADULT: Antenna, Compound,
Ocellus, Thorax, Wing, Scale, Abdomen, Leg

The female housefly lays its eggs on any rotten material. The eggs are small but can
be seen with the aid of a hand lens. The eggs develop into larvae (called
84
maggots) and the larvae change into pupae which look like very small brown
barrels. At the end of the period as a pupa the adult fly pushes off the end of the
barrel and walks out.
Activity 9.6
Let us look more closely at these stages in the life cycle of the fly. Take an empty jar
and put some sand, in it to a depth of about 3 cm. On top of the sand put some
meat or animal manure which contains the fly maggots. To keep the material from
drying out moisten it with a little water daily.
Tie some wire gauze or fine mosquito netting over the jar so that the flies will be
unable to escape when they come out. Look at the maggots carefully and note in
particular how they move and eat. After how many days did you notice pupae?
Describe the colour, shape, and size of the larvae and pupae.
The housefly is so common that you have probably found out quite a lot about it
already. It never stands perfectly still for any period of time. It is always walking or
flying from one place to another. It responds to almost every movement and the
slightest noise. It can see in many directions at the same time. Unlike you, it can
look ahead, behind, and sideways all at once. Because it can do these things it is
very difficult to catch a fly. It always seems to escape just as you are going to get
hold of it. Have you ever watched a living housefly closely? Which part of its body
does it often shake?
A housefly carries a large number of disease germs on the hairs on its body and
legs. The saliva which it pours on to our food contains bacteria. The housefly may

also excrete waste matter containing bacteria on to our food. It is in these ways that
the housefly spreads germs which cause dysentery, cholera and typhoid fever.
Find out the places where houseflies breed in your locality. Write down the places in
which you find houseflies.
Suggest methods of breaking the life cycle of the housefly so that their numbers are
cut down.
9.7 CONTROL OF THE HOUSEFLY
Three ways of preventing the spread of disease by vectors are by (a) removing their
breeding places, (b) controlling their life cycle, and (c) killing the germs in the body
of a person who is carrying the disease without causing any harm . Therefore in
order to control the housefly:
1 Do not leave human faeces, kitchen waste, and compost heaps exposed.
2 Do not allow houseflies to land on your food. Always cover your food.
3 Spray houseflies with insecticides to kill them.
9.8 THE TSETSE FLY

The tsetse fly is related to the housefly. Like the housefly it is a carrier of disease. It
carries the sleeping sickness parasite. This parasite is a small living organism known
as a trypanosome. The tsetse fly spreads the disease to man and many farm
animals like goats, sheep, pigs, horses and donkeys, by biting them. The bite is
usually painful. The parasite is passed to the bitten animal through the saliva of the
tsetse fly.
It takes about one to three weeks before the bitten animal begins to feel the effect
of the parasite. The human victim suffers from fever, headache, and sleepiness which is why the disease is called sleeping sickness or nagana. The victim may die if
not treated. To control the disease we need to know how the tsetse fly breeds.
Fig. 9.7 A biting tsetse fly
Activity 9.7
Look carefully at a tsetse fly with a hand lens. In what ways is it like a housefly? In
particular, take note of its proboscis with which it bites its victims. Label the
diagram of the insect in your Workbook.
85

Some tsetse flies breed in shady, damp places such as the vegetation by the
riverside. Some breed in open places like the grassland. One mating is sufficient for
the female tsetse fly to continue to produce new tsetse flies for the rest of her
lifetime. The tsetse fly has a life span of between 3 weeks and 5 months. The eggs
develop inside the fly and hatch into larvae which are released in a shady place.
Fig. 9.8 The life cycle of a tsetse fly: adult o larva (anterior end, breathing pores) o
pupa
o adult
9.9 LIFE CYCLE
OF THE TSETSE FLY
Activity 9.8
Look at the larva and pupa carefully with a hand lens. Observe the "bumps" on the
end of the larva and pupa. Draw one larva and one pupa in your Workbook and
briefly describe what they look l.
9.1 0 CONTROL OF THE
TSETSE FLY
The tsetse fly can be controlled by the methods used for other vectors. These are
(a) getting rid of their breeding places, (b) controlling their life cycle. Thus, for
tsetse flies, you should:
1 clear vegetation by the sides of streams and rivers, and the bush around your
house;
2 stop the flies from breeding.
9.11 BLACKFLIES AND BUGS
The insect that is most commonly called the blackfly (Simulium damnosum) is of
interest to us because it transmits a worm that causes blindness. Although this
small fly is called "black", it is often grey or yellow in colour. It has thick antennae,
short mouth-parts, a humpy back, and two broad, gauzelike wings. (See Fig. 9.9)
The mouth is adapted for blood sucking.
The larvae and pupae of this blackfly live only in moving water. Later in
development, the pupa leaves its protective cover (cocoon) and rises to the surface
of the water. Its back then splits open, and the adult fly comes out and flies away.
The fly carries a worm (Onchocerca volvulus) which it passes into a human while
sucking the blood. The worm passes in the blood to the person's eyes, which it
attacks. The attack can lead to a kind of blindness which is called onchocerciasis or

river blness because it occurs among people living near the running water where
the blackfly spends its larval and pupal stages.
Bed bugs suck human blood. They live in cracks in the wall or in bedding and come
out at night to feed. The sucking irritates but does not cause any disease in man.
Aphids, which belong to the group of insects called "bugs", can be green or black in
colour. This is why they are called "greenflies". They have mouth-parts which they
use to pierce and to suck juices or blood. Aphids feed on the juices of many young
plants, for example, citrus, cotton, and bean plants. In doing this they damage the
plants. They also cause a disease called "swollen shoot" in cocoa. An example of an
Aphid is the cotton stainer (Fig. 9.10a) which damages and stains the cotton.
Activity 9.9
Look at the two types of bug carefully with a hand lens. Observe "the mouth-parts".
What can you say about them? Can you give two major differences between the two
types of bugs?
86
Fig. 9.9 The blackfly, Simulium sp 3 mm from front legs to rear legs
Fig. 9.10 The life cycle of an aphid life cycle is given below in outline format.
winged females (migratory stage) owingless females (feeding and reproducing
stage)
many genereations reproduced by parthenogenesis owingless females (feeding and
reproducing stage) owinged females (reproducing stage) o
wingless females (mating syage) ofertilised eggswingless females (feeding and
reproducing stage) owinged males (mating stage) ofertilised eggswingless females
(feeding and reproducing stage) owingless females (stem-mothers)
many generations reproduced by parthenogenesis owingless females (feeding and
reproducing stage) owinged females (migrating stage)

Fig. 9.10a Example of bugs cotton stainer

Fig. 9.10b Example of bugs bed bug
87
9.12 LIFE CYCLE
OF THE APHID

Activity 9.10
Look at the stages in the life cycle of an aphid. How many stages can you observe?
What are these stages. How is the life cycle of an aphid different from that of the
other insects you have already studied? What do you understand by the word
"parthenogenesis" used in the diagram.
You can look it up in the glossary or your teacher can help y.
9.13 CONTROL OF APHIDS
Aphids can be controlled by spraying them with Insecticides. Also ladybird beetles,
which feed on aphids, can be used to keep their numbers down.
9.14 SUMMARY
In this chapter you have learnt the following things.
1 The carriers of micro-organisms that cause diseases are called vectors.
2 Examples of vectors are rats, ticks, and fleas. Some other important insect,
vectors are the mosquito, housefly, tsetse fly, and blackfly.
3 Three ways of controlling the spread of diseases by vectors are (a) clearing their
breeding grounds, (b) controlling their life-cycle, and, (c) treating people suffering
from the diseases with appropriate drugs.
EXERCISE
1. Why are the mosquito, housefly, tsetse fly, and blackfly called vectors?
2. Describe three general ways of controlling the spread of diseases by vectors.
3. How is the life cycle of the mosquito different from that of the aphid? Illustrate
your answer with diagrams.
4. Carry out a project (in the school or in your home involving other students in your
class or members of your family) on "A campaign For Eradication of Mosquitoes and
Malaria."
5. Give/write a report on how this is done and the results obtained from the project.
6. Remember that malaria is a deadly disease, what efforts are you making in your
home, school or community to eradicate it?

88

Chapter 10
Preventing Diseases
10.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 10
One of the ways of rating nations in terms of development is the infant mortality
rate. Infant mortality rate is calculated by the number of infant deaths per thousand
births. In many developed countries, because of their advancement in science,
technology, medicine, and child/care delivery, the infant mortality rate is very low.
However, in many developing countries, including Nigeria, the infant mortality rate
is high.
Many of the diseases that kill children are preventable. It is therefore very sad to
see a child die of a disease that could have been prevented. It is thought that in
some parts of the world, 20% of children die before reaching the age of five.
Communities should work together to keep the ground water supply free from
harmful micro-organisms. Clean water is safe for drinking, washing, and cooking. In
areas where many people live and the water table is high it is best to assume that
the water is not safe to drink. All water in these areas should be boiled before
drinking.
Fig. 10.1 Clean water is necessary for good health
In this chapter you will learn about some diseases and the ways in which they can
be prevented. Some can be prevented by supplying clean water to the community,
others by immunisation, which will be explained below.
10.2 WATER-RELATED DISEASES
Consider the extent and the suffering people go through to get water during the dry
season in rural areas especially in Northern parts of Nigeria.
It is a major problem to get clean, safe water for drinking and other purposes in
many parts of Nigeria. This is especially true during the dry season and in the rural
areas. What are the sources of water supply in your area during the dry season? Do
you think the water is clean and safe for drinking?
The most common sources of water supply in many rural areas are shown below. In
most cases these sources of water are contaminated and drinking such water often
results in contracting a disease.
The most common water sources for rural water supply are:

1. Springs: The spring source should always be protected to avoid pollution.

2. Wells: These may be hand-dug shallow wells or drilled deep wells.
3. Rivers, streams, pond: These are very common sources of water and are often
contaminated.
4. Rainwater: Collection from roofs can provide additional water supply in many
areas. Rain water may be acidic.
89
5. River well: A large hole is dug on dry riverbed and water is allowed to settle in it
and collected for use.
One of the most common diseases you can contact by drinking unclean water is
cholera. It is caused by harmful bacteria that inflame the intestines and cause
extreme diarrhoea or "running stomach" and vomiting. The body loses much of its
fluid. If there is no improvement in three to five days the patient may die.
Another water-borne disease is dysentry. Dysentry can be caused either by a onecelled animal called Amoeba or by certain bacteria.
Typhoid is another disease caused by bacteria. A person with typhoid has headache,
fever, and pains throughout the body.
In parts of the world with modern sanitation, people rarely suffer from cholera,
dysentry or typhoid. Neither do they suffer from nearly fifty other diseases that are
related to contact with human waste and unclean water.
Apart from cholera, typhoid fever and dysentry, water related diseases are often
divided into four major groups as follows:

1.Water-borne diseases The organism causing the disease is in the water and a
person drinking it becomes infected. Examples are cholera, typhoid fever,
infections, hepatitis and some diarrhoeas and dysenteries.
Preventive strategy Improve quality of drinking water by boiling. Avoid casual use of
other unapproved sources. (For example, some water commonly sold in satchels
called "pure water")
2. Water-washed diseases: These are diseases whose transmission will be reduced
following an increase in the volume of water used for hygienic purposes irrespective
of the quality of the water. Examples are diarrhoea diseases, cholera, dysentery and
other diseases already mentioned under water- borne diseases. Other examples are

skin and eye infection like scabies and trachoma. Also louse-borne typhus and
relapsing fever belong to this category.
Preventive strategy: Increase water quantity used. Improve the quality of domestic
water supply. Improve hygiene.
3. Water-based disease: These are diseases where the disease causing organism
(pathogen) spends part of its life cycle in water. An example is snail or another
acquatic animal. Infection is by skin penetration upon contact with fresh water. The
snail is living in stagnant or slow-moving water and its distribution may be increased
by the construction of resevoirs or irrigation canals. Examples are schistosomiasis
(bilharzia) and the guinea worm disease. The guinea worm disease is caused by
drinking water containing a small animal (crustacean) which is injected with larvae
from the Guinea worm.
Preventive strategy: Decrease need for contact with infected water. Control snail
population. Reduce contamination of surface water by excreta. Provision of safe
drinking water.

4. Water-related insect vector: These disease are spread by insects which either
breed in water or bite near water. Examples are: malaria, yellow fever, filariasis
(elephantiasis) and onchocerciasis (river blindness) are transmitted by insects
breeding in water. The West African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) is
transmitted by the tsetse fly which bites near the water.
Preventive strategy: Improve surface water management.
Destroy breeding sites of insects. Decrease need to visit breeding sites.
Use mosquito preventive measures.
10.3 PURIFICATION OF WATER
When water falls on the ground it dissolves some of the substances present in the
soil, picks up mud and leaves, and is contaminated in various ways. Let us find out
what is present in different kinds of water.
Activity 10.1 Looking at various samples of water

Obtain some samples of rainwater, river or stream water, pond water, sea water (if
you are anywhere near the coast), tap water, and distilled water. Put them into
separate evaporating dishes and label them. Look carefully at each sample. You
may need a hand lens to do this. (Better still, if you have a microscope, take a few

drops of each kind of water on a microscope slide and note down what you can see
in each sample). Look
90
for specks of mud, bits of leaves and any living thing. Record your observations.
Fig. 10.2 (a) The unpurified water which supplies Ibadan waterworks
Our drinking water is obtained from one or other of the above sources, and before it
is safe to drink, the water has to be purified. The larger solid particles, such as mud
and soil, and pieces of leaves, can be removed by filtration.
Activity 10.2 Filtering some muddy water

Your teacher will show you how to fold a filter paper and how to use it. See Fig. 10.3.
Place the folded filter paper in a funnel and pour a sample of muddy water through
the filter paper. Collect the liquid which comes through the funnel in a beaker.
Examine the liquid collected. Have you been able to remove all the mud from the
water? Where is the mud now?
Fig. 10.3: Filter paper for filtration
(a-f) ask for help
Do you think that the method in Activity 10.2 would be suitable for the removal of
solid particles from water on a large scale for use in your community? It is rather
slow, isn't it? Think of the large number of filter papers and funnels that would have
to be used. On the larger scale, therefore, filter beds consisting of layers of gravel
and sand are used. See Fig. 10.4a.
Fig. 10.4(a) Filterbeds: concrete box; filtering sand; layer of charcoal; fine gravel;
coarse gravel; stones; outlet for filtered water
91
Activity 10.3 Filtering large quantities of water
A model filter bed can be made by filling a wide glass tube with stones, gravel and
sand, as in Fig.10.4a. Notice that the larger stones are at the bottom, and the sand
at the top. Slowly pour some of the dirty samples of water through the column and
collect the liquid that comes through in a beaker. Compare the liquid you have
collected in the beaker with the original water. Can you see any solid particles in the
water you have collected? Use a hand lens to make sure.

This process of filtration will only take out the larger particles present in the water.
There may still be some very tiny particles which get through. Among these there
may be some dangerous living things (micro-organisms) called bacteria. These are
so small that even the best filter is unable to remove them. It is possible that you
may be able to see some of these in your filtered water if you look at it under a very
powerful microscope. If you have one in your school your teacher may let you try to
see them. If not, look at photographs of water containing bacteria which have been
taken with the help of a high-powered microscope.
The bacteria can be killed by adding a chemical to the water. The one usually added
is a gas called chlorine. You can sometimes smell this in your drinking water. In
small quantities - enough to kill the bacteria - it is harmless to human beings. This
gas is also used to purify the water in swimming pools.
In some places, where the water is not treated in this way, the bacteria are killed by
boiling the water before it is used.
So far we have dealt with the removal of solid particles such as mud and living
organisms from the water, but does water also contain dissolved substances? It is
easy to find out.
Fig. 10.4(b) The filter beds at the Ibadan waterworks
Activity 10.4
Instead of evaporating the water in a dish you will use a watch glass so that you can
see more easily if there is anything left. We cannot heat a watch glass directly in a
flame as it will crack, so we heat it with the steam that comes from boiling water in
a beaker, using the arrangement shown in Fig. 10.5.
Fig. 10.5 Evaporation of water:
solution; watch glass on beaker; beaker; boiling water; wire gauze; Tripod stand;
Bunsen burner
Put a few drops of the water you are testing in the watch glass; let it evaporate and
note whether there is any residue (the word "residue" means anything that is left
behind). Different groups in the class could evaporate different samples of water tap water, filtered stream or river water, rainwater, distilled water, and sea water,
and you can then compare your results.
We do not usually taste things in the laboratory in case they are poisonous or can
do us harm, but it is quite safe for you to taste the residue from evaporated sea
water. What does it taste like?
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10.4 GETTING PURE WATER FROM A SOLUTION

You have often watched a kettle of water boiling. What happens if you hold a cold
plate in the steam coming from it? Does the condensed vapour still contain any of
the solid substances that are present in the tap water in the kettle? How could you
find out?
Activity 10.5
You have already found one way of getting pure water from tap water (which,
because it contains dissolved solids, is a solution). What we want to do now is to
find a more efficient way of doing this. Before you look at the diagram below, see if
you can make up a method for yourself; your teacher will help you to try out your
ideas.
Figure 9.6 shows a very good way of doing it. How is this an improvement on the
apparatus you designed? The apparatus is called a Liebig condenser, after the man
who invented it.
Set up the apparatus with some tap water in the flask. Heat the flask, and notice
everything that happens.
What ought the thermometer to read? What does it actually read?
Fig. 10.6 Distillation of water.: thermometer; cork; boiling water; distillation flask;
water out; Liebig condenser; water in; pure water; wooden block
This process of obtaining pure water is called distillation. The product is distilled
water.
In some hot countries there is not enough water and the people have to get drinking
water from the sea. You cannot drink sea water as it is, because of the salt in it, so
the water has to be distilled. Of course they do not use a Liebig condenser for this
process on such a large scale, for just the same reason that you do not use a filter
paper to filter dirty water on a large scale. Special methods are used. The process is
called desalination, which simply means "taking away salt".
10.5 DISTILLING A MIXTURE
OF LIQUIDS
What would happen if we boiled a mixture of two liquids, one of which had a lower
boiling point than the other?
Activity 10.6
Alcohol (ethanol) has a boiling point of 78C while pure water boils at 100C. Alcohol
burns when a flame is applied to it and water does not.

First of all make a mixture of alcohol and water. Now distil the mixture in the
apparatus you used before (Fig. 10.6). Collect the first 5cm3 or so of the distillate
(the name given to the liquid that distils off). Does this burn? Did you expect this.
The alcohol boils over first because it boils at a lower temperature than the water.
We have been able to separate the alcohol from the water. What about the liquid
left in the flask? Does it contain a greater or smaller proportion of water than
before?
We call this process fractional distillation.
10.6APPLICATIONS OF
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
Fractional distillation is of very great importance in industry. Oil, when it comes from
the oil wells, is a thick mixture of a number of different oils. To get petrol from it the
method of fractional distillation is used. This is one of the processes that takes place
at an oil refinery.
Another use of distillation in industry is in the manufacture of alcohol. Alcohol is
largely made by the fermentation of starch or sugar. Yeast is added to a liquid which
contains starch or sugar in some form or other - it can be grain, or yam, or potatoes,
or the sap
93
from palm trees. The yeast produces alcohol. If the liquid is distilled the alcohol can
be collected. It is used as a solvent, or for drinking (e.g. gin and whisky).
10.7 SPRING WATER
A spring is a source of water that comes out directly from land, hill or rock. Spring
water is a source of clean water because it comes directly from its source without
any contamination. It is therefore a common source of clean safe water to village
communities and small towns.
10.8 USES OF WATER
Water is our most useful liquid. Water is found in all living things and is absolutely
essential for life on Earth. All the chemical reactions that happen inside plants and
animals take place in a solution where water is the solvent. Water is needed to carry
essential food matter around plants and animals and to remove waste products
from the body. Your body is made up of about 70% water. Much of the food we eat,
for example vegetables and fruit, contains as much as 90-95% water. Even meat is
about 50% water.

Farmers need water to keep their plants and animals alive. If there is not enough
water in a place there is a drought. Drought sometimes occur in the Niger Republic
and parts of the Northern states of Nigeria. When it happens, it results in the death
of plants and animals, and in the movement of some farmers with their animals to
the southern parts of the country in search of water and vegetation for grazing
animal.
In addition to supporting the life of plants and animals that live on land, many
plants and animals live in water. We use some of these, for example, fish, as food.
Can we have fish without water?

We use water for domestic purposes such as cooking, washing, and keeping our
surroundings clean.
Activity 10.7 Chlorination of water

For this activity you will need stagnant water, microscope, glass slides, and
bleaching solution. Use a jam jar to collect some water from a pond, ditch or puddle.
Do not put your hands in the water. Put a drop on the microscope slide. Cover the
slide with a coverslip and place it under the microscope. Look at the water through
the microscope. What do you see? Now add a drop of bleaching solution to the
water on the slide. Place the slide under the microscope again and look at it. What
do you observe?
10.9 IMMUNISATION
Have you heard of Expanded Programme on Immunisation or EPI? This is a
government programme which is intended to immunise every child against
childhood diseases such as polio, whooping cough, measles and tetanus among
others. At your age most of you must have been immunised against these disease.
See table below.
Immunisation protects people from diseases. You and your classmates are probably
immune to several diseases. Some of the immunity may have occurred when you
had contact with a disease but did not get sick from it. In some cases you acquire it
after having the disease. When your body is immune to a disease it means that you
are unlikely to have a very serious case of the disease.
How does your body become immune to harmful micro-organisms? When some of
these harmful organisms enter your body, it reacts to their presence by making
antibodies. Antibodies are made by cells in your body. They can break down microorganisms, clump them together so that blood cells can break them down, or cover
them making them harmless to the body. When this antibodies have been made

once, it is much easier in the body to make them again, so the organisms which
would cause the disease are quickly killed.
Table 10.1 Suggested Immunisation as applicable in Nigeria. (Source: Nutrition
Division, Federal Ministry of Health)
IMMUNISATION chart format changed as follows:
Immunization
Age
Remarks
B.C.G.0 mth Given immediately after birthPoliomyelitis3 mth; 4 mth; 5 mth; 18 mth;
5 years3 doses first followed by 2 booster dosesTriple Antigen3 mth; 4 mth; 5 mth;
18 mth3 doses first followed by booster at 18 monthsMeasles9 mthOnly once in
infancyTetanus5 yearsonly once at age 5
94
While we can acquire natural immunity to some diseases, there are some dangerous
diseases that we should be protected from. To do this, doctors introduce dead or
weakened micro-organisms into our body. Sometimes they introduce the poisons of
the harmful micro-organism into our body which reacts by producing antibodies. The
antibodies make us immune. Most doctors give vaccinations or innoculations
(injections) against diseases such as tuberculosis, diphtheria, whooping cough,
polio, and measles. There are also immunisations available for other diseases, and
these are given when the health authorities think that it is necessary.
10.10 MENINGITIS
Meningitis is a very common disease in Nigeria that usually occurs during the dry,
hot seasons. Meningitis outbreaks occur almost every year during the dry season in
the African meningitis belt, which stretches from Senegal to Ethiopa. The critical
epidemic period is usually in the first month of the year. In Nigeria, Meningitis
usually occurs around March-April especially in Northern states.
Meningitis is a disease that affects the brain lining and is mostly caused by bacteria
and viruses. Viral meningitis, which is rarely life threatening, is more common than
bacterial meningitis. It is usually caught through poor hygiene, coughing and
sneezing, especially in overcrowded and poorly ventillated rooms.
Fig. 10.7 A young child being inoculated

Bacterial meningitis can lead to complication and even death particularly among
children under five and young adults. Some strains of bacterial meningitis can be
treated with antibiotics but experts insist it is important to catch the disease early.
Majority of the patients survive but a few suffer some after effects such as brain
damage, loss of sight, hearing impairment, arthritis, loss of balance, depression and
fatigue. Most of these after-effects disappear after a year. Many people do not
become seriously ill, but develop fever, headache, vomiting, stiff neck, and red rash,
which looks like red pinpricks. Doctors advise that urgent medical attention should
be sought if these symptoms develop.
In areas where meningitis is common people are usually inoculated annually against
the disease.
Activity 10.8
Find out from your parents whether you have been immunised against polio,
measles, tetanus or other childhood killer diseases. If not, find out from the teacher
what to do.
Do you live in meningitis prone area? Does your school arrange for you all to be
immunised against meningitis? If not, request your teacher to arrange for the health
authorities to come to your school for immunisation.
10.11 STIs
STIs means Sexually Transmitted Infections. As the name suggests, it refers to a
group of disease infections that can be contracted through sexual activities. These
diseases include gonorrhoea, syphilis, Candida infection and HIV and AIDS, etc.
These diseases can be avoided by carrying out responsible sexual behaviour,
abstinence from sex, use of sterilised injection needles and clippers and use of
screened blood when blood is needed by a sick person. It is also advisable for young
girls to get married and have children at a safe and mature age to avoid VVF.
10.12 HIV-AIDS
Have you ever heard of radio or television jingles on HIV-AIDS? What of newspaper
advertisements on the dangers of HIV-AIDS?
AIDS is a very dangerous disease. The full meaning of AIDS is Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome. AIDS is caused by a virus called Human Immunodeficiency
Virus (HIV). HIV-AIDS has no cure yet. The human body has an immune defence
system that protects our bodies against attacks from diseases. The virus (HIV)
damages this immune
95

(defence) system. When this virus is in the body, it is said to be HIV positive and
this is what develops to HIV-AIDS. When this happens, the person's body will not be
able to fight any other diseases such as tuberculosis, pneumonia and brain
infections that attack the person.
As a result of these, the person will die. The disease (HIV-AIDS) can affect anybody
no matter the person's age.
Being HIV positive can only be detected through blood test. It does not show in the
face or body. HIV can be passed from woman to man or from man to woman during
sexual intercourse (that is, while having sex). It can also be transferred through
other means such as transfusion of infected blood, contaminated injection needles
and syringes, knives, razor blades. Other ways of transmission are through
contaminated insrtuments used to pierce the body during ear-piercing, circumcision
and putting of tribal marks as well as from mother to her unborn baby. The MAJOR
SIGNS of full, blown AIDS include1 Unexpected weight loss which is greater than
10% of the total body weight.
2 Getting tired easily.
3 Fever that is lasting longer than one month.
4 Diarrhoea which is longer than one month.
5 Cold sores (wounds) all over the body
6 Swollen glands at two or more places on the body for more than three months.
Fig. 10.8 Ways through which AIDS can be transfered: Sexual intercourse;
Unsterilised Needles and Sharp Instruments (Knife for Circumcision; Razor Blade;
Ear-piercing; Injection);
Mother to Child; Receiving Infected Blood (Transfusion)
96
Fig. 10.9 Ways of not contracting HIV/AIDS:
Bathing together (Swimming)
Insect Bites
Playing together
Reading together
Sharing Food
Shaking of hands

Coughing & Sneezing

Sharing Toilet
97
Activity 10.9

1 Have you heard of the campaign (radio, television) against the spread of HIVAIDS? Have you read about HIV-AIDS in newspapers or posters from what is written
by health authorities or other interested agencies. Your class should form a club to
discuss and carry out activities against the spread of HIV-AIDS.
2 Form groups of three among yourselves. Each group should carry out a survey of
hair cutting instruments in barber shops in your area. Do the barbers have
sterilisers? How many barbers shops have sterilisers? Talk to the barbers on the
importance of sterilising their equipment to prevent HIV-AIDS and other skin
infection.
Table 10.2 Causes and Prevention of Diseases
Print column form changed as follows:
Disease
Causes
Prevention
(1) MalariaBiting of person by female anopheles mosquito(1) Having proper
drainage around your
house to avoid stagnant water needed
by breeding mosquitoes.
(2) Clean environment.
(3) Sleeping under mosquito net.(2) Typhoid feverdrinking contaminated water or
eating contaminated food particularly uncooked food.(1) Boiling water before
drinking it.
(2) Always cover food to avoid perching
of flies.(3) Chicken poxHaving contact with an infected person
(1) Isolate any infected person to avoid spreading of the disease.

(2) Clean your environment very well.(4) Choleradrinking contaminated water or

eating contaminated food(1) Boil your water
(2) Wash your hands after toilet with soap
and also before eating
(3) Maintain good clean hygiene.(5) Common coldIt is air-borne, it is caused by a
virus(1) Taking fruits that are rich in vitamin C.
(2) Avoid contact with person having cold
(3) Cover your mouth when szeeing(6) DiarrhoeaCaused by bacteria present in
contaminated food or water.(1) Boiling your water and avoiding flies
from perching on your food.
(2) Always wash your hands with soap before eating and after using the toilet.(7)
MeningitisVirus and bacteria through poorhygiene, coughing, sneezingCleanliness,
sleeping in well ventilated rooms, immunisation.(8) HIV/AIDSUsing HIV/AIDS
contaminated needles and syringes. blood transfusion, sex, piercing ears, body with
contaminated objects.
Use of sterile injection needles and syringes, blood should be screened before
transfusion. Use of sterile objects and avoid having sex.
98
10.13 PREVENTING DRUG
ABUSE
One of the things a doctor may prescribe for you when you are ill is medicine or
drugs. A drug is a chemical substance which affects the action of the body. It can
make you well if you take the drug according to the doctor's instructions.
Fig. 10.10 Some drugs
Since drugs alter the action of the body they can be dangerous if taken without the
guidance of the doctor. You must not take drugs that the doctor has not prescribed
for you.
There are some substances which change the action of the body, and which are
really drugs, but which many people do not think are drugs. For example, some of
them can make you sleepy, some can make you excited, some can keep you awake,
while others can take away pain.
Activity 10.10 Drugs in the home

Make a list of substances in the home or that you can easily buy in a shop, which
can alter the action of the body and so change a person's behaviour.
Did you include some of the following? 1 Whisky (alcohol)
2 Gin (alcohol)
3 Beer (alcohol)
4 Table wine (alcohol)
5 Palm wine (alcohol)
6 Akpeteshi (alcohol) (also known as ogogoro, kinkana, or kaikai, all of which are
locally distilled gin)
7 Coffee
8 Tea
9 Kola nuts
10 Tobacco
11 Aspirin and other pain-killers.
Alcohol affects the body by first making you excited, then making you depressed.
The other substances mentioned above (except the pain-killers) affect the body by
causing excitement and preventing sleep.
Fig. 10.11 Some examples of alcoholic drinks
When drugs are taken without the doctor's advice and direction it is called drug
abuse. Sometimes people take certain drugs repeatedly in order to obtain an effect
that they enjoy. So they may form a habit of taking the drug. These drugs which
people develop an urge to take are called habit-forming drugs.
The effect of a drug may be temporary, or it may last a long time, depending on the
amount taken. But when the effect wears off, the condition for which the drug was
taken may come back. This makes the person take more of the drug, and so it goes
on. Once a person forms a habit of taking a drug he may find it difficult to do
without it. He may become nervous and desperate to obtain more of it. This may
lead him into all sorts of trouble, from simple bad behaviour to crime such as
violence and murder.
Drugs can also alter the working of some of your organs permanently.
Habit-forming drugs should therefore be avoided by everyone, young or old, if they
wish to maintain good health.

99
Drug abuse is a major problem among our youth and even adult population. These
drugs are often taken to produce a hallucinogenic effect or "get a high" as drug
users say. These drugs are often expensive and not easily available due to the
monitoring activities of the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA). As a
result of this many drug users resort to cheap alternatives by using common
substances that are toxic and usually produce the same effect. These substances
include paints and thinners, fuel, glue and gum. The use of these substances in
place of drugs is referred to as substance abuse.
10.14 SUMMARY
In this chapter, you have learnt the following things.
1. Some diseases can be prevented.
2. Clean water protects us from disease carried by water.
3. For drinking purposes, ordinary water has to be purified. Insoluble particles can
be removed by filtration.
4. Immunity to a disease occurs when the body has antibodies to fight that disease.
5. Sexually Transmitted Infections are a group of disease infection that can be
contracted through sex.
6. HIV-AIDS is a killer-disease that presently has no cure.
7. Drugs taken without the doctor's advice and direction are said to be abused.
EXERCISE
1. What is contaminated water? Name three things that can be found is
contaminated water.
2. Describe two methods of making impure water fit for drinking.
3. Name three diseases that are caused by contact with human waste and dirty
water.
4. What are antibodies? What do they do?
5. What are three problems that community health workers face in trying to control
the environment in Nigeria? What can be done to solve these problems? How can
you help community health workers in your neighbourhood?
6. Mention five diseases. State their causes and how they can be prevented.

7. What are sexually transmitted infections?

8. What is a drug? What is meant by drug abuse?
;;;;;;;;;;;;
100
UNIT 2
Living and Non-living Things
INTRODUCTION
In the introductory unit, you saw that scientists have many ways of classifying the
large number of things in the environment. One way of doing this is to start dividing
things into those which are living and those which are not living.
In this unit we shall be considering non-living things, and find out how they can be
classified. You will study some of the properties of non-living things in the
environment you will also learn about living things. Living things are called
organisms. Plants and animals are the main groups of living things. We want to look
at the differences between plants and animals as well as what features that can
help us distinguish one group of organisms from another.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
1. Draw and label plant and animal cells;
2. Distinguish among cells, tissues, organs, and system;
3. Classify organisms / put organisms into their various groups;
4. Classify animals into those that have backbone and those that do not;
5. Classify plants according to whether they have flowers or not;
6. Distinguish between metals and non-metals;
7. List some uses of metals and non-metals.

101
Chapter 11

Living Things
11.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 11
In this chapter you will be looking at living things. You will find out the special
qualities, or characteristics, which they all have, and which make them different
from things which are not alive. So you will be able to sort objects into groups of
living and non-living things by studying their characteristics. This will enable you to
identify what living things are.
11.2 OBSERVING LIVING THINGS
There is one way of sorting out living things from two groups which you will see
immediately. Here is a list of living things you, a toad, a maize plant, a housefly,
an ostrich, a hibiscus plant, grass, a yam, a fish. Can you quickly sort them out into
groups? Of course, that's easy!
Did you put yourself, the toad, the housefly, the ostrich, and the fish into one group,
and the maize plant, Hibiscus, grass and yam into another.
The first group is made up of animals and second group of plants. One way of
sorting out living things is group them into plants and animals because they differ
so much from each other. Yet, although plants and animals are different, they have
certain characteristics in common just because they are living. We are going to find
out about some of these characteristics now.
11.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF
LIVING THINGS
The characteristics of living organisms are as follows:
1. Movement
2. Feeding
3. Respiration
4. Growth
5. Responding to the environment (Irritability)
6. Reproduction
7. Excretion

11.4 MOVEMENT
Fig. 11.1 (a) A school boy walking.
(b) A moving car
(c) Seedlings grown with light from all sides and seedlings grown with light shining
from one side.
102
Activity 11.1
Look at the pictures in Fig. 11.1.
In each of the pictures there is something moving. Write down as many differences
as you can between the kinds of movement shown.
Activity 11.2
If you are able to do so, collect the following animals: cockroach, housefly, snail,
fish, earth worm, and toad. Put them in a cage or an aquarium as the case may be,
in your science room, under the direction of your teacher. When you collect animals
you must be very careful not to damage them in any way. If you cannot collect
these animals yourself it is possible that there may, be some animals in your
science room already. Look at the animals carefully, and notice how each moves.
Then fill in a table like the one above in your Workbook.
Table Headings: Name of Animal; Kind of movement; Parts of the body used; Is
movement slow or fast?
What differences can you see between the movement of these animals and the
movement of a car and of a plant (Fig. 11.1 (b) and (c))?
From this activity you will have seen that animals move from place to place. Plants
cannot do this, although movements do occur in plants. Most movements in plants
are very slow. Some plants move towards the light, like the one shown in Fig. 11.1
(c). On the other hand, some animals can move very quickly indeed. The methods
of moving differ from one kind of animal to another. They may walk, run, crawl, fly,
or swim.
What is the difference between the movement of animal and that of a car? Animals
can move from one place to another on their own. A car will only move when it is
pushed or when it is powered by an engine. Organisms move in search of water,
light, food, shelter, mate and for protection.
11.5 FEEDING

Activity 11.3
Look at the pictures in Fig. 11.2. How do the animals in each of the pictures feed?
Fig. 11.2 dogs eating food from a paper on ground; boy sitting at table eating; cattle
in a field.
What kind of food is usually eaten by each of the animals in the pictures? Do these
animals produce or manufacture the food they eat? How does each of the animals
get its food? Do you think plants also feed? If so, where do they get their food?
103
Plants and animals feed in order to get energy to carry out their daily activities, and
also to grow. Energy is necessary for movement. Even if you think you are keeping
quite still you are not really doing so. Every time you take a breath your lungs move.
Your heart is beating all the time, pushing blood round your body even while you are
asleep. Energy is required to do these things, as well as all the other things you do,
including reading this book and thinking! This energy comes from the food you eat.

Animals cannot make food on their own. Plants, on the other hand, can do this, as
we shall learn later. Those animals that eat only plants are called herbivoresbe
those that eat only other animals are called carnivores; while those that eat both
animals and plants are called omnivores. Importance of feeding includes growth,
development and mainteinance of the body
Activity 11.4
Group the following animals into omnivores, herbivores, and carnivores: man,
guinea-pig, rabbit, dog, cat, grasshopper, donkey, monkey.
If you do not know, try to find out from a book in your school library
11.6 RESPIRING
Activity 11.5
Hold your breath for a short while. Then answer the following questions.
1 How do you feel?
2 Why is it that you cannot hold your breath for a very long time?
3 What happens if you continue to hold your breath?

You must have realised long ago that it is necessary for you to have air to live. You
will have heard of people dying because they cannot get air to breathe. We say they
have suffocated. Sometimes when a patient in hospital is unable to breathe in air,
the doctor uses special instruments to help him breathe, otherwise the patient will
die. Other animals also need air to live; so do plants. Plants and animals use part of
the air the part called oxygen to burn up their food to obtain energy. This
process is called respiration. Breathing (which is also called External respiration) is
the process of taking in a part of air (oxygen) and giving out another part of air
(carbondioxide) by living things. This is necessary, and may require some special
organs in plants and animals.
You will learn more about this under "Respiratory Systems" in Year 2.
Importance of respiration includes exchange of gases and breakdown of food
substances to release energy.
11.7 GROWTH
All living things grow as they become older. They start off in life usually very much
smaller than when they are mature. However, they do not continue to grow until
they die. They reach a stage when, as we say, they are fully grown, and then they
do not grow any more. With humans this is usually about the age of 25 years.
Activity 11.6
Fig. 11.3. A growth chart
Chart shows horizontal lines at 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2 metres. Heights of boy in
metres are: 2 years0.7; 6 years1.0; 12 years1.4; 18 years1.8.
Compare the height of the same boy at ages 2, 6, 12, and 18 years. What is
happening to him? Look also at Fig. 11.4.
Fig. 11.4 (a) Seedlings under a protective covering.
104
(b) larger plants

Compare the two pictures and say what must happen for the seedlings in (a) to
become the plants in (b)?
Animals and plants cannot grow without food. You have all seen pictures of refugee
boys and girls who are very thin because they do not get enough food. You have

also probably seen stray dogs whose bones show through their skin because they
are starving.
Growth is important for maturity and development.
Fig. 11.5: Starving children
11.8 RESPONDING TO
THE ENVIRONMENT
You learnt in Chapter 1 that your environment is all the things around you. You also
learnt that objects are affected by their environment.
Activity 11.7
Touch (a) a moving earthworm, (b) a moving millipede, and (c) a sensitive plant,
with a pencil. What happens in each case?
Fig. 11.6: The leaves of this sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica) collapsed four seconds
after they were touched
Activity 11.8
Gently touch the back of the neck of one of your friends when he or she is not
looking. What does he or she do?
You will have noticed that the earthworm and the millipede immediately curl up
when you touch them, and the leaves of the sensitive plant fold up. Your friend
probably immediately turned round when you touched him or her. In each case the
animal or plant was responding to the environment. The environment changed and
they did something as a result. Any factor, such as light, touch, sound, etc., which
makes an organism (another name for a living thing) respond in a certain way is
called a stimulus. Thus light, touch, noises, and so on are stimuli (this is the plural of
the word stimulus).
11.9 REPRODUCTION
All living things can reproduce their kind. Living things produce younger ones called
offsprings, which also look like their parents. This process is called "Reproduction".
The pictures (Fig. 11.7) show three examples. Reproduction takes place in different
ways, but the end result is that young ones are produced. The baby grew in its
mother's womb, the pineapple sent off a shoot called a "sucker", and the chickens
came from eggs laid by the mother hen.
Although organism reproduce in different ways, all these ways are grouped as
Asexual and Sexual Reproduction. These are the two types of reproduction found in
plants and animals. Asexual reproduction involves only one parent this produces

younger ones alone. Can you identify this type in fig. 11.7. In Sexual Reproduction,
two parents - a male and a female are involved.
105
Fig.11.7 (a) A mother and her new born baby (b) A pineapple and its sucker (c) A
hen and her chicks
Fig. 11.8 African toads mating, you can see strings of fertilised toad spawn
Activity 11.9

This activity takes some time to do, and you will have to keep notes of what
happens from day to day. Look for some snail's or lizard's eggs in the school garden
or compound. Put them into a container with some soil. Cover the soil and eggs with
some decaying leaves and keep the container in a cool place. Sprinkle some water
on to the soil every day to keep it damp, but do not make it too wet.
Record the following in your Workbook:
1 the date the eggs were collected;
2 the number of eggs collected;
3 the date the eggs hatched;
4 what the baby snail or lizard looked like. Draw one.
Activity 11.10
This again involves observations over some time. Have you seen toads mating? Try
to observe some. Collect some toad eggs in a container with some of the water they
were found in. Look at the eggs with a hand lens and draw it. Put the container in a
cool place and look at the eggs every day. Record in your Workbook the date on
which
1 the eggs were collected;
2 the first eggs hatched into tadpoles;
3 the forelegs and the hindlegs first appeared
4 the gills withered;
5 the tadpoles left the water.

Draw pictures of the tadpoles at each stage

Fig. 11.9 (a) A chick hatching
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Fig. 11.9(b) The birth of a donkey
Animals reproduce so as to continue their kind. When the old ones die their young
ones will take their place, and so it will continue. A dog can only give birth to dogs,
a hen can only produce chickens, a pineapple plant can only produce suckers which
develop into pineapple plants.
It is important for organisms to reproduce to ensure continuity of life.
11.10 EXCRETING WASTE
The food, salts, and water that we take into our bodies are used for growth and to
give us energy. However, we do not use every bit of them, and sometimes they are
changed into other substances which may be harmful to the body if we do not get
rid of them. The removal of these waste products is called excretion.
We get rid of water in various ways in our breath, in sweat, and in urine. Urine
also contains other waste products besides water. All animals and plants must get
rid of waste matter. No doubt on a very hot day, or when you have been running,
you have tasted your sweat. What does it taste like?
THE LIFE PROCESS
Columns follow one another in this order:
Process: Definition.Nutrition: Those activities of an organism by which it takes raw
materials from its environment and makes them usable.
Transport: The intake (absorption) and distribution (circulation) of usuable materials
throughout an organism.
Respiration: The oxidation of food in an organism, resulting in the release of energy
and waste products.
Excretion: The process by which an organism gets rid of the wastes of metabolism.
(Excretion should not be confused with egestion, which is the removal of undigested
food. Egestion may take the form of elimination or defecation.)
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Synthesis: The process by which simple materials are united to form more complex
materials.

Regulation: The coordinated response of an organism to a changing environment so

as to maintain its stability.
Growth: The increase in size of an organism that results from the synthesis and
organization of materials into new materials and structures.
Reproduction: The unique characteristics of living organisms by which they produce
more of their own kind. This process is essential to the species, not to the individual
organism.
Table column headings for material to be filled in are listed vertically bel.
Object
Does it feed?
Does it move on its own?
Does it respire?
Does it reproduce?
Does it give out waste?
Does it respond to stimuli?
Activity 11.11

Here is a list of objects: toad, stone, bird, Hibiscus plant, yam crystals, chalk, water,
cloth. For each of the objects fill in the table in your workbook, answering "yes" or
"no" in each column.
Complete the table above by filling the columns with yourself as the object.
List the objects which have the same answers in the table as yrf.
Living organisms cannot go on doing these things for ever. They must all eventually
die. Any object which cannot do all things in the table is said to be non-living.
11.11 CHARACTERISTICS OF
LIVING THINGS
Some organs associated with the various characteristics of living things are as
follows:

Columns follow one another in this order:

Characteristics: Organs.Movement: Muscles and the skeletal system, shoot
(phototropism), root (geotropism).
Respiration: nose, lungs, heart, stomata, lenticels.
Nutrition: mouth, stomach, intestines, leaves, roots, stems.
Irritability (Responding to the environment): nervous system, leaves.
Growth: bones, muscles, shoots, roots, stem.
Excretion: skin, kidney, stomach, lenticels.
Reproduction: male and female reproductive organs, flowers, buds.
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
11.12 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANTS
AND ANIMALS
We found at the very beginning of this chapter that we could divide living things
into two large groups plants and animals. We have just been dealing with the
characteristics of all living things, but how do plants differ from animals?
1 You will have noticed that animals can move freely from place to place. Plants
cannot do this. They are usually rooted or anchored at a particular place. The fact
that animals can move freely enables them to find their food. Plants do not move
around to find their food.
2 Plants are often green, but animals may be of any colour. Such green plants
contain a green colouring matter called chlorophyll, which is absent in animals.
Plants use this to trap sunlight from the sun which they use to make their food.
Animals and plants are all living things. Their activities, which are the characteristics
of living things, are possible because of what all animals
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and plants are made up of. These are cells. A cell is the basic unit of structure and
function in all living things. The similarities and the differences in animals and
plants arise from the similarities and differences in their cells. Plants and animals
are used for food, shelter and medicine. They have economic importance because
they are a source of income and revenue.
Living things have certain characteristics in common yet some differences exist
among them. We shall study in greater details some of these similarities and

differences among living things for examples, as in their building blocks- the cells.
We shall also try to put these living things into groups based on their similarities
and differences.
11.13 THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF
PLANTS AND ANIMALS
We cannot see the units which make up living things with the unaided eye because
they are too small. However, we can see them if we use a microscope. A microscope
is a very expensive instrument and can easily be damaged. Your teacher will first
show you how to use one, and you must remember to do exactly as you are told.
Activity 11.12 Looking at some animal cells
Scrape the inside of your cheek with a clean spoon. Do not scrape too hard or you
may hurt yourself. Put the scrapings on a microscope slide, and add one drop of
iodine solution or methylene blue. Mix well, and cover with a coverslip. Your teacher
will show you how to look at the slide under the microscope. What do you see?
Make a drawing of what you see. Is it anything like the picture in Fig. 11.10 (a)
identify the parts making the cell.
Fig. 11.10 (a) Cheek cells
The objects you have seen under the microscope are called cells. All living things
are made up of one or more cells. A cell is, therefore, the unit of life from which
living things are built, just as a concrete block forms the building unit of a house.
Let us see what an animal cell is made up of. We shall now try to identify the parts
of an animal cell.
Activity 11.13 Parts of the animal cell.
Study the diagram in Fig. 11.10(b) Identify the parts making up cell.
Can you identify these parts in the cheek cells you have drawn in Activity 11.10.
Fig. 11.10 (b) A generalised animal cell: cell membrane; nuclear membrane;
nucleus; vacuole; cytoplasm

You must have noticed that; the 1 Animal cell has an outer layer called the cell
membrane. This protects the content of the cell.
2 Just underneath the cell membrane is the Cytoplasm. This is a jelly like substance
that occupies most of the cell.

3 Some spaces called Vacuoles can be seen in animals cells. These vacuoles in
animal cells may contain food (when they do, they are called food vacuoles). Some
times they are empty.
4 After the Cytoplasm of the cell is a dark area or part called the Nucleus. The
nucleus controls the activities of the cell. This is because it carries the hereditary
materials - the genes.
Can you now label these parts in the cheek cells you have drawn?
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There are many kinds of animal cell. The cheek cell you have just looked at is only
one kind. Some animals are made up of one cell only. They are called unicellular
animals. The majority of animals, however, are made up of millions of cells.
Activity 11.14 Looking at some plant cells

We are going to examine some cells from onion skin. Take a slice of onion and
remove the dry outer parts. Peel off a strip of the thin skin which covers the inside
parts of the onion. Your strip of onion skin should be so thin that you can see
through it (i.e. it is transparent). Place this thin skin on a microscope slide and add a
drop of iodine solution. Cover with a coverslip as shown in Fig. 11.11. Examine it
under a microscope. Make a drawing of what you see and label it. Compare your
drawing with that of the animal cell, and with Fig. 11.12.
Fig. 11.11 Looking at cells
(a) cut onion in half remove one of the thick leaves; (b) remove part of the inside
skin; (c) place a piece of skin about 10mm long onto a slide;
(d) cover the skin with a drop of water;
(e) slowly lower a cover slip over the water; (f) examine under the microscope
Fig. 11.12 Onion cells
Can you see the cell boundary (or cell wall as it is called in plant cells), cytoplasm,
vacuole, and nucleus? In what ways are these parts different from those of the
animal cell?
Fig. 11.13 Diagrams showing a typical animal cell and a typical plant cell (a) animal
cell: vacuoles, cytoplasm, nuclei, cell membrane; (b) plant cell: vacuoles, cytoplasm,
nuclei, chloroplast, cell wall, cell membrane
.

Activity 11.15
To answer these questions properly you should study the drawings of typical animal
and plant cells in Fig. 11.13. A typical animal cell means one that shows the
essential parts of most animal cells. Similarly a "typical" plant cell shows the parts
which are present in most plant cells.
Which parts are to be found in both plant and animal cells? Which parts are not
found in both of them? Write down the answers in your Workbook.
110

You have seen that a typical plant cell and a typical animal cell have a cell
membrane, cytoplasm, a nucleus, and one or more vacuoles. The vacuoles are
usually larger in plant cells than in animal cells. Plant cells have cell walls, which are
not found in animal cells. The cell wall is made of a substance called cellulose. This
makes a plant cell more rigid than an animal cell. Most plant cells have chloroplasts
in their cytoplasm. These are small green objects, which give plants their
characteristic green colour.
This is because they contain a green coloured matter called Chlorophyll. Green
plants use the chlorophyll to trap sunlight as a source of energy for building up of
food substance by a process called Photosynthesis. The ability to make their own
food due to the chlorophyll contained in plants, brings about the major differences
between plants and animals. We shall study more of this.
11.14 OTHER DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
PLANT AND ANIMALS
We saw that plants and animals are living things because they feed, breathe,
excrete, grow, reproduce, respond to changes in environment, and move. Let us
look briefly to see whether plants and animals do these things in the same way.
Activity 11.16 A closer look at plants and animals
Choose a small area of the school garden or school compound. Make a record of the
living things you see there, entering your observations in a table like the one below.
Include animals as well as plants your list. When you have completed the table
answer the following questions
1 What differences are there between the way in which plants and animals move?
Fig. 11.14 A calf feeding from its mother one of the ways in which animals feed.
Fig. 11.15(a) Some lower plants

Column headings are listed below. The row headings are Plants; Animals. All other
columns are blank.
Did you see them feeding?
Were they moving about?
What was their colour?
Other things you saw?
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2 What colour are most plants?
3 Are all animals the same colour?
4 How do most animals get their food?
5 Are there any other differences which would help you to distinguish plants from
animals?
You will probably have found that
1 Most animals move about, while plants remain in one place.
2 Many plants are green in colour. Animals are sometimes green, but they may be
many other colours.
3 Animals feed on other animals or plants and sometimes on both. Green plants
make their own food.
Activity 11.17 Looking at small animals
Capture three different insects very carefully. Use a net and do not damage the
insect in any way. Count the number of legs and wings each insect has. You may
have to use a hand lens to see them clearly. Write down in your Workbook what you
have discovered.
Fig. 11.16 Three different types of insects - can you name them? Ask for help.
Answer the following questions from your observations.
1 Do all the insects have the same number of legs?
2 Do all the insects have the same number of wings?
11.15 VARIETY IN PLANTS
AND ANIMALS

You have probably noticed by now that there are very many different plants and
animals. If you were to write down the names of the plants and animals that you
have come across so far, there might perhaps be a hundred or more in your list.
There are, however, many more than that in the world. It is estimated that there are
more than a million different kinds of animals alone, not to mention plants. With so
many different kinds of living things you might think that it would be very difficult to
tell one from another and see how they are related.
Many museums have collections of insects. Some have good collections, for
instance, of butterflies and moths. If you live near a museum, go and look at them
and see how many different kinds they have.
11.16 SINGLE-CELLED
ORGANISMS
Activity 11.18
If your school is near a pond you can collect some pond water. Put a drop of pond
water on a microscope slide, cover it with a coverslip and look at it under the
microscope. You will have to use the high power of the microscope to get a large
enough magnification to see the single-celled organisms that are there. Can you
identify the single celled organisms in Fig. 11.17 (a) and (b).
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Fig. 11.17 Some single celled organism
(a) Amoeba: pseudopodia, nucleus, contractile vacuole, food vacuole, endoplasm,
ectoplasm, cell membrane
(b) Euglena: flagellum, contractile vacuoles, chloroplast, cell wall, cytoplasm,
nucleus, eyespot
11.17 MANY CELLED
ORGANISMS
Just as we have single celled organisms, we also have many celled organisms. Most
organism have many cells. They are said to be multicellular. In multicellular
organism as in human beings, the cells have become specialized (unlike in singlecelled organism) to do various types of work.
A group of similar cells that do the same job form TISSUES, an example is your
muscles. A collection of different tissues that help to do a job form an ORGAN,
examples of organs are your heart and stomach.

A collection of organs that perform the same function through their individual
function make up a SYSTEM.
11.18 SORTING OUT
ORGANISMS
When we started sorting things out earlier in Unit 1, similarities and differences
were noted which helped us to put things into different groups. Objects were
grouped into living and non-living by noting what living things could do that nonliving things could not do. Then we sorted living things into major groups of plants
and animals, although these are not the only groups of organism as we shall see
later in this chapter. However when we look at animals and plants more closely, we
can find smaller differences within each group which will help us to sort them out
still further. Let us see how this can be done with a group of animals-your class.If it
is a mixed class, the first thing you can do is to separate it into two groups, boys
and girls. Then the boys could be sorted out into those who have lobed ears and
those who do not. Then each of these groups
Text continues on page 113.
Table brailleed as an indented list.
ClassBoys (ABC....M)Have lobed ears (ABDFGKL)Can roll tongue (BDFK)Have
protruding navels (BFK)
Do not have protruding navels (D)Cannot roll tongue (AGL)Have protruding navels
(G)
Do not have protruding navels (AL)Girls (N....Z)Do not have lobed ears (CEHIJM)Can
roll tongue (CEM)Have protruding navels (CM)
Do not have protruding navels (E)Cannot roll tongue (HIJ)Have protruding navels (H)
Do not have protruding navels (IJ)
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Text continued from page b112.
could be sorted out into those who can roll their tongues and those who cannot.
Then these new groups could be divided into those that have protruding navels and
those who do not. So a "key" can be drawn up that would enable us to find out the
name of a boy who had certain characteristics. To make a clear key it is a good idea
to use a simple code, such as the letters of the alphabet, to represent the pupils.
This will save you writing out the names of the people in your class each time they
appear in the key. The key will then look like the one shown on the previous page.

One of the boys has lobed ears, can roll his tongue, and does not have a protruding
navel. Who is he? The same sort of table can be used to classify (sort out) other
living creatures. Living things can first be divided into plants and animals (just as
the class was divided into boys and girls). There are many plants and many animals
(just as there were many boys and many girls) so this is only a very broad
classification. Smaller differences between different animals and between different
plants must be looked at (just as smaller differences between the boys and between
the girls were looked at). Since most people are more familiar with animals than
with plants, perhaps it is a good idea to deal with the grouping of animals first.
Differences such as body form, the way they perform their various activities, where
they live, and so on, may be used to divide the animals into smaller groups.
Fig.11.18 How can these animals be sorted out?: A cat, A cow, A goat, A bird, A bat
11.19 GROUPING OF
ORGANISMS
There are so many organisms in nature. It is therefore difficult to study each
individual organism. However, we can put organisms in groups when we consider
their similarities and differences. This will make it easier to study organisms.
Organisms were formerly grouped as plants and animals. However, in the recent
times, organisms have been grouped or classified by biologists to include the
following:

1 Monera: this includes single celled organisms. However their nucleus is not
separated from other parts of the cell by a membrane. Examples include some
bacteria and blue green algae (as seen in Fig. 11.19.
Fig. 11.19
2 Prostista: This include unicellular organisms with nuclear membrane and other
membranes. Some may exist as colonies. Examples include Protozoans and algae
(see Fig. 11.20).
3 Fungi: They are multicellular, have nuclei with membranes, however they do not
contain chloroplasts and are therefore not greenish in colour (unlike most plants).
Also their wall is not made of cellulose. Examples include mushroom and yeast (see
Fig. 11.21)
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Fig. 11.20
Fig. 11.21

4 Animals: Also have cells with membrane structures. Their cells do not have
chlorophyl and they are not green. However they can move about to find their food.
Examples include you, a grasshopper, a toad (see Fig. 11.22).
Fig. 11.22: sponge, hydra, jellyfish, butterfly, newt, tortoise, octopus, fish, snake,
bat, starfish, spider, bird, bivalve, beetle, snail, whale, man, hedgehog
5 Plants: They also have cells with membranous structures. They have cellulose cell
walls, they also have chloroplast containing chlorophyll the green coloured
substance which they use to trap light as source of energy for making food.
Examples include Hibiscus plant, ferns, mosses as seen in fig. 11.23. Since plants
and animals are the major groups of organisms we shall now study their grouping in
greater details.
Fig. 11.23: complex algae, club moss, fern, flowering plants, liverwort, moss,
conifers
11.20 CLASSIFYING ANIMALS
Here is an example of how animals can be classified. Think of the following animals
a bird, a bat, a cow, a cat, and a goat. How would you attempt to sort them out?
Perhaps the first thing you notice is that the bird and the bat are similar because
they fly, they are different in other ways. Most birds have feathers, but bats do not.
Similarly the cows and the goat eat grass
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(they are herbivores) and the cat usually eats flesh (it is a carnivore). So a key can
be drawn up like this one:
Animals (goat, cow, bird, cat, bat)Do not have wings (goat, cow, cat)Eat grass (goat,
cow)
Eat flesh (cat)Have wings (bird, bat)Have feathers (bird)
Do not have feathers (bat)
Fig. 11.24 The skeleton of a cat
Activity 11.19
Try to make up a key like the one above to sort out the following animals: fish,
crocodile, monkey, horse, rat, earthworm, millipede.
11.21 ANIMALS WITH OR WITHOUT BACKBONES

Many animals have a skeleton. This is a more or less rigid structure which supports
the body and is important in movement. You have a skeleton. If you did not, you
would not be able to stand upright but would just lie on the ground. If you examine
the skeletons of animals you will find that some have a bone which runs along the
middle of the back; this is called a backbone or spine.
Another way then, of subdividing animals, is to put them into two groups, one
containing animals with backbones, the other containing animals without
backbones. Those with backbones are called vertebrates and those without
backbones are called invertebrates.

Many animals without backbones (invertebrates) are small. Sometimes they are so
small that they cannot be seen without the help of an instrument such as a hand
lens or microscope. The invertebrate group includes worms, e.g. earthworms and
tapeworms; animals with a shell and a soft body, e.g. snails and squids (the shell is
inside); and insects, e.g. termites, butterflies, mosquitoes, and bees; as well as
centipedes, spiders, scorpions, and crabs. They therefore make up a very big group
of animals. There are many more different kinds of invertebrates than of
vertebrates. In fact there are something like 950 000 different kinds of animals
without backbones.
Animals with backbones (vertebrates) are usually large, because the skeleton will
support their weight. In this group, there are many animals with which you are very
familiar. These include fish, frogs, toads, lizards, crocodiles, snakes, birds, goats,
dogs, cows, lions, elephants, and man himself. Figures 11.25 can help you study
how animals can be classified. Can you name more organisms in each group?
Figure 11.25
(a) ANIMALSWithout backbones (called Invertebrates)
With backbones (called Vertebrates)
11.22 CLASSIFYING PLANTS
There is a similar variety of types, colours, and sizes in plants. Look at the bush.
What features would help you to sort out plants?
What immediately strikes us about plants is the height to which some of them grow.
Some grow much taller than the biggest animal that now lives on the
Text continues on print page 117
116
Fig. 11.26 brailled as an indented list

(b) INVERTEBRATES (Animals without Backbones)Soft bodied, ringed and do not

have noticeable outer skeleton Example include earthworm (earthworm 250mm)
Animals have noticeable outer skeletonAnimals with jointed legs and are
segmentedAnimals have 6 legs and 3 body parts Example any insect like cockroach
Animals have 8 legs and 2 body parts Example spider (body 9mm, legs 25 to
50mm)
Animals have many legs live on land Example Millipede (10 to 100mm)
Animals have 2 body parts and many legs but lives in water Example CrabsAnimals
have outer skeleton of shell with soft body inside Examples include Garden snail
(snail 10 to 30mm)
(c) VERTEBRATES (Animals with Backbones)Animals live in water; haves scales;
have fins for swimming; have gills for breathing Example Fish
Have no scales, no fins, have 4 legs, live on both water and land and called
Amphibians Example Toad
Live mainly on land, have scales and dry skin, breathes through the lungs, reptiles
Example Lizard
Have feathers, have scales only. Have beaks, have wings for flying. Birds. Example
Eagle
Have hairs, mammary glands, legs, live on land. Mammals Example Human being
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Text continued from print page d115.
Earth. Others, of course, are so small that we must bend down to touch them.
Activity 11.20 Classifying plants
Bring some plants from the school garden or compound, or from near your home, to
school. Look at the various types of plants that have been brought in.
Do they all have mots, stems, and leaves? Are they all the same colour and size?
Draw some of the different plants and label the roots, stem and leaves if the plant
has them. If you can find the name of the plant write this under your drawing.
You should have seen from this activity that some plants have certain parts which
others do not have. Also some are small while others are big. Some are found in
water and many of them are on land. Some have flowers and are called flowering
plants. Those that do not have flowers are called non-flowering plants.

Fig.11.27 Brailled as an indented list

PLANTSNon flowering plantsSimple bodies live in water e.g. complex algae
Have simple bodies no noticeable stems, live in moist areas. No outer covering.
Example Mosses and liverworts
Plants are small but have roots, leaves, stems; live on moist areas; are covered by
cuticle. Example Ferns
Plants look like palms, but do not have flowers. They have naked seeds, (i.e. seed
not enclosed in fruits) Example ConifersFlowering plantsPlants have one cotyledon;
leaves have parallel venation; Monocots. Example Maize plant
Plants have two cotyledon, net venation; Dicots. Example Hibiscus plant, pear plant
11.23 SUMMARY
In this chapter you have learnt the following things.
1 For an object to be living it must grow, feed, remove waste materials, respire,
respond to changes in the environment, move on its own, reproduce, and eventually
die.
2 Non-living things cannot do all these activities.
3 You are a part of the living world.
4 There are so many living things in our environment. Plants and animals are the
main groups of these living things. They both show all the characteristics of living
things but there are differences which you can use to tell animals from plants.
5 Plant and animal cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm, vacuole or vacuoles, and
a nucleus.
6 Plant cells have a cell wall and usually contain chloroplasts (these contain a green
material which gives plants their green colour). These are absent in animal cells.
7 Plants are usually rooted in one place, whereas most animals can move from
place to place.
8 Most plants make their own food, while animals depend on plants for food.
9 Organisms can now be classified into five main groups to include other groups
apart from plants and animals as Monera, Protista, Fungi, Animals and Plants.
10 Animals can be grouped into those which have backbones (vertebrates) and
those which do not (invertebrates).

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11 Plants can be grouped into those that have flowers (flowering plants) and those
that do not (non-flowering plants).
12 There are many different kinds of plants and
animals.
EXERCISE
1 Group the following into living and non-living things: butterfly, banana, football,
rat, salt, rice grain, wood, grass.
2 If you have an aquarium in your school laboratory make a list of all the living
things you can see in it.
3 Walk around your school compound and write down as many living things as you
can see.
4 From the list you have made in questions 2 and 3 write down all the animals. How
did you sort out the animals from the other living things?
5 List all the characteristics of a guinea pig that show us that it is an animal.
6 Give two examples each of a carnivore, a herbivore, and an omnivore.
7 How would you distinguish a plant from an animal?
8 Draw and label a typical animal cell and a typical plant cell.
9 Classify organisms into their groups. Give reasons for your classification of
organisms into these five groups.
10 Give examples of flowering and non-flowering plants in your area.

END OF VOLUME 2