Siri e-Kuliah PPPJJ, USM

JIK 101
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

Dr R.Gunasunderi
Chapter 3
Stoichiometry

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Chemical Formulas and Equations

What happens to matter when it undergoes chemical changes?
The law of conservation of mass:
Atoms are neither created, nor distroyed, during any chemical reaction

Thus, the same collection of atoms is present after a reaction as before the reaction.
The changes that occur during a reaction just involve the rearrangement of atoms.

Stoichiometry
Is the "measurement of elements".
Reactants are consumed and products are formed in definite proportions.
These proportions are given by the coefficients in the balanced equations for
chemical reactions
The calculation of the quantities of reactants and products is called
STOICHIOMETRY.
Stoichiometry is the use of chemical equations to calculate quantities of
substances that take part in chemical reactions.

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Stoichiometry = the quantitative relationships between

one reactant to another, or between a reactant and
products in a chemical reaction.
Interpreting balanced equations:
Example: C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g);
The equation implies that:
1 C3H8 molecule reacts with 5 O2 molecules to
produce 3 CO2 molecules and 4 H2O molecules; OR
1 mole of C3H8 reacts with 5 moles of O2 to produce 3
moles of CO2 and 4 moles of H2O.

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Chemical Equations and What They Mean

To do a stoichiometric calculation, the chemical equation for the
calculation must be balanced.
Unbalanced equation: NH3(g) + O2(g) NO(g) + H2O(g)
Balanced equation:
4NH3(g) + 5 O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g);

A chemical equation provides two types of information: the nature of

the reactants and products and the relative numbers of each type of
atoms.

An equation must also indicate the physical states of the

substances: (s) for solid, (l) for liquid, (g) for gas, and (aq) for
aqueous solution.

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The following steps may be helpful in balancing an equation.

1. Begin with the compound that contains the most atoms or types of
atoms.
2. Balance elements that appear only once on each side of the arrow.
3. Next balance elements that appear more than once on either side.
4. Balance free elements last.
5. Finally, check that smallest whole number coefficients are used.
Note!
The formula of each substance in an equation must be written
correctly first before any attempt to balance the equation is made.
Subscripts should never be changed when trying to balance a
chemical equation. Changing a subscript changes the actual identity
of a product or reactant. Balancing a chemical equation only involves
changing the relative amounts of each product or reactant.

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Consider the reaction of burning the gas methane (CH4) in air.

CH4 + O2 CO2 + H2O

Now lets count up the atoms in the reactants and products:

We can fix this by doubling the relative number of water molecules in the list
of products:

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

Now specify the state of each reactant and product

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

Thus, one molecule of methane reacts with two molecules of oxygen to
produce one molecule of carbon dioxide and two molecules of water.

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Balancing Simple Chemical Equations

The complete combustion of any hydrocarbon with
sufficient oxygen always yields carbon dioxide and
water.

C7H16(l)+O2(g)CO2(g)+H2O(g)
1. Identify the most complex substance. The most
complex substance is the one with the largest number
of different atoms, which is C7H16. We will assume
initially that the final balanced chemical equation
contains 1 molecule or formula unit of this substance.

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2. Adjust the coefficients. Try to adjust the coefficients of

the molecules on the other side of the equation to
obtain the same numbers of atoms on both sides.
Because one molecule of n-heptane contains 7 carbon
atoms, we need 7 CO2 molecules, each of which
contains 1 carbon atom, on the right side:

C7H16(l)+O2(g)7CO2(g)+H2O(g)
3. Balance polyatomic ions as a unit. There are
no polyatomic ions to be considered in this reaction.

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4.

Balance the remaining atoms. Because one molecule of nheptane contains 16 hydrogen atoms, we need 8 H2O molecules, each
of which contains 2 hydrogen atoms, on the right side:

C7H16(l)+O2(g)7CO2(g)+8H2O(g)
The carbon and hydrogen atoms are now balanced, but we have 22 oxygen
atoms on the right side and only 2 oxygen atoms on the left. We can balance
the oxygen atoms by adjusting the coefficient in front of the least complex
substance, O2, on the reactant side:

C7H16(l)+11O2(g)7CO2(g)+8H2O(g)
Check your work. The equation is now balanced, and there are no fractional
coefficients: there are 7 carbon atoms, 16 hydrogen atoms, and 22 oxygen
atoms on each side. Always check to be sure that a chemical equation is

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Summary
A chemical reaction is described by a chemical equation
that gives the identities and quantities of the reactants
and the products.

In a chemical reaction, one or more substances are

transformed to new substances. A chemical reaction is
described by a chemical equation, an expression that
gives the identities and quantities of the substances
involved in a reaction.
A chemical equation shows the starting compound(s)
the reactantson the left and the final compound(s)
the productson the right, separated by an arrow.

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In a balanced chemical equation, the numbers of atoms

of each element and the total charge are the same on
both sides of the equation.
The number of atoms, molecules, or formula units of a
reactant or product in a balanced chemical equation is
the coefficient of that species.
The mole ratio of two substances in a chemical reaction
is the ratio of their coefficients in the balanced chemical
equation.

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Exercise: Balance the following equations using the

simplest integer coefficient possible:
1.

C6H6(l) + O2(g)

CO2(g) + H2O(g);

2.

(NH4)2Cr2O7(s)

Cr2O3(s) +

3.

C6H14(l) + O2(g)

4.

Mg3N2(s) + H2O(l)

N2(g) +

H2O(g):

CO2(g) + H2O(g)
Mg(OH)2(s) +

NH3(g)

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Patterns of Chemical Reactivity

Using the periodic table
Recognizing general patterns of chemical reactivity,
allow us to predict the products formed by a given
combination of reactants.
We can predict a reaction if we have seen a similar
reaction before. For example, sodium (Na) reacts with
water (H2O) to form sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
and H2 gas:
2Na(s)+2H2O(l)2NaOH(aq)+H2(g)
with (aq) indicating aqueous liquid.

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Using the periodic table

Potassium (K) is in the same family (column) of elements
as sodium and exhibits similar chemistry. Therefore, one
might predict that the reaction of K with (H2O) would be
similar to that of Na:
2K(s)+2H2O(l)2KOH(aq)+H2(g)
In fact, all alkali metals react with water to form their
hydroxide compounds and hydrogen.

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Combination and Decomposition Reactions

In combination reactions, two or more compounds
react to form a single, more complex compound. Many
elements react with one another in this fashion to form
compounds.
The general chemical equation for combination reaction
is:

A+BC
Example of the generation of ammonia (NH3 from
nitrogen (N2 and hydrogen (H2):

N2(g)+3H2(g)2NH3(g)

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In decomposition reactions one substance undergoes a reaction

to form two or more simpler products. Such reactions often occur
when compounds are heated or electricity is added.

AC+B
The general chemical equation for decomposition reaction is:

For example, the thermal decomposition of limestone (CaCO3(g))

generates quicklime (CaO(s)) and carbon dioxide (CO2(g))

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Combustion in air
Combustion reactions are rapid reactions that produce a flame. Most
common combustion reactions involve oxygen (O2) from the air as
a reactant. A common class of compounds which can participate in
combustion reactions are hydrocarbons (compounds that contain
only carbon and hydrogen).
Examples of common hydrocarbons:
Name

Molecular
formula

methane

CH4

propane

C3H8

butane

C4H10

octane

C8H18

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When hydrocarbons are combusted they react with

oxygen (O2) to form carbon dioxide (CO2) and water
(H2O). For example, when propane is burned the
reaction is:
C3H8(g)+5O2(g)3CO2(g)+4H2O(l)
Other compounds which contain carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen (e.g. the alcohol methanol CH3OH, and the
sugar glucose C6H12O6) also combust in the presence of
oxygen (O2) to produce CO2 and H2O.

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Atomic Masses
Absolute masses of atoms cannot be obtained too
small to measure the mass directly;
Relative atomic masses are used instead masses
relative to a chosen standard or reference.
Carbon-12 is used as atomic mass reference it is
assigned an atomic mass of 12 u exactly;
Other atoms are assigned masses relative to that of
carbon-12;
Relative atomic masses are determined using mass
spectrometer;

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Calculation of Average Atomic Masses

Example-1:
Chlorine is composed of two stable naturally
occurring isotopes: chlorine-35 (75.76%; 34.9689 u)
and chlorine-37 (24.24%; 36.9659 u). What is the
average atomic mass of chlorine?
Atomic mass of chlorine
= (0.7576 x 34.9689 u) + (0.2424 x 36.9659 u)
= 35.45 u (as given in the periodic table)

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Formula and Molecular Weights

The formula weight of a substance is the sum of the atomic
weights of each atom in its chemical formula.
For example, water (H2O) has a formula weight of:

2(1.0079amu)+1(15.9994amu)=18.01528amu
If a substance exists as discrete molecules (as with atoms that
are
chemically
bonded
together)
then
the
chemical
formula is the molecular formula, and the formula
weight is the molecular weight.
For example, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen can chemically bond to
form a molecule of the sugar glucose with the chemical and
molecular formula of C6H12O6.

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The formula weight and the molecular weight of glucose

is thus:
6(12amu)+12(1.00794amu)+6(15.9994amu)=180.0amu
Ionic substances are not chemically bonded and do not
exist as discrete molecules. However, they do associate
in discrete ratios of ions.
Thus, we can describe their formula weights, but not
their molecular weights. Table salt (NaCl), for example,
has a formula weight of:

23.0amu+35.5amu=58.5amu

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Percentage Composition from Formulas

In some types of analyses of it is important to know
the percentage by mass of each type of element in a
compound.

The law of definite proportion states that a chemical

compound always contains the same proportion of
elements by mass; that is, the percent compositionthe
percentage of each element present in a pure
substanceis constant (although there are exceptions
to this law).

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For example methane:

Formula and molecular weight:
1(12.011amu)+4(1.008)=16.043amu

The relative (mass) percentages of carbon and hydrogen

are :
%C=1(12.011amu)16.043amu=0.749=74.9%
%H=4(1.008amu)16.043amu=0.251=25.1%

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Avogadro's Number & The Mole

A mole is defined as the amount of matter that contains as
many objects as the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams
of 12C.
1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 items. 6.022 x 1023 is also called the
Avogadros number; thus, a mole contains the Avogadros
number of items.
The mass of one 12C atom is exactly 12 u; while the mass of one
mole of 12C is exactly 12 g (also called gram-atomic mass). That
is, 12 g of carbon-12 contains 6.022 x 1023 12C-atoms.
Therefore, 12 g = 6.022 x 1023 x 12 u;
1 g = 6.022 x 1023 u; or
1 u = 1.6605 x 10-24 g

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Atomic Mass & Gram-Atomic Mass

The gram-atomic mass of an element implies the mass of one mole
of that element.
The gram-atomic mass is also the molar mass of the element
expressed in grams.
Examples:
Element
Carbon
Oxygen
Aluminum
Silicon
Gold

Atomic mass
12.01 u
16.00 u
26.98 u
28.09 u
197.0 u

Gram-atomic mass
12.01 g/mol
16.00 g/mol
26.98 g/mol
28.09 g/mol
197.0 g/mol

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Molar Mass
The molar mass of a compound is the mass of 1 mole of the
compound in grams.
The molar masses of water, salt (NaCl), and table sugar (C12H22O11)
are calculated as follows:
Molar mass of H2O = (2 x 1.008 g) + (16.00 g) = 18.02 g/mol;
Molar mass of NaCl = (22.99 g + 35.45 g) = 58.44 g/mol;
Molar mass of C12H22O11 = (12 x 12.01 g) + (22 x 1.008 g) + (11 x 16.00 g)
= 342.3 g/mol

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Calculating Molar Mass

Calculating the molar mass of sucrose, C12H22O11:
(12 x 12.01 g) + (22 x 1.008 g) + (11 x 16.00 g)
= 342.3 g/mole
Molar mass of ammonium hydrogen phosphate,
(NH4)2HPO4:
(2 x 14.01 g) + (9 x 1.008 g) + (1 x 30.97 g) + (4 x 16.00 g)

= 132.06 g/mole

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Percent Composition of Compounds

A pure substance always contains the same elements combined in the same
proportion by mass.

The composition of a compound is often expressed in terms of the

percentages (by mass) of its elements. If the formula of the compound is
known, the mass percents of their elements can be calculated.

Mass % of Element = (Total mass of that Element per mole of compound) x 100%
Molar mass of the Compound

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For example, the mass percent of hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen in

ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3 are calculated as follows:
Molar mass of NH4NO3 = (4 x 1.008 g) + (2 x 14.01 g) + (3 x 16.00 g)
= 80.05 g/mol
Total mass of H/mol NH4NO3 = 4 x 1.008 g = 4.03 g
Mass Percent of H = (4.03 g/80.05 g) x 100% = 5.04%
Total mass of N per mol NH4NO3 = 2 x 14.01 g = 28.02 g
Mass Percent of N = (28.02 g/80.05 g) x 100% = 35.00%
Total mass of O/mol NH4NO3 = 3 x 16.00 g = 48.00 g
Mass Percent of O = (48.00 g/80.05 g) x 100% = 59.96%

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Mass-to-Mole-to-Mole-to-Mass Relationships
When actual reactions are carried out, the quantities of substances
are measured in mass units. We have to convert their masses into
moles so that they can be directly related to each other using the
coefficients in the balanced equation.
Again consider the reaction:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

Suppose that 454 g N2 is available and we want to know how many

grams of H2 are needed to react completely with this amount of N2
and how many grams of NH3 will be produced.

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To calculate the mass of H2 needed:

mol N2
3 mol H2 2.016 g H2
454 g N2 128.02

1 mol H = 98.0 g H2
g
1 mol N2
2

To calculate the mass of NH3 formed:

2
2 3
17.03 3
454 2 128.02

= 552 g NH3

1
1
2

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Useful Steps in Calculating Masses of Reactants and Products in

Chemical Reactions:
1. Balance the equation if it is not already balanced;

2. Convert the given mass of a reactant or product to moles of the

substance;
3. Use the balance equation to set up the appropriate mole ratios;
4. Use appropriate mole ratios to calculate the moles of the desired
reactant or product;
5. Convert from moles back to grams of the desired substance.

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In general, for a reaction: aA + bB cC,

1) Given grams of A, calculate grams of B:
1

= grams of B

2) Given grams of A, calculate grams of C:

1

= grams of C

= grams of A

3) Given grams of B, calculate grams of A:

1

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Empirical Formulas from Analysis

Elemental analysis is an experiment that
determines the amount (typically a weight
percent) of an element in a compound.
The elemental analysis of a compound
enables one to determine the empirical
formula of the compound.

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Empirical Formula & Molecular Formula

Empirical Formula
A chemical formula that represents a simple whole
number ratio of the number of moles of elements in
the compound.
Examples: MgO, Cu2S, CH2O, etc.

Molecular Formula
A formula that shows the actual number of atoms of
each type in a molecule.
Examples: C4H10, C6H6, C6H12O6.

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Mercury forms a compound with chlorine that is 73.9% mercury and 26.1%
chlorine by mass. What is the empirical formula?
If we had a 100 gram sample of this compound. The sample would therefore
contain 73.9 grams of mercury and 26.1 grams of chlorine. How many moles of
each atom do the individual masses represent?

For Mercury:
(73.9 g)*(1 mol/200.59 g) = 0.368 moles
For Chlorine:
(26.1 g)*(1 mol/35.45 g) = 0.736 mol
What is the molar ratio between the two elements?
( 0.736 mol Cl/0.368 mol Hg) = 2.0
Thus, we have twice as many moles (i.e. atoms) of Cl as Hg. The
empirical formula would thus be (remember to list cation first, anion last):
HgCl2

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Molecular Formula from Empirical Formula

The general flow chart for solving empirical formulas from known mass percentages.

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Example : Ascorbic Acid

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) contains 40.92 % C, 4.58 % H, and 54.50 %
O, by mass. The experimentally determined molecular mass is 176
amu. What is the empirical and chemical formula for ascorbic acid?
Solution
Consider an arbitrary amount of 100 grams of ascorbic acid, so we
would have:
40.92 grams C
4.58 grams H
54.50 grams O

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This would give us how many moles of each element?

Carbon

Hydrogen

Oxygen

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Determine the simplest whole number ratio by dividing by the

smallest molar amount (3.406 moles in this case - see Oxygen):

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The relative molar amounts of carbon and oxygen appear to be equal, but
the relative molar amount of hydrogen is higher.
Since we cannot have "fractional" atoms in a compound, we need to
normalize the relative amount of hydrogen to be equal to an integer. 1.333
would appear to be 1 and 1/3, so if we multiply the relative amounts of each
atom by '3', we should be able to get integer values for each atom.

C = (1.0)*3 = 3
H = (1.333)*3 = 4
O = (1.0)*3 = 3
This is our empirical formula for ascorbic acid.

C 3H 4O 3

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What about the chemical formula? We are told that the experimentally
determined molecular mass is 176 amu. What is the molecular mass of
our empirical formula?

(3*12.011) + (4*1.008) + (3*15.999) = 88.062 amu

The molecular mass from our empirical formula is significantly lower than
the experimentally determined value. What is the ratio between the two
values?
(176 amu/88.062 amu) = 2.0

Thus, it would appear that our empirical formula is essentially one half
the mass of the actual molecular mass. If we multiplied our empirical
formula by '2', then the molecular mass would be correct. Thus, the
actual molecular formula is:

2* C3H4O3 = C6H8O6

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Combustion Analysis
When a compound containing carbon and hydrogen is subject to
combustion with oxygen in a special combustion apparatus all the carbon is
converted to CO2 and the hydrogen to H2O.

The amount of carbon produced can be determined by measuring the

amount of CO2 produced. This is trapped by the sodium hydroxide, and thus
we can monitor the mass of CO2 produced by determining the increase in
mass of the CO2 trap. Likewise, we can determine the amount of H
produced by the amount of H2O trapped by the magnesium perchlorate.

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Example : Combustion of Isopropyl Alcohol

Consider the combustion of isopropyl alcohol. The sample is known to

contain only C, H and O. Combustion of 0.255 grams of isopropyl alcohol
produces 0.561 grams of CO2 and 0.306 grams of H2O. From this
information we can quantitate the amount of C and H in the sample:

Since one mole of CO2 is made up of one mole of C and two moles of O, if
we have 0.0128 moles of CO2 in our sample, then we know we have 0.0128
moles of C in the sample. How many grams of C is this?

How about the hydrogen?

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Since one mole of H2O is made up of one mole of oxygen

and two moles of hydrogen, if we have 0.017 moles of H2O, then we
have 2*(0.017) = 0.034 moles of hydrogen.
Since hydrogen is about 1 gram/mole, we must have 0.034 grams
of hydrogen in our original sample.
When we add our carbon and hydrogen together we get:
0.154 grams (C) + 0.034 grams (H) = 0.188 grams

But we know we combusted 0.255 grams of isopropyl alcohol. The

'missing' mass must be from the oxygen atoms in the isopropyl
alcohol:
0.255 grams - 0.188 grams = 0.067 grams oxygen
This much oxygen is how many moles?

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Overall therfore, we have:

0.0128 moles Carbon
0.0340 moles Hydrogen
0.0042 moles Oxygen
Divide by the smallest molar amount to normalize:

C = 3.05 atoms
H = 8.1 atoms
O = 1 atom
Within experimental error, the most likely empirical formula for propanol
would be:

C3H8O

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Quantitative Information from Balanced

Equations
The coefficients in a balanced chemical equation can be interpreted both as the
relative numbers of molecules involved in the reaction and as the relative
number of moles. For example, in the balanced equation:

2H2(g) + O2(g)-> 2H2O(l)

the production of two moles of water would require the consumption of 2 moles
of H2 and one mole of O2. Therefore, when considering this particular reaction

2 moles of H2, 1 mole of O2 and 2 moles of H2O

would be considered to be stoichiometrically equivalent quantitites.
Represented as:
2 mol H2
Where '

1 mol O2

' means "stoichiometrically equivalent to".

2 mol H2O

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These stoichiometric relationships, derived from balanced equations, can be

used to determine expected amounts of products given amounts of
reactants. For example, how many moles of H2O would be produced from
1.57 moles of O2 (assuming the hydrogen gas is not a limiting reactant)?

2 2
The ratio
is the stoichiometric relationship between H2O
1 2
and O2 from the balanced equation for this reaction.

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Steps in Converting between Masses of Reactant and

Product
Convert the mass of one substance (substance A) to the
corresponding number of moles using its molar mass.
From the balanced chemical equation, obtain the number of moles
of another substance (B) from the number of moles of substance A
using the appropriate mole ratio (the ratio of their coefficients).
Convert the number of moles of substance B to mass using its molar
mass. It is important to remember that some species are in excess
by virtue of the reaction conditions. For example, if a substance
reacts with the oxygen in air, then oxygen is in obvious (but
unstated) excess.

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A Flowchart for Stoichiometric Calculations Involving Pure Substances. The molar

masses of the reactants and the products are used as conversion factors so that you
can calculate the mass of product from the mass of reactant and vice versa.

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For the combustion of butane (C4H10) the balanced

equation is:
2C4H10(l) + 13O2 (g) 8CO2(g) + 10H2O (l)
Calculate the mass of CO2 that is produced in burning 1.00
gram of C4H10.
First of all we need to calculate how many moles of butane
we have in a 100 gram sample:

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now, the stoichiometric relationship between C4H10 and CO2 is:

8 2
2 410

therefore :

The question called for the determination of the mass of

CO2 produced, thus we have to convert moles of CO2 into grams (by
using the molecular weight of CO2):

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Thus, the overall sequence of steps to solve this

problem were:

In a similar way we could determine the mass of

water produced, or oxygen consumed, etc.

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Limiting Reactants
1 box mix + 2 eggs 1 batch brownies

The Concept of a Limiting Reactant in the Preparation of Brownies

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This is a similar situation with chemical reactions in which one of the

reactants is used up before the others - the reaction stops as soon
as one of the reactants is consumed.
For example, in the production of water from hydrogen and oxygen
gas suppose we have 10 moles of H2 and 7 moles of O2.
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 22 ()
Because the stoichiometry of the reaction is such that 1 mol of
O2 2 moles of H2, the number of moles of O2 needed to react with
all of the H2 is:

Thus, after all the hydrogen reactant has been consumed, there will be
2 moles of O2 reactant left.

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The reactant that is completely consumed in a chemical reaction is

called the limiting reactant (or limiting reagent) because it
determines (or limits) the amount of product formed.
In the example above, the H2 is the limiting reactant, and because
the stoichiometry is 2H2 2H2O (i.e. H2 H2O), it limits the amount
of product formed (H2O) to 10 moles. We actually have enough
oxygen (O2) to form 14 moles of H2O (1O2 2H2O).

One approach to solving the question of which reactant is the limiting

reactant (given an initial amount for each reactant) is to calculate the
amount of product that could be formed from each amount of reactant,
assuming all other reactants are available in unlimited quantities. In this
case, the limiting reactant will be the one that produces
the least amount of potential product.

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Consider the following reaction:

Suppose that a solution containing 3.50 grams of Na3PO4 is mixed

with a solution containing 6.40 grams of Ba(NO3)2. How many grams
of Ba3(PO4)2 can be formed?
1. First we need to convert the grams of reactants into moles:

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2. Now we need to define the stoichiometric ratios between the

reactants and the product of interest (Ba3(PO4)2):
2 Na3PO4
3 Ba (NO3)2

Ba3(PO4)2
Ba3(PO4)2

3. We can now determine the moles of product that would be formed if

reactant were to be consumed in its entirety during the course of the
reaction:

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4. The limiting reactant is the Ba (NO3)2 and we could thus make at

most 0.0082 moles of the Ba3(PO4)2 product.
5. 0.0082 moles of the Ba3(PO4)2 product would be equal to:

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Theoretical, Actual and Percent Yields

Theoretical yield:
yield of product calculated based on the stoichiometry
of balanced equation and amount of limiting reactant
(assuming the reaction goes to completion and the
limiting reactant is completely consumed).
Actual Yield:
Yield of product actually obtained from experiment
Percent Yield = (Actual yield/Theoretical yield) x 100%

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Actual yield < Theoretical yield for the following reasons:

1. for some reason not all the reactants may react
2. there maybe some significant side reactions
3. physical recovery of 100% of the sample may be
impossible (like getting all the peanut butter out of the
jar)
For example, in the previous exercise we calculated that 4.94 grams of
Ba3(PO4)2 product should be formed. This is the theoretical yield. If the actual
yield were 4.02 grams the percent yield would be:
4.02
100 % = 81%
4.94

We l e a d

Thank You