Constructivism

Constructivism is a theory of knowledge (epistemology)[1] that argues that humans

generate knowledge and meaning from an interaction between their experiences and their
ideas. It has influenced a number of disciplines, including psychology, sociology,
education and the history of science.
Constructivism is not a specific pedagogy, although it is often confused
with constructionism, an educational theory developed by Seymour Papert, inspired by
constructivist and experiential learning ideas of Piaget.

Instructional principles (problem-based learning)

One application of constructivist learning theory in a classroom setting is known
as problem-based learning, a method which allows students to learn about a subject by
exposing them to multiple problems so they will be able to construct their understanding
of the subject through these problems. This kind of learning can be very effective for
mathematics where students try to solve the problems in many different ways which allow
the students' brains to be stimulated.[7] There are different types of strategies to make
problem based learning more effective.
1. The learner's learning activities should be related to a larger task. This is important
because it allows students to see the connection to the activities that can be applied to
many aspects of life. As a result, the learner will find the materials and activities they are
doing useful.[8]
2. The learner needs to be supported to feel that they are beginning to have ownership of
the overall problem.[9]
3. An authentic task should be designed for the learner. This means that the task and the
learner's cognitive ability have to match the problems to make learning valuable. [10]
4. Reflection on the content being learned should occur so the learner can think through
the process of what he/she has learned.[11]
5. Allow and encourage the learners to test ideas against different views in different
contexts.[12]
These are some examples of problem based learning, a constructivist approach to
learning

Differences between traditional and constructivist classroom

Curriculum begins with the parts of

the whole. Emphasizes basic skills.

Curriculum emphasizes big concepts,

beginning with the whole and
expanding to include the parts.

Strict adherence to fixed curriculum is

highly valued.

Pursuit of student questions and

interests is valued.

Materials are primarily textbooks and

workbooks.

Materials include primary sources of

material and manipulative materials.

Learning is based on repetition.

Learning is interactive, building on

what the student already knows.

Teachers disseminate information to

students; students are recipients of
knowledge.

Teachers have a dialogue with

students, helping students construct
their own knowledge.

Teacher's role is directive, rooted in

authority.

Teacher's role is interactive, rooted in

negotiation.

Assessment is through testing,

correct answers.

Assessment includes student works,

observations, and points of view, as
well as tests. Process is as important
as product.

Knowledge is seen as inert.

Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever

changing with our experiences.

Students work primarily alone.

Students work primarily in groups.

What are some critical perspectives?

Constructivism has been criticized on various grounds. Some of the charges that critics level
against it are:
1.It's elitist. Critics say that constructivism and other "progressive" educational theories have been
most successful with children from privileged backgrounds who are fortunate in having outstanding
teachers, committed parents, and rich home environments. They argue that disadvantaged
children, lacking such resources, benefit more from more explicit instruction.
2. Social constructivism leads to "group think." Critics say the collaborative aspects of constructivist
classrooms tend to produce a "tyranny of the majority," in which a few students' voices or
interpretations dominate the group's conclusions, and dissenting students are forced to conform to
the emerging consensus.

3. There is little hard evidence that constructivist methods work. Critics say that constructivists, by
rejecting evaluation through testing and other external criteria, have made themselves
unaccountable for their students' progress.

Role of the teacher

Constructivist teachers do not take the role of the "sage on the stage." Instead, teachers
act as a "guide on the side" providing students with opportunities to test the adequacy of
their current understandings
Theory
The educator should consider the knowledge and experiences students bring to
class

Learners construct their knowledge through a process of active enquiry

Discovery is facilitated by providing the necessary resources

Knowledge is actively constructed & learning is presented as a process of

active discovery

Provide assistance with assimilation of new and old knowledge

Learning programme should be sufficiently flexible to permit development

along lines of student enquiry

Due to its interpretivist nature, each student will interpret information in

different ways

Create situations where the students feel safe questioning and reflecting on
their own processes

Present authentic tasks to contextualize learning through real-world, casebased learning environments

Support collaboration in constructing knowledge, not competition

Role of the student

The expectation within a constructivist learning environment is that the students plays a
more active role in, and accepts more responsibility for their own learning.
Theory
The role of the student to actively participate in their own
education

Students have to accommodate & assimilate new

information with their current understanding

One important aspect of controlling their own learning

process is reflecting on their experiences

Students begin their study with pre-conceived notions

Students are very reluctant to give up their established

schema/idea & may reject new information that challenges
prior knowledge

Students may not be aware of the reasons they hold such

strong ideas/schemata

Learners need to use and test ideas, skills, and information

through relevant activities

Students need to know how to learn or change their

thinking/learning style

Because knowledge is so communally-based, learners

deserve access to knowledge of different communities

Body language refers to various forms of nonverbal communication, where in a person

may reveal clues as to some unspoken intention or feeling through their physical
behavior. These behaviors include (but are not limited to) facial expressions, body
posture, gestures, eye movement, touch and the use of space.. Body language, a subset of
nonverbal communication, complements verbal communication in social interaction. In
fact some researchers conclude that nonverbal communication accounts for the majority
of information transmitted during interpersonal interactions.[4] It helps to establish the
relationship between two people and regulates interaction...

Facial expression is integral when expressing emotions through the body. Combinations
of eyes, eyebrow, lips and cheek movements help form different moods of an individual
(e.g. happy, sad, depressed, angry, etc.).[5]
A few studies show that facial expression and bodily expression (i.e. body language) are
congruent when interpreting emotions.[6][7] Behavioural experiments have also shown that
recognition of facial expression is influenced by perceived bodily expression

Donald Walton[15] stated in his book that touching is the ultimate expression of closeness
or confidence between two people, but not seen often in business or formal relationships.
Touching stresses how special the message is that is being sent by the initiator. .[15]
A study by Jones and Yarbrough[16] regarded communication with touch as the most
intimate and involving form which helps people to keep good relationships with others.
Friendship/warmth which expresses idiosyncratic relationship
Public touch can serve as a tie sign that shows others that your partner is taken. [17] When a
couple is holding hands, putting their arms around each other, this is a tie sign showing others
that they are together. The use of tie signs are used more often by couples in the dating and
courtship stages than between their married counterparts according to Burgoon, Buller, and
Woodall.[18]

Second-language acquisition[edit]
The importance of body language in second-language acquisition was inspired by the fact
that to successfully learn a language is to achieve discourse, strategic,
and sociolinguistic competencies.[33] . This is usually also highly culturally influenced. As
such, a conscious ability to recognize and even perform this sort of body language is
necessary to achieve fluency in a language beyond the discourse level.

The importance of body language to verbal language use is the need to eliminate
ambiguity and redundancy in comprehension.
Enhancing teaching[edit]
Body language can be a useful aid not only in teaching a second language, but also in
other areas. The idea behind using it is as a nonlinguistic input.[35] It can be used to guide,
hint, or urge a student towards the right answer..

The intuitive feature of body language used in teaching is the exemplification of the
language, especially individual words, through the use of matching body language.
For example, when teaching about the word "cry", teachers can imitate a crying
person. This enables a deeper impression which is able to lead to greater
understanding of the particular word.[36]
The communicative feature is the ability of body language to create an environment
and atmosphere that is able to facilitate effective learning
The suggestive feature of body language uses body language as a tool to create
opportunities for the students to gain additional information about a particular concept
or word through pairing it with the body language itself

Personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of individuals.

Types are sometimes said to involve qualitative differences between people, whereas
traits might be construed as quantitative differences.[1] According to type theories, for
example, introverts and extraverts are two fundamentally different categories of people..

Four functions of consciousness

In the book Jung categorized people into primary types of psychological function.
Jung proposed the existence of two dichotomous pairs of cognitive functions:

The rational (judging) functions: thinking and feeling

The irrational (perceiving) functions: sensing and intuition

Jung went on to suggest that these functions are expressed in either an introverted or extraverted
form.[15]:17
Jung proposed four main functions of consciousness:

Two perceiving functions: Sensation and Intuition

Two judging functions: Thinking and Feeling

According to Jung, the psyche is an apparatus for adaptation and orientation, and consists of a
number of different psychic functions. Among these he distinguishes four basic functions:[16]

sensationperception by means of the sense organs;

intuitionperceiving in unconscious way or perception of unconscious contents.

thinkingfunction of intellectual cognition; the forming of logical conclusions;

feelingfunction of subjective estimation;

Thinking and feeling functions are rational, while sensation and intuition are nonrational.
According to Jung, rationality consists of figurative thoughts, feelings or actions with reason a
point of view based on objective value, which is set by practical experience. Nonrationality is not
based in reason.

ISTJ - The Duty Fulfiller

Serious and quiet, interested in security and peaceful living. Extremely thorough,
responsible, and dependable. Well-developed powers of concentration. Usually interested in
supporting and promoting traditions and establishments. Well-organized and hard working,
they work steadily towards identified goals. They can usually accomplish any task once they
have set their mind to it.
ISTP - The Mechanic
Quiet and reserved, interested in how and why things work. Excellent skills with mechanical
things. Risk-takers who they live for the moment. Usually interested in and talented at
extreme sports. Uncomplicated in their desires. Loyal to their peers and to their internal value
systems, but not overly concerned with respecting laws and rules if they get in the way of
getting something done. Detached and analytical, they excel at finding solutions to practical
problems.
ISFJ - The Nurturer
Quiet, kind, and conscientious. Can be depended on to follow through. Usually puts the
needs of others above their own needs. Stable and practical, they value security and
traditions. Well-developed sense of space and function. Rich inner world of observations
about people. Extremely perceptive of other's feelings. Interested in serving others.
ISFP - The Artist

Quiet, serious, sensitive and kind. Do not like conflict, and not likely to do things which may
generate conflict. Loyal and faithful. Extremely well-developed senses, and aesthetic
appreciation for beauty. Not interested in leading or controlling others. Flexible and openminded. Likely to be original and creative. Enjoy the present moment.
INFJ - The Protector
Quietly forceful, original, and sensitive. Tend to stick to things until they are done. Extremely
intuitive about people, and concerned for their feelings. Well-developed value systems which
they strictly adhere to. Well-respected for their perserverence in doing the right thing. Likely
to be individualistic, rather than leading or following.
INFP - The Idealist
Quiet, reflective, and idealistic. Interested in serving humanity. Well-developed value system,
which they strive to live in accordance with. Extremely loyal. Adaptable and laid-back unless
a strongly-held value is threatened. Usually talented writers. Mentally quick, and able to see
possibilities. Interested in understanding and helping people.
INTJ - The Scientist
Independent, original, analytical, and determined. Have an exceptional ability to turn theories
into solid plans of action. Highly value knowledge, competence, and structure. Driven to
derive meaning from their visions. Long-range thinkers. Have very high standards for their
performance, and the performance of others. Natural leaders, but will follow if they trust
existing leaders.
INTP - The Thinker
Logical, original, creative thinkers. Can become very excited about theories and ideas.
Exceptionally capable and driven to turn theories into clear understandings. Highly value
knowledge, competence and logic. Quiet and reserved, hard to get to know well.
Individualistic, having no interest in leading or following others.
ESTP - The Doer
Friendly, adaptable, action-oriented. "Doers" who are focused on immediate results. Living in
the here-and-now, they're risk-takers who live fast-paced lifestyles. Impatient with long
explanations. Extremely loyal to their peers, but not usually respectful of laws and rules if
they get in the way of getting things done. Great people skills.
ESTJ - The Guardian
Practical, traditional, and organized. Likely to be athletic. Not interested in theory or
abstraction unless they see the practical application. Have clear visions of the way things
should be. Loyal and hard-working. Like to be in charge. Exceptionally capable in organizing
and running activities. "Good citizens" who value security and peaceful living.
ESFP - The Performer

People-oriented and fun-loving, they make things more fun for others by their enjoyment.
Living for the moment, they love new experiences. They dislike theory and impersonal
analysis. Interested in serving others. Likely to be the center of attention in social situations.
Well-developed common sense and practical ability.
ESFJ - The Caregiver
Warm-hearted, popular, and conscientious. Tend to put the needs of others over their own
needs. Feel strong sense of responsibility and duty. Value traditions and security. Interested
in serving others. Need positive reinforcement to feel good about themselves. Welldeveloped sense of space and function.
ENFP - The Inspirer
Enthusiastic, idealistic, and creative. Able to do almost anything that interests them. Great
people skills. Need to live life in accordance with their inner values. Excited by new ideas, but
bored with details. Open-minded and flexible, with a broad range of interests and abilities.

ENFJ - The Giver

Popular and sensitive, with outstanding people skills. Externally focused, with real concern
for how others think and feel. Usually dislike being alone. They see everything from the
human angle, and dislike impersonal analysis. Very effective at managing people issues, and
leading group discussions. Interested in serving others, and probably place the needs of
others over their own needs.
ENTP - The Visionary
Creative, resourceful, and intellectually quick. Good at a broad range of things. Enjoy
debating issues, and may be into "one-up-manship". They get very excited about new ideas
and projects, but may neglect the more routine aspects of life. Generally outspoken and
assertive. They enjoy people and are stimulating company. Excellent ability to understand
concepts and apply logic to find solutions.
ENTJ - The Executive
Assertive and outspoken - they are driven to lead. Excellent ability to understand difficult
organizational problems and create solid solutions. Intelligent and well-informed, they usually
excel at public speaking. They value knowledge and competence, and usually have little

patience with inefficiency or disorganization.

Models of teaching

Numerous theorists have developed teaching and learning models and taxonomies to teach
students the techniques of creative and productive thinking. It is essential that a teacher is
familiar with these when designing a curriculum specifically catering for gifted students. Features
common to all models are:

an identified purpose or area of concentration;

underlying explicit and implicit assumptions about the characteristics of learners and
about the teaching-learning process;

guidelines for developing specific day-to-day learning experiences;

definite patterns and requirements for these learning activities; and

a body of research surrounding their development or an evaluation of their

effectiveness

Aspects of any model can be used in curriculum design. What is chosen will depend on the
school environment, the resources available and the desired outcomes.

1. Models of teacher education

3. The Craft Model Study with master practitioner: Professional

PracticeDemostration / competence Instruction.

4. -The Craft Model is the oldest form of professional education.Its conceptual

basis, however, is widely utilized in practicumcourses in which students work
with classroom teachers.In its most basic form, Craft Model consists of the
trainee orbeginner working closely with the expert teacher.The practitioner is
supposed to learn by imitating all theteaching techniques used by the
experienced teacher.Knowledge is acquired as a result of observation,
instruction,and practice.

5. The Applied Science Model Application of Results conveyed toScientific knowledge

scientific trainees. knowledge. Professional Practice competence.

6. The Applied Science Model is the traditional and perhaps stillthe most
prevalent model underlying most ESL teachereducation programs.+Teaching is a
science and as such can be examined rationallyand objectively.+Teachers learn to be
teachers by being taught research-basedtheories.+These theories are being
conveyed to the students only bythose who are considered to be the experts in
the particularfield.+Teachers are said to be educated when they
becomeproficient enough to apply these theories in practice.

7. The Reflective Model Received knlowledgeProfessional Previouscompetence

Experiential knowledge Reflection Practice

8. The reflective practice has become a dominant paradigm in language teacher

education researchand programs worldwide. A teaching experience is recalled
and considered toreach an evaluation and to provide input into futureplanning
and action.