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Ratios Introduction
This workbook produces 12 important financial ratios. These ratios are usually thought of as belonging to
four basic categories: profitability ratios, liquidity ratios, activity ratios, and leverage ratios:
Category
Profitability ratios
Liquidity ratios
Activity ratios
Leverage ratios
Ratio
Earnings Per Share
Gross Profit Margin
Net Profit Margin
Return on Assets
Return on Equity
Current Ratio
Quick Ratio
Average Collection Period
Inventory Turnover
Debt Ratio
Equity Ratio
Times Interest Earned
This is by no means an exhaustive list of the ratios that have been developed to help analyze a company's
financial position and the way that it conducts business. It is, however, representative.
Analyzing Profitability Ratios
If you are considering investing money in a company, its profitability is a major concern. If the company
intends to pay dividends to its stockholders, those dividends must come out of its profits. If the company
hopes to increase its worth in the marketplace by enhancing or expanding its product line, then an
important source of capital to make improvements is its profit margin. There are several different, but
related, means of evaluating a company's profitability.
Analyzing Liquidity Ratios
The issue of liquidity, as you might expect, concerns creditors. Liquidity is a company's ability to meet its
debts as they come due. A company may have considerable total assets, but if those assets are difficult to
convert to cash it is possible that the company might be unable to pay its creditors in a timely fashion.
Creditors want their loans to be paid in the medium of cash, not in a medium such as inventory or factory
equipment.
Analyzing Activity Ratios
There are various ratios that can give you insight into how well a company manages its operating and sales
activities. One primary goal-perhaps, the primary goal-of these activities is to produce income through
effective use of its resources. Two ways to measure this effectiveness are the Average Collection Period
and the Inventory Turnover rate.
Analyzing Leverage Ratios
The term "leverage" means the purchase of assets with borrowed money. Suppose that your company
retails office supplies. When you receive an order for business cards, you pay one of your suppliers 50
percent of the revenue to print them for you. This is a variable cost: the more you sell, the greater your
cost.
But if you purchase the necessary printing equipment, you could make the business cards yourself. So
doing would turn a variable cost into a fixed cost: no matter how many cards you sell, the cost of printing
them is fixed at however much you paid for the printing equipment. The more cards you sell, the greater
your profit margin. This effect is termed operating leverage.
If you borrow money to acquire the printing equipment, you are using another type of leverage, termed
financial leverage. The cost is still fixed at however much money you must pay, at regular intervals, to retire
the loan. Again, the more cards you sell, the greater your profit margin. But if you do not sell enough cards
to cover the loan payment, you could lose money. In that case, it might be difficult to find funds either to
make the loan payments or to cover your other expenses. Your credit rating might fall, making it more
costly for you to borrow other money.
Copyright, 2003, JaxWorks, All Rights Reserved.
Leverage is a financial tool that accelerates
changes in income, both positive and negative. A company's
creditors and investors are interested in how much leverage has been used to acquire assets. From the
standpoint of creditors, a high degree of leverage represents risk because the company might not be able
to repay a loan. From the investors' standpoint, if the return on assets is less than the cost of borrowing
the loan. Again, the more cards you sell, the greater your profit margin. But if you do not sell enough cards
to cover the loan payment, you could lose money. In that case, it might be difficult to find funds either to
make the loan payments or to cover your other expenses. Your credit rating might fall, making it more
costly for you to borrow other money.
Leverage is a financial tool that accelerates changes in income, both positive and negative. A company's
creditors and investors are interested in how much leverage has been used to acquire assets. From the
standpoint of creditors, a high degree of leverage represents risk because the company might not be able
to repay a loan. From the investors' standpoint, if the return on assets is less than the cost of borrowing
money to acquire assets, then the investment is unattractive. The investor could obtain a better return in
different ways-one way would be to loan funds rather than to invest them in the company.
Summary
This workbook has some of the financial ratios that are important to understanding how, and how well, a
company conducts its business. There are variations on virtually every ratio discussed here, and there are
ratios that were not covered at all, but their principal forms follow the formulas illustrated.
Only occasionally can you calculate one of these indicators and gain immediate insight into a business
operation. More frequently, it is necessary to know the sort of business that a company conducts, because
the marketplace imposes different demands on different lines of business. Furthermore, you can usually
understand one ratio by considering it in the context of another ratio (the debt ratio and the return on assets
is a good example of one ratio providing the context for another).
Keep in mind that it's important to evaluate a financial ratio in terms of its trend over time, of a standard
such as an industry average, and in light of other ratios that describe the company's operations and
financial structure.
COMPANY NAME
Company Address
City, State ZIP Code
Phone Number fax Fax Number
Forecasted
2ND QTR
3RD QTR
4TH QTR
Total
1999
$2,000,000
$945,000
$1,500,000
$865,000
$1,300,000
$833,000
$2,010,100
$946,616
$6,810,100
$3,589,616
Gross profit
$1,055,000
$635,000
$467,000
$1,063,484
$3,220,484
Expenses
Operating expenses
Interest
Depreciation
Amortization
Total expenses
$424,000
$16,250
$32,500
$1,250
$474,000
$318,000
$16,250
$33,958
$1,250
$369,458
$275,600
$16,250
$33,958
$1,250
$327,058
$426,141
$16,250
$33,958
$1,250
$477,599
$1,443,741
$65,000
$134,374
$5,000
$1,648,115
Operating income
$581,000
$265,542
$139,942
$585,885
$1,572,369
$100,000
$20,000
$120,000
$10,000
$50,000
$60,000
$3,000
$100,000
$103,000
$405,700
$200,000
$605,700
$518,700
$370,000
$888,700
$701,000
$325,542
$242,942
$1,191,585
$2,461,069
$210,300
$97,663
$72,883
$357,475
$738,321
$490,700
$227,879
$170,059
$834,109
$1,722,748
$320,000
$500,000
$125,000
$240,000
$500,000
$125,000
$208,000
$500,000
$125,000
$321,616
$500,000
$125,000
$1,089,616
$2,000,000
$500,000
Sales
Sales
Cost of sales
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1250
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1250
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10000
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100000
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COMPANY NAME
Company Address
City, State ZIP Code
Phone Number fax Fax Number
Actual
2002
1ST QTR
Forecast
2ND QTR
3RD QTR
4TH QTR
$451,000
$350,000
$400,000
$10,000
$1,211,000
$90,360
$657,534
$630,411
$60,000
$1,438,305
$229,233
$493,151
$590,959
$45,090
$1,358,433
$469,196
$427,397
$575,178
$76,320
$1,548,091
($945,586)
$660,855
$1,186,002
$50,000
$951,271
Subtotal
Less-accumulated depreciation
Total Fixed Assets
$100,000
$1,500,000
$800,000
$2,400,000
$400,000
$2,000,000
$112,500
$1,450,000
$875,000
$2,437,500
$432,500
$2,005,000
$125,000
$1,450,000
$875,000
$2,450,000
$466,458
$1,983,542
$137,500
$1,450,000
$875,000
$2,462,500
$500,416
$1,962,084
$150,000
$1,450,000
$875,000
$2,475,000
$534,374
$1,940,626
Intangible Assets
Cost
Less-accumulated amortization
Total Intangible Assets
$50,000
$20,000
$30,000
$50,000
$21,250
$28,750
$50,000
$22,500
$27,500
$50,000
$23,750
$26,250
$50,000
$25,000
$25,000
$25,000
$3,266,000
$33,000
$3,505,055
$120,000
$3,489,475
$5,000
$3,541,425
$23,000
$2,939,897
1ST QTR
Forecast
2ND QTR
3RD QTR
ASSETS
Current Assets
Cash and cash equivalents
Accounts receivable
Inventory
Other current assets
Total Current Assets
Fixed Assets
Land
Buildings
Equipment
Other assets
Total Assets
LIABILITIES AND
STOCKHOLDERS' EQUITY
Current Liabilities
Accounts payable
Notes payable
Current portion of long-term debt
Income taxes
Accrued expenses
Other current liabilities
Total Current Liabilities
Non-Current Liabilities
Long-term debt
Deferred income
Deferred income taxes
Other long-term liabilities
Total Liabilities
### Shares Outstanding
Capital stock issued
Additional paid in capital
Retained earnings
Actual
1999
4TH QTR
$600,000
$100,000
$100,000
$30,000
$90,000
$16,000
$936,000
$328,767
$50,000
$100,000
$183,300
$83,288
$12,000
$757,355
$328,767
$50,000
$100,000
$52,663
$62,466
$12,000
$605,896
$328,767
$50,000
$100,000
$14,983
$54,137
$12,000
$559,887
$328,767
$50,000
$100,000
($188,735)
$83,708
$12,000
$385,740
$600,000
$100,000
$30,000
$50,000
$500,000
$90,000
$27,000
$90,000
$500,000
$90,000
$27,000
$40,000
$500,000
$90,000
$27,000
$40,000
$500,000
$90,000
$27,000
$40,000
$1,716,000
$1,464,355
$1,262,896
$1,216,887
$1,042,740
1,000
$100,000
$50,000
$1,400,000
$1,550,000
1,000
$100,000
$50,000
$1,890,700
$2,040,700
1,000
$100,000
$50,000
$2,076,579
$2,226,579
1,000
$100,000
$50,000
$2,174,538
$2,324,538
1,000
$100,000
$50,000
$1,747,157
$1,897,157
$3,266,000
$3,505,055
$3,489,475
$3,541,425
$2,939,897
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350000
400000
10000
60000
45090
76320
50000
100000
1500000
800000
112500
1450000
875000
125000
1450000
875000
137500
1450000
875000
150000
1450000
875000
50000
20000
50000
21250
50000
22500
50000
23750
50000
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sample4
Page 12
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sample4
25000
25000
33000
120000
5000
23000
600000
100000
100000
30000
90000
16000
12000
12000
12000
12000
600000
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30000
50000
90000
27000
90000
90000
27000
40000
90000
27000
40000
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27000
40000
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50000
1400000
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Profitability Ratios
Earnings Per Share (EPS) Ratio
Net income
Shares of common stock outstanding
EPS
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Profitability Ratios
Gross Profit Margin
Sales
Cost of sales
Gross profit margin
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Profitability Ratios
Net Profit Margin
Net Income
Sales
Net profit margin
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Profitability Ratios
Return on Assets
EBITDA
Total assets
Return on assets
Full Year
$1,776,743
$3,368,963
52.7%
Return on Assets
One of management's most important responsibilities is to bring about a profit by effective use of the
resources it has at hand. One ratio that speaks to this question is return on assets. There are several
ways to measure this return; one useful method is:
Return on Assets = (Gross Profit - Operating Expense) / Total Assets
This formula will return the percentage earnings for a company in terms of its total assets. The better the
job that management does in managing its assets-the resources available to it-to bring about profits, the
greater this percentage will be.
It's normal to calculate the return on total assets on an annual basis, rather than on a quarterly basis.
Profitability Ratios
Return on Equity
Earnings after taxes
Stockholder's equity
Return on equity
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Return on Equity
Another related profitability measure to Return on Assets is the Return on Equity. Again, there are
several ways to calculate this ratio; here, it is measured according to this formula:
Return on Equity = Net Income / Stockholder's Equity
You can compare return on equity with return on assets to infer how a company obtains the funds used
to acquire assets.
The principal difference between the formula for return on assets and for return on equity is the
use of equity rather than total assets in the denominator, and it is here that the technique of
comparing ratios comes into play. By examining the difference between Return on Assets and
Return on Equity, you can largely determine how the company is funding its operations.
Assets are acquired through two major sources: creditors (through borrowing) and stockholders (through
retained earnings and capital contributions). Collectively, the retained earnings and capital contributions
constitute the company's equity. When the value of the company's assets exceeds the value of its equity,
you can expect that some form of financial leverage makes up the difference: i.e., debt financing.
Therefore, if the Return on Equity ratio is much larger than the Return on Assets ratio, you can infer that
the company has funded some portion of its operations through borrowing.
Liquidity Ratios
Current ratio
Current assets
Current liabilities
Current ratio
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Current Ratio
The current ratio compares a company's current assets (those that can be converted to cash during the
current accounting period) to its current liabilities (those liabilities coming due during the same period).
The usual formula is:
Current Ratio = Current Assets / Current Liabilities
The current ratio measures the company's ability to repay the principal amounts of its liabilities.
The current ratio is closely related to the concept of working capital. Working capital is the difference
between current assets and current liabilities.
Is a high current ratio good or bad? Certainly, from the creditor's standpoint, a high current ratio means
that the company is well-placed to pay back its loans. Consider, though, the nature of the current assets:
they consist mainly of cash and cash equivalents. Funds invested in these types of assets do not
contribute strongly and actively to the creation of income. Therefore, from the standpoint of stockholders
and management, a current ratio that is very high means that the company's assets are not being used
to best advantage.
Liquidity Ratios
Quick ratio
Current assets
Inventory
Current liabilities
Quick ratio
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Quick Ratio
The quick ratio is a variant of the current ratio. It takes into account the fact that inventory, while it is a
current asset, is not as liquid as cash or accounts receivable. Cash is completely liquid; accounts
receivable can normally be converted to cash fairly quickly, by pressing for collection from the customer.
But inventory cannot be converted to cash except by selling it. The quick ratio determines the
relationship between quickly accessible current assets and current liabilities:
Quick Ratio = (Current Assets - Inventory) / Current Liabilities
The quick ratio shows whether a company can meet its liabilities from quickly-accessible assets.
In practice, a quick ratio of 1.0 is normally considered adequate, with this caveat: the credit periods that
the company offers its customers and those granted to the company by its creditor must be roughly
equal. If revenues will stay in accounts receivable for as long as 90 days, but accounts payable are due
within 30 days, a quick ratio of 1.0 will mean that accounts receivable cannot be converted to cash
quickly enough to meet accounts payable.
It is possible for a company to manipulate the values of its current and quick ratios by taking certain
actions toward the end of an accounting period such as a fiscal year. It might wait until the start of the
next period to make purchases to its inventory, for example. Or, if its business is seasonal, it might
choose a fiscal year that ends after its busy season, when inventories are usually low. As a potential
creditor, you might want to examine the companys current and quick ratios on, for example, a quarterly
basis.
Both a current and a quick ratio can also mislead you if the inventory figure does not represent the
current replacement cost of the materials in inventory. There are various methods of valuing inventory.
The LIFO method, in particular, can result in an inventory valuation that is much different from the
inventory's current replacement value; this is because it assumes that the most recently acquired
inventory is also the most recently sold.
If your actual costs to purchase materials are falling, for example, the LIFO method could result in an
over-valuation of the existing inventory. This would tend to inflate the value of the current ratio, and to
underestimate the value of the quick ratio if you calculate it by subtracting inventory from current assets,
rather than summing cash and cash equivalents.
Activity Ratios
Average Collection Period
Accounts Receivable
Credit sales per day
Average Collection Period
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Activity Ratios
Inventory Turnover Ratio
Cost of Goods Sold
Average Inventory
Inventory Turnover
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Leverage Ratios
Debt ratio
Total Liabilities
Total Assets
Debt ratio
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Debt Ratio
The debt ratio is defined by this formula:
Debt ratio = Total debt / Total assets
It is a healthy sign when a company's debt ratio is falls, although both stockholders and potential
creditors would prefer to see the rate of decline in the debt ratio more closely match the decline in return
on assets. As the return on assets falls, the net income available to make payments on debt also falls.
This company should probably take action to retire some of its short-term debt, and the current portion of
its long-term debt, as soon as possible.
Leverage Ratios
Equity ratio
Total Equity
Total Assets
Equity ratio
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Equity Ratio
The equity ratio is the opposite of the debt ratio. It is that portion of the company's assets financed by
stockholders:
Equity Ratio = Total Equity / Total assets
It is usually easier to acquire assets through debt than to acquire them through equity. There are certain
obvious considerations: for example, you might need to acquire investment capital from many investors;
whereas you might be able to borrow the required funds from just one creditor. Less obvious is the issue
of priority.
By law, if a firm ceases operations, its creditors have the first claim on its assets to help repay the
borrowed funds. Therefore, an investor's risk is somewhat higher than that of a creditor, and the effect is
that stockholders tend to demand a greater return on their investment than a creditor does on its loan.
The stockholder's demand for a return can take the form of dividend requirements or return on assets,
each of which tend to increase the market value of their stock.
But there is no "always" in financial planning. Because investors usually require a higher return on their
investment than do creditors, it might seem that debt is the preferred method of raising funds to acquire
assets. Potential creditors, though, look at ratios such as the return on assets and the debt ratio. A high
debt ratio (or, conversely, a low equity ratio) means that existing creditors have supplied a large portion
of the company's assets, and that there is relatively little stockholder's equity to help absorb the risk.
Leverage Ratios
Times Interest Earned Ratio
EBIT
Interest charges
Times interest earned
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Since 1996, JaxWorks has offered a suite of Free Excel workbooks and spreadsheets, and asso
documents, that cover a number of financial, accounting and sales functions. These are invaluab
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- comprehensive list of acronyms, ratios and formulas in customer financial
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If you are involved in financial analysis at any level, or want to learn more about MS Excel and o
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